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History of the Jews in Ukraine

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Thehistory of the Jews in Ukrainedates back over a thousand years;Jewishcommunities have existed in the modern territory ofUkrainefrom the time of theKievan Rus'(late 9th to mid-13th century).[10][11]Important Jewish religious and cultural movements, fromHasidismtoZionism,arose there. According to theWorld Jewish Congress,the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes Europe's third-largest and the world's fifth-largest.[3]

Ukrainian Jews
יהדות אוקראינה‎
Українськi євреї
The location ofUkraineinEurope
Total population
2010 est.71,500core –200,000enlarged[1] 360,000–400,000by 2014 est.[1][2]
Regions with significant populations
Kyiv110,000[3]
Dnipro60,000[3]
Kharkiv45,000[3]
Odesa45,000[3]
Languages
Russian(83.0%),Ukrainian[4][5][6][7](13.4%),Yiddish[4][8](3.1%),Hebrew[9]
Religion
Judaism,Christianityand other (includingatheism)
Related ethnic groups
Jews,Ashkenazi Jews,Russian Jews,Mountain Jews,Belarusian Jews,Romanian Jews,Hungarian Jews,Polish Jews

At times it flourished, while at other times it facedpersecutionandanti-Semitic discrimination.In theUkrainian People's Republic(1917–1920),Yiddishbecame a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted autonomous status.[12]Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency between 1917 and 1920.[13]BeforeWorld War II,slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews.[14]

In the westernmost region, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During theKhmelnytsky Uprisingbetween 1648 and 1657, an army ofCossacksmassacred and took large numbers of Jews,Roman Catholics,andUniate Christiansinto captivity. One estimate (1996) reported that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed.[15]More recent estimates (2014) report mortality of 3,000-6,000 people between the years 1648–1649.[16]

During 1821 anti-Jewish riots inOdesafollowed the death of theGreek OrthodoxPatriarchinConstantinople,in which 14 Jews were recorded killed. Some sources claim this episode as the firstpogrom.[17]At the start of the 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued, leading to large-scale emigration. In 1915, the imperial Russian government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas.[18][19]

During theRussian Revolutionand ensuingCivil War,an estimated 31,071 Jews werekilled in pogroms between 1918 and 1920.[20]During theUkrainian People's Republic(1917–21),[21]pogroms continued. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by theUkrainian ArmyunderSymon Petliuraduring the period was estimated at between 35,000 and 100,000.[22]

Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province ofVolhyniaand spread to many other regions[23]and continued until 1921.[24]The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism.[25]

Total civilian losses in Ukraine during World War II and theGerman occupationare estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, including 225,000 inBelarus,[26]were killed by theEinsatzgruppenand their manyUkrainian supporters.Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in thePale of Settlement,of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of theRed Army.In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during theCold War.In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was in 1959. During and after thecollapse of communismin the 1990s, the majority of Jews in 1989 left the country and moved abroad (mostlyto Israel).[27]Antisemitism, including violent attacks on Jews, is still a problem in Ukraine.[28]

Kievan Rus'

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Main article:Kievan Rus'

By the 11th century,Byzantine JewsofConstantinoplehad familial, cultural, and theological ties with the Jews ofKyiv.For instance, some 11th-centuryJews from Kievan Rusparticipated in an anti-Karaiteassemblyheld in eitherThessalonikior Constantinople.[29]One of the three Kyivan city gates in the times ofYaroslav the Wisewas called Zhydovski (Judaic).

Galicia-Volhynia

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Main articles:Kingdom of Galicia–VolhyniaandShtetl

InGalicia,Jews were mentioned for the first time in 1030. From the second part of the 14th century, they were subjects ofPolish kingsandmagnates.The Jewish population of Galicia andBukovina,part ofAustria-Hungary,made up 5% of the global Jewish population.

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

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Main articles:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,History of the Jews in Poland,andLithuanian Jews

From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in the 10th century through the creation of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthin 1569,Polandwas one of the most diverse countries in Europe. It became home to one of the world's largest and most vibrant Jewish communities. The Jewish community in the territory of Ukraine-proper during the Commonwealth became one of the largest and most important ethnic minority groups in Ukraine.[citation needed]

Cossack Uprising and the Deluge

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Main article:Khmelnytsky Uprising

UkrainianCossackHetmanBohdan Khmelnytskyled aCossack uprising,known asKhmelnytsky Uprising(1648–1657), under the premise that thePoleshad sold them asslaves"into the hands of the accursed Jews." It is estimated that at that time the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325.[30]An army of Cossacks massacred and took into captivity numerous Jews, Roman Catholics andUkrainian Greek Catholicsin 1648–49.

A 1996 estimate reports that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were destroyed.[15]A 2014 estimate reduces the toll to 3,000-6,000 from 1648 to 1649; of these, 3,000-6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks inNemirovin May 1648 and 1,500 inTulczynin July 1648.[16]

Rise of Hasidism and internal struggles

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Main articles:Hasidic Judaism,Jacob Frank,andHaskalah
Cossack Mamayand theHaidamakahang a Jew by his heels. Ukrainian folk art, 19th century

The Cossack Uprising and theDelugeleft a deep and lasting impression on Jewish social and spiritual life.[citation needed]

This was a time ofmysticismand overly formalrabbinism.The teachings ofIsrael ben Eliezer,known as theBaal Shem Tov,orBeShT,(1698–1760) had a profound effect on Eastern European Jews.[citation needed]His disciples taught and encouraged a new and fervent brand ofJudaism,related toKabbalah,known asHasidism.The rise of Hasidism influencedHaredi Judaism,with a continuous influence through manyHasidic dynasties.

A different movement was started byJacob Frankin the middle of the 18th century. Frank's teachings were unorthodox (such as purification through transgression and adoption of elements ofChristianity). He was excommunicated along with his numerous followers. They eventually converted toCatholicism.[31]

Russian Empire and Austrian rule

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Main articles:Pale of Settlement,Cantonist,Pogrom,May Laws,Jewish agricultural colonies in the Russian Empire,andHistory of the Jews in Odesa
Map of thePale of Settlement.

The traditional measures used to keep theRussian Empirefree of Jews[citation needed]were hindered when the main territory of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was annexed during thepartitions of Poland.During the second (1793) and the third (1795) partitions, large populations of Jews were absorbed by the Russian Empire, andCatherine the Greatestablished thePale of Settlementthat includedCongress PolandandCrimea.

During 1821 anti-Jewish riots inOdesaafter the death of theGreek Orthodoxpatriarch inConstantinople,14 Jews were killed. Some sources mark this episode as the firstpogrom,[32]while according to others (such as theJewish Encyclopedia,1911 ed.) say the first pogrom was an 1859 riot in Odesa. The term became common after a wave of anti-Jewish violence swept the southern Russian Empire (including Ukraine) between 1881 and 1884, after Jews were blamed for theassassination of Alexander II.

In May 1882,Alexander III of Russiaintroduced temporary regulations calledMay Lawsthat remained in effect until 1917. Systematic policies of discrimination, strictquotason the number of Jews allowed to obtain education and professions caused widespread poverty and mass emigration. In 1886, anedict of Expulsionwas applied to Jews inKyiv.In 1893–1894, some areas of Crimea were removed from the Pale.

When Alexander III died in Crimea on 20 October 1894, according toSimon Dubnow:"as the body of the deceased was carried by railway toSt. Petersburg,the same rails were carrying the Jewish exiles fromYaltato the Pale. The reign of Alexander III began with pogroms and concluded with expulsions. "[33]

Odesa became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to account for some 37% of the population.[34]

Political activism and emigration

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Main articles:Bilu (movement);Odessa Committee;General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia;October Revolution;andJewish Bolshevism

Jews were over-represented in the Russian revolutionary leadership. However, most were hostile toJewish cultureand Jewish political parties, and were loyal to theCommunist Party'satheismandproletarian internationalism,and committed to stamping out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism".

Counter-revolutionarygroups, including theBlack Hundreds,opposed the Revolution with violent attacks on socialists and pogroms against Jews. A backlash came from the conservative elements of society, notably in spasmodic anti-Jewish attacks – around five hundred were killed in a single day in Odesa.Nicholas IIclaimed that 90% of revolutionaries were Jews.

Early 20th century

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The victims of a 1905 pogrom inYekaterinoslav

At the start of the 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur in cities and towns across the Russian Empire such asKishinev,Kyiv,Odesa,and many others. Numerous Jewish self-defense groups were organized to prevent the outbreak of pogroms among which the most successful one was under the leadership ofMishka Yaponchikin Odesa.

In 1905, a series of pogroms erupted at the same time as theRevolutionagainst the government of Nicholas II. The chief organizers of the pogroms were the members of theUnion of the Russian People(commonly known as the "Black Hundreds").[35]

From 1911 to 1913, theantisemitictenor of the period was characterized by a number ofblood libelcases (accusations of Jews murdering Christians for ritual purposes). One of the most famous was the two-year trial ofMenahem Mendel Beilis,who was charged with the murder of a Christian boy.[36]The trial was showcased by the authorities to illustrate the perfidy of the Jewish population.[37]

From March to May 1915, in the face of the German army, the government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas, mainly the Pale of Settlement.[18][19]

World War I aftermath

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Further information:Pogroms of the Russian Civil War

During the 1917Russian Revolutionand the ensuingRussian Civil War,an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 Jewish civilians were killed in atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire. In modern Ukraine an estimated 31,071 died in 1918–1920.[20]

Ukrainian People's Republic

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Main article:Ukrainian People's Republic
1917. 100karbovanetsof the Ukrainian National Republic. Revers. 3 languages: Ukrainian, Polish andYiddish.

During the establishment of theUkrainian People's Republic(UPR, 1917–1921),[21]pogroms continued. In the UPR,Yiddishwas an official language,[38]while all government posts and institutions had Jewish members.[38]A Ministry for Jewish Affairs was established (it was the first modern state to do so).[21][38]Rights of Jewish culture were guaranteed.[21]Jewish parties abstained or voted against theTsentralna Rada'sFourth Universalof 25 January 1918 which was aimed at breaking ties withBolshevik Russiaand proclaiming a sovereign Ukrainian state,[38]since all Jewish parties were strongly against Ukrainian independence.[38]

In Ukraine alone, the number of civilian Jews killed during the period was estimated to be between 35,000 and 50,000. Archives declassified after 1991 provide evidence of a higher number; in the period from 1918 to 1921, "according to incomplete data, at least 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in the pogroms."[39]The Ukrainian People's Republic did issue orders condemning pogroms and attempted to investigate them.[21]But it lacked authority to stop violence.[21]In the last months of its existence it lacked any power to create social stability.[38]

Among the prominent Ukrainian statesmen of this period wereMoisei Rafes,Pinkhas Krasny, Abram Revutsky, Moishe Zilberfarb, and many others. (seeGeneral Secretariat of Ukraine) The autonomy of Ukraine was openly greeted by the Ukrainian JewishVolodymyr Zhabotinsky.

Between April and December 1918 the Ukrainian People's Republic was non-existent and overthrown by theUkrainian StateofPavlo Skoropadsky[21][40]who ended the experiment in Jewish autonomy.[38]

Provisional Government of Russia and Soviets

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The February 1917 revolution brought a liberalProvisional Governmentto power in the Russian Empire. On 21 March/3 April, the government removed all "discrimination based upon ethnic religious or social grounds".[41]The Pale was officially abolished. The removal of the restrictions on Jews' geographical mobility and educational opportunities led to a migration to the country's major cities.[42]

One week after the 25 October / 7 November 1917Bolshevik Revolution,the new government proclaimed the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples [Nations] of Russia," promising all nationalities the rights of equality, self-determination and secession. Jews were not specifically mentioned in the declaration, reflecting Lenin's view that Jews did not constitute a nation.[43]

In 1918, theRSFSR Council of Ministersissued a decree entitled "On the Separation of Church from State and School from Church", depriving religious communities of the status of juridical persons, the right to own property and the right to enter into contracts. The decree nationalized the property of religious communities and banned their assessment of religious tuition. As a result, religion could be taught or studied only in private.[44]

Main Synagogue of Yelisavetgrad looted by Hryhoriv's rebels

On 1 February 1918 the Commissariat for Jewish National Affairs was established as a subsection of the Commissariat for Nationality Affairs. It was mandated to establish the "dictatorship of the proletariat in the Jewish streets" and attract the Jewish masses to the regime while advising local and central institutions on Jewish issues. The Commissariat was also expected to fight the influence ofZionistand Jewish-Socialist Parties.[45][46]On 27 July 1918 the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree stating that antisemitism is "fatal to the cause of the... revolution". Pogroms were officially outlawed.[47]On 20 October 1918 the Jewish section of the CPSU (Yevsektsia) was established for the Party's Jewish members; its goals were similar to those of the Jewish Commissariat.[41][48][49][50][51]

During theHryhoriv Uprisingin May 1919, almost 3000 Jews of Yelisavetgrad (todayKropyvnytskyi) were murdered and their property stolen.

The White Army and counterrevolutionary pogroms

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In contrast with the Bolshevik government's official policy of equality among citizens, antisemitism remained deeply entrenched in the political and social ideologies of the tsarist counterrevolutionaries, especially among paramilitary groups such as theBlack Hundreds.These militias incited and organized pogroms against Russian Jews. The official slogan of the Black Hundreds was "Bei Zhidov," meaning 'Beat the Jews.'[52]Thus, during theRussian Civil Warthat followed the1917 Revolution,the Jews became a crucial site of the conflict between revolutionary Reds and counterrevolutionary Whites, particularly in the contested territory of Ukraine. The Bolsheviks' official opposition to antisemitism—coupled with the prominence of Jews such asLeon Trotskywithin the Bolshevik ranks—allowed the Christian nationalist movements of both theWhite Armyand the emergentUkrainian National Republicto link Ukrainian Jews to the despised communism. These connections, combined with the cultural tradition of antisemitism among Russian peasantry,[53]provided ample justification for the Whites to attack Ukraine's Jewish population. Between 1918 and 1921, almost all of the approximately 2,000 pogroms carried out in Ukraine were organized by White Army forces.[54]eyewitnesses reported hearing counterrevolutionary militia members expound slogans such as, "We beat the Yids, we beat the Commune", and "This is the answer to the Bolsheviks for theRed Terror."[53]Recent studies hold that about 30,000 Jews were killed in these pogroms, while another 150,000 died from wounds sustained during the violence.[54]

Pogroms in western Ukraine

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The victims of a pogrom inKhodorkiv[uk](Ходорків), committed by theDirectorate of Ukrainein1919.From The Pritzker Family National Photography Collection,National Library of Israel

The pogroms that erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province ofVolhyniaspread during February and March to the cities, towns, and villages of many other regions of Ukraine.[23]AfterSarnyit was the turn ofOvruch,northwest of Kyiv. InTetievon 25 March, approximately 4,000 Jews were murdered, half in a synagogue set ablaze by Cossack troops under Colonels Kurovsky, Cherkowsy, and Shliatoshenko.[23]ThenVashilkov(6 and 7 April).[55]In Dubovo (17 June) 800 Jews were decapitated in assembly-line fashion.[23]According to David A. Chapin, the town of Proskurov (nowKhmelnitsky), near the city ofSudilkov,"was the site of the worst atrocity committed against Jews this century before the Nazis." Pogroms continued until 1921.[24]

Pogroms across Podolia

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See also:Schwartzbard trial

On 15 February 1919, during the Ukrainian-Soviet war,OtamanIvan Semesenkoinitiated a pogromProskurovin which many Jews were massacred onShabbat(parashah Tesaveh). Semesenko claimed that the pogrom was in retaliation for a previous Bolshevik uprising that he believed was led by Jews.[56]

According to thepinqasimrecord books those murdered in the pogrom included 390 men, 309 women and 76 children. The number of wounded exceeded 500. Two weeks later Order 131 was published in the central newspaper[clarification needed]by the head ofDirectorate of Ukraine.In itSymon Petliuradenounced such actions and eventually executed Otaman Semesenko by firing-squad in November 1919. Semesenko's brigade was disarmed and dissolved. This event is especially remarkable because it was used to justifySholem Schwarzbard's assassination of the Ukrainian leader in 1926. Although Petliura's direct involvement was never proven, Schwartzbard was acquitted in revenge. The series of Jewish pogroms around Ukraine culminated in theKyiv pogroms of 1919between June and October of that year.[57][58]

Bolsheviks/USSR consolidation of power

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In July 1919, the Central Jewish Commissariat dissolved thekehillot(Jewish Communal Councils). Thekehillothad provided social services to the Jewish community.[59]

From 1919 to 1920, Jewish parties and Zionist organizations were driven underground as the Communist government sought to abolish all potential opposition.[60][61]TheYevsektsiyaJewish section of the Soviet Communist party was at the forefront of the anti-religious campaigns of the 1920s that led to the closing of religious institutions, the break-up of religious communities and the further restriction of access to religious education.[48]To that end a series of "community trials" against the Jewish religion were held. The last known such trial, on the subject of circumcision, was held in 1928 inKharkiv.[49][50]At the same time, the body worked to establish a secular identity for the Jewish community.[51]

In 1921 many Jews[62]emigrated to Poland,as they were entitled by a peace treaty inRigato choose the country they preferred. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish minority of thePolish Second Republic.Also, during the interwar period, thousands of Jewish refugees from theSoviet Ukrainemigrated to Romania.[63][64][65]

On 31 January 1924 the Commissariat for Nationalities' Affairs was disbanded.[66]On 29 August 1924 an official agency for Jewish resettlement, the Commission for the Settlement of Jewish Toilers on the Land (KOMZET), was established. KOMZET studied, managed and funded projects for Jewish resettlement in rural areas.[67][68]A public organization, the Society for the Agricultural Organization of Working Class Jews in the USSR (OZET), was created in January 1925 to help recruit colonists and support the colonization work of KOMZET.[69]For the first few years the government encouraged Jewish settlements, particularly in Ukraine. Support for the project dwindled throughout the next decade.[70]In 1938 OZET was disbanded, following years of declining activity. The Soviets set up three Jewish nationalraionsin Ukraine as well as two in the Crimea – nationalraionsoccupied the 3rd level of the Soviet system, but were all disbanded by the end of World War II.[71]

The cities with the largest populations of Jews in 1926 were Odesa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; Kyiv, 140,500 or 27.3%; Kharkiv, 81,500 or 19.5%; andDnipropetrovsk,62,000 or 26.7%. In 1931Lviv's Jewish population numbered 98,000 or 31.9%, and inChernivtsi,42,600 or 37.9%.[72]

On 8 April 1929 the new Law on Religious Associations codified all previous religious legislation. All meetings of religious associations were required to have their agenda approved in advance; lists of members of religious associations had to be provided to the authorities.[73]In 1930 theYevsektsiawas dissolved,[51]leaving no central Soviet-Jewish organization. Although the body had served to undermine Jewish religious life, its dissolution led to the disintegration of Jewish secular life as well; Jewish cultural and educational organizations gradually disappeared.[74]</ref> When the Soviet government reintroduced the use of internal passports in 1933, "Jewish" was considered an ethnicity for those purposes.[75]

TheSoviet famine of 1932–1933affected the Jewish population,[76]and led to a migration fromshtetlsto overcrowded cities.[77]

As the Soviet government annexed territory fromPoland,Romania(both would be incorporated into theUkrainian SSRafterWorld War II[21]) and theBaltic states,[78]roughly two million Jews became Soviet citizens.[79][80]Restrictions on Jews that had existed in those countries were lifted.[81]At the same time, Jewish organizations in the transferred territories were shut down and their leaders were arrested and exiled.[82]Approximately 250,000 Jews escaped or were evacuated from the annexed territories to the Soviet interior prior to the Nazi invasion.[83]

Jewish settlement in Crimea

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Main article:Jewish autonomy in Crimea
Further information:Khazar Judaism,Crimean Karaites,andKrymchaks

In 1921, Crimea became an autonomous republic. In 1923, the All-UnionCentral Committeepassed a motion to resettle a large number of the Jewish population from Ukrainian and Belarusian cities to Crimea, numbering 570,400 families. The plan to further resettle Jewish families was confirmed by the Central Committee of the USSR on 15 July 1926, assigning 124 million roubles to the task and also receiving 67 million from foreign sources.[84]

The Soviet initiative of Jewish settlement in Crimea was opposed bySymon Petliura,[85]who regarded it as a provocation. This train of thought was supported byArnold Margolin[86]who stated that it would be dangerous to set up Jewish colonies there.

The Soviets twice sought to establishJewish autonomy in Crimea;once, in the 1920s, with the support of theAmerican Jewish Joint Distribution Committee,and again in 1944, by theJewish Anti-Fascist Committee.[25][87]

World War II

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A map of the Holocaust in Ukraine
Main articles:The Holocaust in Ukraine,Lviv pogroms,Reichskommissariat Ukraine,Ukrainian collaboration with Nazi Germany,Babi Yar,and1941 Odessa massacre

The total number of civilians who died during the war and the German occupation of Ukraine is estimated to be as high as seven million. This estimate includes over one million Jews who were shot and killed by theEinsatzgruppenand local Ukrainian collaborators.[88]

The total number of Jews killed in theHolocaustin Eastern Ukraine, or the Ukrainian SSR (within its 1938 borders), is estimated to be slightly less than 700,000 out of a total pre-Holocaust Jewish population of slightly over 1.5 million.[89]Within the borders of ModernUkraine,the death toll is estimated to be around 900,000.

Post-war situation

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Ukraine had 840,000 Jews in 1959, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population declined significantly during theCold War.In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it had been in 1959.

Historical Ukrainian Jewish population
YearPop.±%
165040,000—
1765300,000+650.0%
18972,680,000+793.3%
19262,720,000+1.5%
19412,700,000−0.7%
1959840,446−68.9%
1970777,406−7.5%
1979634,420−18.4%
1989487,555−23.1%
2001106,600−78.1%
201071,500−32.9%
201467,000−6.3%
Source:

Such immigrants included artists, such asMarina Maximilian Bluminand street artistKlone,[99]as well as activists includingGennady RigerandLia Shemtov.

Independent Ukraine

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Ketubahfrom Ukraine, from the collections of theNational Library of Israel

In1989, a Soviet censuscounted 487,000 Jews living in Ukraine.[100][101]Although discrimination by the state all but halted afterUkrainian independencein 1991, Jews were still discriminated against during the 1990s.[102]For instance, Jews were not allowed to attend some educational institutions.[102]Antisemitism has since declined.[103]

The overwhelming majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 then moved to other countries in the 1990s during and after thecollapse of Communism.[27]By 1999 there were various Ukrainian Jewish organizations that disputed each other'slegitimacy.[104]

Some 266,300 Ukrainian Jewsemigrated to Israelin the 1990s.[103]The2001 Ukrainian Censuscounted 106,600 Jews living in Ukraine[105](the number of Jews also dropped due to a negative birthrate).[103]According to thePublic Diplomacy and Diaspora Affairs Minister of Israel,early 2012 there were 250,000 Jews in Ukraine, half of them living in Kyiv.[9]According to the European Jewish Congress, as of 2014, 360,000–400,000 Jews remained.[2]

In November 2007, an estimated 700Torahscrolls confiscated from Jewish communities during the Soviet era were returned to Jewish communes by state authorities.[106]

TheUkrainian Jewish Committeewas established in 2008 in Kyiv to concentrate the efforts of Jewish leaders in Ukraine on resolving the community's strategic problems and addressing socially significant issues. The Committee declared its intention to become one of the world's most influential organizations protecting the rights of Jews and "the most important and powerful structure protecting human rights in Ukraine".[107]

In the2012 Ukrainian parliamentary elections,All-Ukrainian Union "Svoboda"won its first seats in theUkrainian Parliament,[108][109][110][111][112][113]garnering 10.44% of the popular vote and the fourth most seats among national political parties;[114][115]This led to concern among Jewish organizations thataccused"Svoboda" of Nazi sympathies and antisemitism.[116][108][109][110][117][112][113][118]In May 2013, theWorld Jewish Congresslisted the party asneo-Nazi.[119]"Svoboda" has denied the charges.[109][120][121][122][123][124][125]

Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews are still a problem.[126]

Since theEuromaidanprotests, unrest has grippedsouthernandeastern Ukraine,and this escalated in April 2014 into thewar in Donbas[127]and the2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

In April 2014, leaflets were distributed by three masked men as people left a synagogue inDonetskordering Jews to register to avoid losing their property and citizenship "given that the leaders of the Jewish community of Ukraine support theBanderitejuntainKyiv[a]and are hostile to theOrthodoxDonetsk Republicand its citizens ".[128][129][130]After the distribution of the flyers was reported, Denis Pushili, whom the leaflets claimed had issued the discriminatory order, denied any involvement on behalf of himself and the Donetsk government. The chief rabbi of the city of Donetsk, Pinchas Vishedski, later called the distribution of the flyers a "hoax" that was carried out by an unknown party, adding "I think it's someone trying to use the Jewish community in Donetsk as an instrument in this conflict. That's why we're upset."[128]

Due to the Euromaidan, Ukrainian Jews makingaliyahfrom Ukraine grew 142% during the first four months of 2014 compared to the previous year.[131]800 people arrived inIsraelover January–April, and over 200 signed up for May 2014.[131]On the other hand, chief rabbi andChabademissary ofKyivRabbiJonathan Markovitchclaimed in late April 2014 "Today, you can come to Kyiv,DniproorOdesaand walk through the streets openly dressed as a Jew, with nothing to be afraid of ".[132]

In August 2014, theJewish Telegraphic Agencyreported that theInternational Fellowship of Christians and Jewswas organizing chartered flights to allow at least 150 Ukrainian Jews to immigrate to Israel in September. Jewish organizations within Ukraine, as well as theAmerican Jewish Joint Distribution Committee,theJewish Agency for Israeland the Jewish community ofDnipropetrovsk,arranged temporary homes and shelters for hundreds of Jews who fled the war in Donbas in eastern Ukraine. Hundreds of Jews reportedly fled the cities ofLuhanskand Donetsk.[133][134]

In 2014Ihor KolomoyskyiandVolodymyr Groysmanwere appointed Governor ofDnipropetrovsk OblastandSpeaker of the Parliamentrespectively.[135][136][137][138]Groysman becamePrime Minister of Ukrainein April 2016.[139]Ukraine elected its first Jewish president in the2019 presidential election,when former comedian, head ofKvartal 95 Studio,and lead actor in the TV seriesServant of the PeopleVolodymyr Zelenskyydefeated incumbentPetro Poroshenkowith 73.23% of the vote, the biggestlandslide victoryin the history ofUkrainian presidential elections.[140]

2022 Russian invasion

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A Ukrainian Jewish family arrives in Israel on 6 March 2022
See also:Ukrainian refugee crisis (2022–present)

In February 2022Russia invaded Ukraine.The Israeli Embassy stayed open on the Sabbath to facilitate the evacuation of Jews. A total of 97 Jews chose to travel to Israel.[141]In addition, 140 Jewish orphans fled to Romania and Moldova.[142][143]100 Jews fled to Belarus in order to prepare for their eventual move to Israel.[144]On 2 March 2022, the Jewish Agency for Israel reported that hundreds of Jewish war refugees sheltering in Poland, Romania and Moldova were scheduled to leave for Israel the following week.[145]Refugee estimates ranged from 10,000[146]to 15,200 refugees had arrived in Israel.[147]In September 2023 it was reported that over 43,000 Jews from Russia and over 15,000 Jews from Ukraine have fled to Israel.[148]By August 2024, out of an estimated 30,000 Jews who immigrated to Israel since 7 October 2023, 17,000 Jews were from Russia and 900 Jews from Ukraine.[149]

Jewish communities

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As of 2012, Ukraine had the fifth-largest Jewish community in Europe and the twelfth-largestin the world,behindSouth Africaand ahead ofMexico.The majority live inKyiv(about half),[9]Dnipro,KharkivandOdesa.[150]RabbisJonathan Markovitchof Kyiv andShmuel Kaminetsky[151]of Dnipro are considered to be among the most influential foreigners in the country.[152]Opened in October 2012 in Dnipro, the multifunctionalMenorah centeris among the world's largestJewish community centers.[153][154]

A growing trend among Israelis is to visit Ukraine on a "roots trip" to learn of Jewish life there.[155]Kyiv is usually mentioned, where it is possible to trace the paths ofSholem AleichemandGolda Meir;ZhytomyrandKorostyshiv,where one can follow the steps ofHaim Nahman Bialik;Berdychiv,where one can trace the life ofMendele Mocher Sforim;Rivne,where one can follow the course ofAmos Oz;Buchach– the path ofS.Y. Agnon;Drohobych– the place ofMaurycy GottliebandBruno Schulz.[155]

Notable Ukrainian Jews

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Main article:List of Ukrainian Jews
See also:Category:People of Ukrainian-Jewish descent

Ukrainian Jews

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Ukrainian-born American Jews

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Ukrainian-descended American Jews

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Apparently referring to the support of theEuromaidanprotests (that ousted presidentViktor Yanukovich) by prominent Jews in Ukraine.[128]

References

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