Applicative voice

Theapplicative voice(/əˈplɪkətɪv/;abbreviatedAPLorAPPL) is agrammatical voicethat promotes anobliqueargumentof averbto thecoreobjectargument. It is generally considered avalency-increasing morpheme. The applicative is often found inagglutinative languages,such as theBantu languagesandAustronesian languages.Other examples includeNuxalk,Ubykh,andAinu.

Behavior

Prototypically, applicatives apply tointransitive verbs.They can also be called "advancements" or "object promotion" because they bring a peripheral object to the centre as a direct object. This object is sometimes called theappliedobject. Fortransitive verbs,the resulting verb can beditransitive,or the original object is no longer expressed. If the original object is no longer expressed, it is not avalency-increasing operation

Multiple applicatives

A language may have multiple applicatives, each corresponding to different roles. These roles includeinstrumental,comitative,benefactive,locative,and (although rarely)genitive.Sometimes various applicatives will be expressed by the same morphological exponence, such as in theBantulanguageChewa,where the suffix-ir-forms both instrumental and locative applicatives. Some languages, such asLuganda,permit a 'second applicative' (known in Luganda as the "augmentative applied" ), formed by a double application of the suffix. In this case, the second applicative is used to give an alternative meaning.

Applicatives may also be the only way of expressing such roles, as in the BantuChaga languages,where instrumental, benefactive, malefactive, and locative are formed solely by applicatives. In other languages, applicatives coexist with other methods of expressing said roles. They are often used to bring a normally oblique argument into special focus, or as inNez Percé,to keep humans as core arguments.

Similar processes

Applicatives have a degree of overlap withcausatives,and in some languages, the two are realized identically.A similar construction known asdative shift,though different from true applicatives, occurs in other languages. Also, thebenefactivecase is commonly expressed by means of an applicative.

Examples

Ainu

In theAinu language,valency of verbs can be modulated through multiple mechanisms. The language employs three applicative prefixes:DATTooltip Dative caseko-,INSTooltip Instrumental casee-,andLOCTooltip Locative caseo-,each of which serves to increase the valency of a verb. For instance, an intransitive verb with only one argument slot can be modified by an applicative prefix to become a transitive verb, thus requiring two argument slots to be syntactically well-formed.

Consider the following example, where the intransitive verbitak( “to speak” ) initially has one argument slot that is fulfilled by the subject pronoun prefixku=( “I” ).

ku=ytak.

ku=itak.

1SG.NOM=speak.VI

ku=itak.

1SG.NOM=speak.VI

I am speaking.

By applying the dative applicative prefixko-( “to” ), the verb transforms intokoytak( “to speak with” ), a transitive verb. Now, it requires both a subject, indicated by the prefixku=,and an object, which takes azero morphemeto denote the third person, referring to the nounhekaci:

hekaci ku=koytak.

hekaci

boy

ku=∅=ko-itak.

1SG.NOM=3SG.ACC=APL.DAT-speak.VI

hekaci ku=∅=ko-itak.

boy 1SG.NOM=3SG.ACC=APL.DAT-speak.VI

I am speaking with a boy.

English

Englishdoes not have a dedicated applicative prefix or suffix. However, prepositions can be compounded with verbs for an applicative effect. For example, from

• Jackranfaster than the giant,

theintransitive verbrancan be made transitive, and the oblique noungiantthe object:

• Jackoutranthe giant.

The applicative verb can be madepassive,something which is not possible withran:

• The giant wasoutrunby Jack.

German

TheGermanprefixbe-is considered an applicative by some,but other analyses reject this view.

Swedish

TheSwedishprefixbe-has been analyzed as an applicative by Claire Gronemeyer.

Swahili

Swahilihas an applicative suffix-ior-ewhich appears before the last vowel of the verb. Fromandika'to write', we get transitive

Aliandika barua

a-li-andik-a

he-PST-write-IND

barua

letter

a-li-andik-a barua

he-PST-write-IND letter

'he wrote a letter'

andditransitive

Aliniandikia barua

a-li-ni-andik-i-a

he-PST-me-write-APL-IND

barua

letter

a-li-ni-andik-i-a barua

he-PST-me-write-APL-IND letter

'he wrotemea letter', or 'he wrote a letterfor me'

Similarly, fromsoma'to read',

• Alinisomea barua'he read me a letter', 'he read a letter to me'.

These are sometimes called 'prepositional' forms of the verb because they are translated into English using prepositions:cry for, pray for, eat with, enjoy (be happy about), arrive at, sing to, sell to, send to, open (the door) for, reckon with, see for (himself), die at.However, this name is inaccurate for Swahili, which doesn't use prepositions for such purposes.

Yagua

Yaguais one language that has dedicatedmorphologyfor applicative uses. Here, the applicative suffix-tashows that the locative or instrumental oblique is now a direct object:

(a.)

sa-duu

3SG-blow

rá-viimú

INAN-into

sa-duu rá-viimú

3SG-blow INAN-into

"He blows into it." (valence = 1)

(b.)

sa-duu-tá-ra

3SG-blow-APPL-INAN:OBJ

sa-duu-tá-ra

3SG-blow-APPL-INAN:OBJ

"He blows it." (valence = 2)

This same-tasuffix can be used with transitive verbs to create ditransitives:

(c.)

sį-įchití-rya

3SG-poke-INAN:OBJ

javanu

meat

quiichi-tya

knife-INSTR

sį-įchití-rya javanu quiichi-tya

3SG-poke-INAN:OBJ meat knife-INSTR

"He poked the meat with the knife." (valence = 2)

(d.)

sį-įchití-tya-ra

3SG-poke-APPL-INAN:OBJ

quiichiy

knife

sį-įchití-tya-ra quiichiy

3SG-poke-APPL-INAN:OBJ knife

"He poked something with the knife." (valence = 3)

These behave identically as other lexical ditransitives, such asgiveandsendin this language.

References

• Aronoff, Mark; Kirsten Fudeman (2005).What is Morphology?.Blackwell Publishing Ltd.ISBN0-631-20319-2.
• Campbell, Lyle & Verónica Grondona (Eds.). (2012).The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide.Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter.
• Jacques, Guillaume (2013). Applicative and Tropative Derivations in Japhug Rgyalrong.Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 36(2).
• Mchombo, Sam (1998). "25: Chichewa". In Andrew Spencer and Arnold M. Zwicky (ed.).The Handbook of Morphology.Blackwell Publishers Ltd.ISBN0-631-22694-X.
• Michaelis, Laura A.; Josef Ruppenhofer. (2000). Valence creation and the German applicative: The inherent semantics of linking patterns.Journal of Semantics, 17(4), 335-395.
• Mithun, Marianne (2001).The Languages of Native North America.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-23228-7.
• Pacchiarotti, Sara. (2017).Bantu Applicative Construction Types involving *-id: Form, Functions and Diachrony(Doctoral dissertation). University of Oregon.

• Peterson, David A. (2007).Applicative constructions.Oxford University Press.

• Polinsky, Maria. 2005. Applicative constructions. In Martin Haspelmath, Matthew S Dryer, David Gil & Bernard Comrie (eds.), The world atlas of language structures, 442–445. Oxford University Press. (http://wals.info/chapter/109).

• Valenzuela, Pilar M. (2010). Applicative constructions in Shipibo-Konibo (Panoan).International Journal of American Linguistics, 76(1), 101-144.