Wikipedia

Vinegar

Vinegar(fromOld Frenchvyn egre'sourwine') is anaqueous solutionofacetic acidand trace compounds that may includeflavorings.Vinegar typically contains from 5% to 18% acetic acid by volume.[1]Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a doublefermentation,converting simplesugarstoethanolusing yeast and ethanol to acetic acid usingacetic acid bacteria.[2]Many types of vinegar are made, depending on source materials. The product is now mainly used in theculinary artsas a flavorful, acidiccooking ingredientor inpickling.Various types are used ascondimentsor garnishes, includingbalsamic vinegarandmalt vinegar.

A variety of flavored vinegars, for culinary use, on sale inFrance

As the most easily manufactured mildacid,it has a wide variety of industrial and domestic uses, including functioning as ahousehold cleaner.[3]

Etymology

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Fastaerobic fermentationstainless steel vessels

The word "vinegar" arrived inMiddle EnglishfromOld French(vyn egre;sour wine), which in turn derives fromLatin:vīnum(wine) +ācre(neuter genderofācer,sour).[3][4]Vinegar was formerly also calledeisel.

The word "acetic" derives from Latinacētum(vinegar, or more properlyvinum acetum:"wine turned sour" ).[5]

History

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While vinegar making may be as old as alcoholic brewing, the first documented evidence of vinegar making and use was by the ancientBabyloniansaround 3000BC.[6]They primarily made vinegar from dates, figs, and beer and used it for both culinary and medicinal purposes. Traces of it also have been found inEgyptianurns.In East Asia, the Chinese began professionalizing vinegar production in theZhou dynasty.[7]The bookZhou Limentions that many noble or royal households had a "vinegar maker" as a specialized occupation. Most vinegar-making then was concentrated in what is nowShanxi provincenear the city ofTaiyuan,which remains a famous vinegar-making region today. Many Chinese kinds of vinegar and their uses for culinary and medicinal purposes were written down in the agricultural manualQimin Yaoshu( tề dân yếu thuật ).[7]

The Greeks and Romans frequently used vinegar made from wine. The Spartans had vinegar as a part of their traditionalblood soupmelas zomos;in addition to flavoring the broth, the acidity of the vinegar prevented the blood from coagulating (a purpose for which vinegar is still used in modern blood soups around the world). The RomanColumelladescribed the ingredients and process for making several types of vinegar in his workRes Rustica.[7]

In the late Middle Ages, vinegar making was slowly being professionalized in Europe, with the French city ofOrléansbecoming particularly famous for the quality of its vinegar through a formalized fermentation and aging process, which became known as the Orléans process.[6][7]During this time,maltvinegar also began to develop in England, where it was first known asalegar.[8]Balsamic vinegar also began its evolution in theDuchy of Modenain Italy, though it would not become widely known until theNapoleonic Warsafter being sold abroad by French troops.[9]

In the 19th century, vinegar production underwent many dramatic changes, such as rapid industrialization and scientific analysis. Karl Sebastian Schüzenbach invented the first large-scale industrial process for vinegar production in theKingdom of Badenin 1823.[7]Known as the packed generator, it circulated alcohol overbeechwoodshavings to reduce fermentation times from several months down to 1–2 weeks. This process also facilitated the rise of vinegar made from pure alcohol called spirit vinegar or distilled white vinegar. Japan also began industrializing vinegar production during the last days of theTokugawa shogunate,when Matazaemon Nakano, a man from a traditionalsakebrewing family, discovered that sakeleescould be used to make rice vinegar. This helped provide ample vinegar for the burgeoning popularity ofsushiin Japan. The company he founded, now known asMizkan,is headquartered inHanda(near Nagoya) and is the largest vinegar producer in the world.[7]

Meanwhile, vinegar fermentation became understood as a natural and biological process.Louis Pasteurmade the decisive discovery that a special type of bacteria, later known asacetic acid bacteria,was the agent of fermentation for vinegar production.[10]

In the 20th century, vinegar production was again revolutionized by the invention of thesubmerged fermentation processthat cut production times down to 1–2 days.[11]This allowed the mass production of cheap vinegar around the world.

Chemistry

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The conversion ofethanol(CH3CH2OH) andoxygen(O2) toacetic acid(CH3COOH) takes place by the following reaction:[12]

Polyphenols

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Vinegar contains numerousflavonoids,phenolic acids,andaldehydes,[13]which vary in content depending on the source material used to make the vinegar, such asorange peelor variousfruit juice concentrates.[14][15]

Production

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Main article:Acetic acid § Production

Commercial vinegar is produced either by a fast or a slow fermentation process. In general, slow methods are used in traditional vinegars, where fermentation proceeds over the course of a few months to a year. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria and their cellulosebiofilm,known asmother of vinegar.

Fast methods add the aforementioned mother of vinegar as abacterial cultureto the source liquid before adding air to oxygenate and promote the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced in 1–3 days.

Varieties

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The source materials for making vinegar are varied – different fruits, grains,alcoholic beverages,and other fermentable materials are used.[3]

Fruit

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Raisinvinegar

Fruit vinegars are made fromfruit wines,usually without any additional flavoring. Common flavors of fruit vinegar include apple,blackcurrant,raspberry,quince,and tomato. Typically, the flavors of the original fruits remain in the final product. Most fruit vinegars are produced in Europe, where a market exists for high-priced vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to nonfruit vinegars that are infused with fruits or fruit flavors).[16]Several varieties are produced in Asia.Persimmon vinegar,calledgam sikcho,is common inSouth Korea.Jujubevinegar, calledzaocuorhongzaocu,andwolfberryvinegar are produced in China.

Persimmonvinegar produced inSouth Korea

Apple cider vinegaris made fromcideror applemust,and has a brownish-gold color. It is sometimes soldunfilteredandunpasteurizedwith themother of vinegarpresent. It can be diluted with fruit juice or water or sweetened (usually with honey) for consumption.

A byproduct of commercialkiwifruitgrowing is a large amount of waste in the form ofmisshapen or otherwise-rejected fruit(which may constitute up to 30% of the crop) and kiwifruitpomace.One of the uses for pomace is the production of kiwifruit vinegar, produced commercially in New Zealand since at least the early 1990s, and in China in 2008.[17][18]

Vinegar made fromraisinsis used in cuisines of the Middle East. It is cloudy and medium brown in color, with a mild flavor. Vinegar made fromdatesis a traditional product of theMiddle East,and used inEastern Arabia.[19][20]

Palm

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Coconut vinegar from the Philippines

Coconutvinegar, made from fermented coconut sap orcoconut water,is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (notably the Philippines, where it is known assukang tuba), as well as in some cuisines ofIndiaandSri Lanka,especiallyGoan cuisine.A cloudy, white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note.[21]

In the Philippines, other types of vinegar are made from palm sap. Like coconut vinegar, they are by-products oftubâ(palm wine) production. Two of the most widely produced arenipa palm vinegar(sukang nipaorsukang sasa) andkaong palm vinegar(sukang kaongorsukang irok). Along with coconut and cane vinegar, they are the four main traditional vinegar types in the Philippines and are an important part ofFilipino cuisine.[22]Nipa palm vinegar is made from the sap of the leaf stalks ofnipa palm.Its flavor has notes of citrus and imparts a distinctly musky aroma.[23][21]Kaong palm vinegar is made from the sap of flower stalks of thekaong palm.It is sweeter than all the other Philippine vinegar types and is commonly used in salad dressing.[22]Vinegar from theburi palmsap is also produced, but not with the same prevalence as coconut, nipa, and kaong vinegars.[24]Kaong palm vinegar is also produced in Indonesia and Malaysia, though it is not as prevalent as in the Philippines because the palm wine industry is not as widespread in these Muslim-majority countries.[25][26]

Balsamic

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Main articles:Traditional Balsamic VinegarandBalsamic vinegar

Balsamic vinegar is an aromatic, aged vinegar produced in theModenaandReggio Emiliaprovinces of Italy. The original product — traditional balsamic vinegar — is made from the concentrated juice, ormust,of whiteTrebbianograpes. It is dark brown, rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being aged in successive casks made variously of oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, and ash wood. Originally a costly product available to only the Italian upper classes, traditional balsamic vinegar is markedtradizionaleor "DOC" to denote itsprotected designation of originstatus, and is aged for 12 to 25 years. A cheaper non-DOC commercial form described asaceto balsamico di Modena(balsamic vinegar of Modena)[27]became widely known and available around the world in the late 20th century, typically made with concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar, then coloured and slightly sweetened with caramel and sugar.

Balsamic vinegar is made from agrapeproduct. It contains nobalsam,though was traditionally aged in balsam as one of the steps. A high acidity level is somewhat hidden by the sweetness of the other ingredients, making it mellow. In terms of its nutrition content, balsamic vinegar contains the carbohydrates of grape sugars (some 17% of total composition), making it some five times higher in caloric content than typical distilled or wine vinegar.[28]

Cane

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Vinegar made fromsugarcane juiceis traditional to and is most popular in thePhilippines,in particular in the northernIlocos Region(where it is calledsukang Ilokoorsukangbasi). It ranges from dark yellow to golden brown in color, and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar, though with a somewhat "fresher" taste. Because it contains no residual sugar, it is no sweeter than any other vinegar. In the Philippines, it often is labeled assukang maasim(Tagalogfor "sour vinegar" ).

Cane vinegars from Ilocos are made in two different ways. One way is to simply place sugar cane juice in large jars; it becomes sour by the direct action of bacteria on the sugar. The other way is through fermentation to produce a traditional wine known asbasi.Low-qualitybasiis then allowed to undergo acetic acid fermentation that converts alcohol into acetic acid. Contaminatedbasialso becomes vinegar.

Cane vinegar is also produced in other countries, like France and the United States. A white variation has become quite popular in Brazil in recent years, where it is the cheapest type of vinegar sold. It is now common for other types of vinegar (made from wine, rice, and apple cider) to be sold mixed with cane vinegar to lower the cost.[citation needed]

Sugarcanesirkais made from sugarcane juice in parts of northern India. During summer, people put cane juice in earthenware pots with iron nails. The fermentation takes place due to the action of wild yeast. The cane juice is converted to vinegar having a blackish color (from ferrous oxide and acetate). Thesirkais used to preserve pickles and for flavoring curries.

Grains

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Maltvinegar made fromale,also called "alegar",[29]is made bymaltingbarley,causing the starch in the grain to turn tomaltose.Then an ale isbrewedfrom the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged.[29]It is typically light-brown in color. Malt vinegar (along with salt) is a traditional seasoning forfish and chips,and in the United Kingdom and Canada, a popular seasoning forFrench friesin general. Some fish and chip shops replace it withnon-brewed condiment.Salt and vinegar are combined as a common, traditional flavouring forcrisps;[30][31][32]in some varieties this involves the conversion of the vinegar tosodium acetateorsodium diacetate,to avoid dampening the product in manufacture.[33]

Chineseblack vinegar

Chineseblack vinegaris an aged product made fromrice,wheat,millet,sorghum,or a combination thereof. It has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavor. The recipe is not fixed, so some Chinese black vinegars may containadded sugar,spices, or caramel color. The most popular variety,Zhenjiang vinegar,originates in the city ofZhenjianginJiangsu Province,eastern China.[34]Shanxi mature vinegar is another popular type of Chinese vinegar that is made exclusively from sorghum and other grains. Nowadays in Shanxi province, some traditional vinegar workshops still produce handmade vinegar with a high acidity that is aged for at least five years. Only the vinegars made in Taiyuan and some counties in Jinzhong and aged for at least three years are considered authentic Shanxi mature vinegar according to the latest national standard. A somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made from rice, is produced in Japan, where it is calledkurozu.

Rice vinegaris most popular in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is available in "white" (light yellow), red, and black varieties. The Japanese prefer a light rice vinegar for the preparation ofsushi riceand salad dressings. Red rice vinegar traditionally is colored withred yeast rice.Black rice vinegar (made with black glutinous rice) is most popular in China, and it is also widely used in other East Asian countries. White rice vinegar has a mild acidity with a somewhat "flat" and uncomplex flavor. Some varieties of rice vinegar are sweetened or otherwise seasoned with spices or other added flavorings.

Spirits

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Sherry vinegar

The term "spirit vinegar" is sometimes reserved for the stronger variety (5 to 24%[35]acetic acid) made from sugar cane or chemically produced acetic acid.[36]To be called "spirit vinegar", the product must come from an agricultural source and must be made by "double fermentation". The first fermentation is sugar to alcohol, and the second is alcohol to acetic acid. Products made from synthetically produced acetic acid cannot be called "vinegar" in the UK, where the term allowed is "non-brewed condiment".

Sherry vinegaris linked to the production ofsherrywines ofJerez.Dark mahogany in color, it is made exclusively from the acetic fermentation of wines. It is concentrated and has generous aromas, including a note of wood, ideal for vinaigrettes and flavoring various foods.[37]Wine vinegaris made from red or white wine, and is the most commonly used vinegar inSouthernandCentral Europe,Cyprus,andIsrael.As with wine, the range in quality is considerable. Better-quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years, and exhibit a complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a lower acidity than white or cider vinegar. More expensive wine vinegars are made from individual varieties of wine, such as champagne, sherry, or pinot gris.

The term "distilled vinegar" as used in the United States (called "spirit vinegar" in the UK, "white vinegar" in Canada[38]) is something of a misnomer because it is not produced by distillation, but by fermentation of distilled alcohol. The fermentate is diluted to produce a colorless solution of 5 to 8% acetic acid in water, with a pH of about 2.6. This is variously known as distilled spirit, "virgin" vinegar,[39]or white vinegar, and is used in cooking, baking, meat preservation, andpickling,as well as for medicinal, laboratory, and cleaning purposes.[36]The most common starting material in some regions, because of its low cost, is barleymalt,[40]or in the United States, corn. It is sometimes derived from petroleum.[41]Distilled vinegar is used predominantly for cooking, although in the UK it is used as an alternative to brown or light malt vinegar. White distilled vinegar can also be used for cleaning, and some types are sold specifically for this purpose.

Culinary uses

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Vinegar is commonly used infood preparation,[3]in particular aspicklingliquids,vinaigrettes,and othersalad dressings.It is an ingredient insauces,such ashot sauce,mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise. Vinegar is sometimes used inchutneys.It is often used as acondimenton its own, or as a part of other condiments.Marinadesoften contain vinegar.Soupssometimes have vinegar added to them, as is the case withhot and sour soup.In terms of itsshelf life,vinegar's acidic nature allows it to last indefinitely without the use ofrefrigeration;it is essentially already "spoiled".[42]

Beverages

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A beverage made from apple vinegar inChina

Several beverages are made using vinegar, for instanceposcainancient Rome.Theancient Greekdrinkoxymelis made from vinegar and honey, andsekanjabinis a traditionalPersian drinksimilar tooxymel.Other preparations, known colloquially as "shrubs",range from simply mixing sugar water or honey water with small amounts of fruity vinegar, to making syrup by laying fruit or mint in vinegar for several days, thensievingoff solid parts and adding considerable amounts of sugar. Some prefer to boil the "shrub" as a final step. These recipes have lost much of their popularity with the rise ofcarbonated beverages,such as soft drinks.

Diet and metabolism

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Preliminary research indicates that consuming 2–4tablespoonsof vinegar may cause small reductions in post-meal levels ofblood glucoseandinsulinin people withdiabetes.[43]

Nutrition

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Distilled or red wine vinegar is 95% water, with nofatorprotein.[44]In a100 mL (3+1⁄2US fl oz) reference amount, distilled vinegar supplies 75 kJ (18 kcal) offood energyand nomicronutrientsin significant content.[44]The composition (and absence of nutrient content) for red wine vinegar andapple cider vinegarare the same, whereasbalsamic vinegaris 77% water with 17% carbohydrates, 370 kJ (88 kcal) per 100 mL, and contains no fat, protein, or micronutrients.[28]

Non-culinary uses

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Folk medicine

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Since antiquity,folk medicinetreatments have used vinegar, but no conclusive evidence from clinical research supports health claims of benefits for diabetes, weight loss,cancer,or use as aprobiotic.[3][45]A systematic review and meta-analysis later suggested it could help type 2 diabetics reduce insulin and glucose after meals.[46]

Applying vinegar to commonjellyfishstings deactivates thenematocysts,although not as effectively as hot water.[47]This also applies to thePortuguese man o' war,which, although generally considered to be a jellyfish, is not (it is asiphonophore).[48]

Some treatments with vinegar pose risks to health.[49]Esophagealinjury by apple cider vinegar has been reported, and because vinegar products sold for medicinal purposes are neither regulated nor standardized, such products may vary widely in content and acidity.[50]

Cleaning

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White vinegar is often used as a household cleaning agent.[3]For most uses, dilution with water is recommended for safety and to avoid damaging the surfaces being cleaned. Because it is acidic, it can dissolvemineral depositsfrom glass,coffee makers,and other smooth surfaces.[51]Vinegar is known as an effective cleaner ofstainless steeland glass. Malt vinegar sprinkled onto crumpled newspaper is a traditional, and still-popular, method of cleaning grease-smeared windows and mirrors in the United Kingdom.[52]

Vinegar can be used forpolishingcopper, brass, bronze or silver. It is an excellentsolventfor cleaningepoxy resinas well as the gum on sticker-typeprice tags.It has been reported as an effectivedrain cleaner.[53]

The use of vinegar indishwashersandwashing machinescan cause damage to their rubber seals and hoses, leading to leaks. According to testing done byConsumer Reports,vinegar is ineffective as arinse aidand in removing hard-water film while used in a dishwasher. According to Brian Sansoni, chief spokesperson for theAmerican Cleaning Institute,vinegar "isn't very useful with stains that have already set into clothing, including food stains and bloodstains."[54][55]Other household items and surfaces that can be damaged by vinegar include flooring, stone countertops, knives, the screens of electronic devices, clothes iron water tanks, and rubber components of varioussmall appliances.Common metals that can be damaged by vinegar include aluminum, copper, and lower-quality grades of stainless steel often used in small appliances.[54]

Herbicide

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Twenty percent acetic acid vinegar can be used as anherbicide,[56]but acetic acid is not absorbed into root systems so the vinegar will only kill the top growth andperennial plantsmay reshoot.[57]

Reactions, byproducts and contaminants

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Most commercial vinegar solutions available to consumers for household use do not exceed 5%.[citation needed]Solutions above 10% require careful handling, as they are corrosive and damaging to the skin.[58]

When a bottle of vinegar is opened,mother of vinegarmay develop. It is considered harmless and can be removed by filtering.[59]

Vinegar eels(Turbatrix aceti), a form ofnematode,may occur in some forms of vinegar unless the vinegar is kept covered.[citation needed]These feed on the mother of vinegar and can occur in naturally fermenting vinegar.[60][failed verification]

Whenbaking sodaand vinegar are combined, thebicarbonateion of the baking soda reacts with acetic acid to formcarbonic acid,whichdecomposesinto carbon dioxide and water, completing thecarbon cycle.Sodium acetateremains in solution with the water contained in the vinegar.[61]

Regulation

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Some countries have regulations on the permitted acidity percentage of vinegar. For example, the government of Canada limits acetic to between 4.1% and 12.3%, unless the vinegar is sold only for manufacturing use and identified as such.[62]In the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, vinegar must contain a minimum of 4% acetic acid by volume.[3][63]

Many jurisdictions distinguish between brewed vinegar and preparations made with diluted acetic acid. The latter may not be sold as "vinegar" and is instead referred to as "non-brewed condiment"in the UK,[64]or "imitation vinegar" in Australia and New Zealand.[63]

See also

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References

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