Advocatus

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Anadvocatus,sometimes simplyadvocate,Vogt(German), oravoué(French), was a type of medieval office holder, particularly important in theHoly Roman Empire,who was delegated some of the powers and functions of a major feudal lord, or for an institution such as an abbey. They typically had responsibility for the "comital" functions which defined the office of early medieval "counts",such as taxation, recruitment of militias, and maintaining law and order. This type of office could apply to specific agricultural lands, villages, castles, and even cities. In some regions, advocates came to be governors of large provinces, sometimes distinguished by terms such asLandvogt.

In different parts of medieval Europe, the term advocate developed different meanings, and other terms were also sometimes used to represent similar offices. For example, Anglo-Norman comital functions for larger districts were executed by vicomtes in Normandy, and sheriffs in England. In contrast, theadvocatusor advocate as an officer of acourt of law,which is still current in modern English, first appeared in the 12th and 13th centuries, concomitant with therediscovery of Roman law.[1]The common thread which connects the different meanings of advocate is that someone is called upon to perform a function for others.

While the term was eventually used to refer to many types of governorship and advocacy, one of the earliest and most important types ofadvocatuswas the church advocate (advocatus ecclesiae). These were originally laylords,who not only helped defend religious institutions from violence, but were also responsible for exercising the comital or lordly responsibilities within the church's lands, such as the management of courts which could inflict a death penalty. In return they received an income from the lands, and the positions of these office-holders often came to be seen as inheritable titles themselves, with their own feudal privileges connected to them.

Nomenclature

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The terms used in various European languages derive from a general Latin term for any person called upon (Latin:ad vocatus) to speak for another.

Apart from the English termsadvocateandadvowee,German terms are sometimes mentioned in English accounts of the Holy Roman Empire, and these includeVogt(German:[foːkt],fromOld High German,alsoVoigtorFauth;pluralVögte). The territory or area of responsibility of aVogtis called aVogtei(from[ad]vocatia).

Related terms includeDutch:(land-) voogd;Danish:foged;Norwegian:fogd;Swedish:fogde;Polish:wójt;Finnish:vouti;Lithuanian:vaitas;andRomanian:voit.

Ecclesiastical advocates

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Ecclesiastical advocates were specially bound to represent their lords by managing a court system, to protect law and order. They exercised civil jurisdiction in the domain of the church or monastery and were bound to protect the church with arms in the event of an actual assault. Finally, it was their duty to lead the men-at-arms in the name of the church or monastery, and to command them in time of war. In return for these services, the advocate received certain revenues from the possessions of the church in the form of supplies or services, which he could demand, or in the form of a lien on church property.

Such advocates were to be found even in Roman times; a Synod of Carthage decreed, in 401, that the emperor should be requested to provide, in conjunction with the bishops,defensoresfor the churches.[2]There is evidence, moreover, for suchdefensores ecclesiæin Italy, at the close of the fifth century, butPope Gregory Iconfined the office to members of the clergy. It was the duty of thesedefensoresto protect the poor and defend the rights and possessions of the church.

In theFrankish Kingdom,under theMerovingians,these lay representatives of the churches appeared asagentes, defensoresandadvocati.[3]The concept of theVogtwas related to theOld Germanidea of theMunt,or guardian, but also included some ideas of physical defence and legal representation (whence the connection withadvocatusor "advocate" ).

Under theCarolingians,the duties of the church advocate were enlarged and defined according to the principles of government which prevailed in the reign ofCharlemagne;henceforward theadvocatus ecclesiæin the medieval sense. ACapitularyof about 790[4]ordained that the higher clergy, "for the sake of the church's honour, and the respect due to the priesthood" (pro ecclesiastico honore, et pro sacerdotum reverentia) should have advocates. Charlemagne, who obliged bishops, abbots and abbesses to maintainadvocati,commanded to exercise great care in the choice of persons to fill the office; they must be judicious men, familiar with the law, and owning property in the—then still administrative—countship (Grafschaft).[5]The churches, monasteries and canonries, as such, received advocates alike, who by degrees assumed the position above defined.

Under the Carolingians, it was made obligatory forbishops,abbotsandabbessesto appoint such officials in everycountywhere they heldproperty.The office was not at firsthereditarynor even for life, theadvocatusbeing chosen, either by the abbot alone, or by the abbot and bishop concurrently with thecount.

In the post-Carolingian period, it developed into a hereditary office, and was held by powerful nobles, who constantly endeavoured to enlarge their rights in connection with the church or the monastery. Conciliar decrees were passed as early as the ninth century to protect ecclesiastical institutions against the excessive claims of their advocates, who indeed became a burden to their ecclesiastical clients in many ways. They dealt with the possessions entrusted to them as with their own property, plundered the church estate, appropriated tithes and other revenues, and oppressed in many ways those whom they were appointed to protect.

The office, since it offered many advantages, was eagerly sought after. The excessive claims of the advocates gave rise to disputes between them and the churches or monasteries. The bishops and abbots, who found their rights curtailed, appealed to the Holy Roman Emperor and the Pope for protection. In the twelfth century, warnings were issued from Rome, restraining the high-handed actions of the advocates under pain of severe ecclesiastical penalties, which still did not put an end to all the abuses that prevailed. On occasions, emperors and princes exercised the office of an advocate, in which case they appointed deputy-advocates (subadvocati) to represent them.

From the time of Charlemagne, who had such officials appointed in ecclesiastical territories not directly under the control of his counts, theVogtwas a state functionary representing ecclesiastical dignitaries (such as bishops and abbots) or institutions in secular matters, and particularly before secular courts. Such representatives had been assigned to the church since late antiquity, as it was not to act for itself in worldly affairs. Therefore, in areas such as the territories of abbeys and bishoprics, which by virtue of their ecclesiastical status were free (or immune) from the secular government of the local count (Graf,in origin an administrative official in charge of a territory and reporting to the emperor), theVogtfulfilled the function of a protective lordship, generally commanding the military contingents of such areas (Schirmvogtei). Beyond that, he administered the high justice instead of the count from theVogtcourt(Landgericht,VogtgerichtorBlutgericht).

In private and family monasteries (seeproprietary church), the proprietor himself often also held the office ofVogt,frequently retaining it after reform of the proprietorship (see alsolay abbot).

The three-way struggle for control of theVogteiof the more important abbacies, played out among the central monarchy, the Church and the territorial nobility,[6]was well established as a prerogative of the nobility; theHirsau formulary(1075) confirmedcountAdalbert of Calw as hereditary advocate of the Abbey, an agreement so widely copied elsewhere in Germany that from the tenth century, the office developed into a hereditary possession of the higher nobility, who frequently exploited it as a way of extending their power and territories, and in some cases took for themselves the estates and assets of the church bodies for whose protection they were supposedly responsible. In Austria, the teaching of the Church that, according tocanon lawindividuals were prohibited from exercising authority over Church property, was only accepted reluctantly by the nobles. The rights of advocacy were bought back by the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century abbeys in alliance with the Babenberg and early Habsburg dukes; the abolition of theVogtei(Entvogtung) thereby exchanged local secular jurisdiction for the protective overlordship of theduke of Austria,sometimes by forging charters that the duke confirmed.[7]

Imperial advocates

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The medieval Holy Roman Empire included what is nowGermany,theNetherlands,Belgium,Luxembourg,Switzerland,Austria,Sloveniaas well as parts of neighbouring regions. In these lands title of advocate (GermanVogt,DutchVoogd) was given not only to theadvocatiof churches and abbeys but also, from relatively early in theMiddle Ages,to officials appointed by theHoly RomanEmperorto administer lands, castles and towns directly under his lordship. Such offices or jurisdictions were called for example aVogteiin German, or aVoogdijin Dutch (Latinadvocatia). During earlier periods the jurisdiction could also be called acomitatus,literally a countship, because these offices were similar to those of early medieval counts, and "counties" were not yet necessarily seen as geographically defined.[8]

Terminology and customs evolved over time. In German for example, the delegated governor of a city could be called aStadtvogt,while the governor or rural estates could be called aLandvogt.ABurgvogtwas a castle administrator orcastellan,responsible for the general running of a castle and also for exercising judicial powers there. In addition to governing lands, forts and cities, the termadvocatus(or Vogt, Voogd etc.) could be applied to more specific administrative functions delegated by territorial rulers, equivalent to Englishreevesandbailiffs.However other terms were also sometimes used for these such as Dutchschout,and GermanSchultheiss.[3]

Land administered by a Vogt could also be known locally as aVogtland(terra advocatorum), a name still used to refer to a region, theVogtland,that adjoins theprincipalities of Reussand adjacent portions ofSaxony,PrussiaandBavaria.

Imperial advocacies tended to become hereditary. Sometimes the emperor himself assumed the title ofVogt,in application to parts of his eminent domain.[3]An imperial (Reichsvogt) was an officer of the king, who served as administrator and judge of a subdivision of royal property, or of a royal abbey. The seat of an imperialReichsvogtwas often at animperial city.

When the imperial cities gained more independence, by the late Middle Ages, they took over their own governance. The landVogtoffice of theAlsace,consisting of the ten imperial cities of theDécapole,was ceded to the king of France in 1648, but the cities remained part of the Holy Roman Empire. However, the cities were soon thereafter annexed by France.

Several small landVögtecontinued to exist until the end of the Empire in 1806, mainly in theSwabian Circle.

In what is now the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg the Habsburg dynasty continued into modern times to rule throughgovernorswho used the titlelandvoogdorgouverneur-generaal,which was for example the main title ofMargaret of Parma.

In modernDutch,the wordvoogdis the primary word for the concept oflegal guardian.

Old Swiss Confederacy

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After leaving the Holy Roman Empire, the title ofLandvogtcontinued to be used in theOld Swiss Confederacyin 1415. ALandvogtruled aLandvogtei,either representing a sovereigncanton,or acting on behalf of the Confederacy, or a subset thereof, administering a condominium (Gemeine Herrschaft) shared between several cantons. In the case of condominiums, the cantons took turns in appointing aLandvogtfor a period of two years.

In exceptional cases, the population of theLandvogteiwas allowed to elect their ownLandvogt.This concernedOberhasliin particular, which was nominally a subject territory ofBern,but enjoyed a special status as a military ally. The office ofLandvogtwas abolished in 1798, with the foundation of theHelvetic Republic.

Although the title ofDuke of Burgundywas extinguished by the French king after the annexation of its ancestral lands in 1477, the Habsburgkings of Spainandarchdukes of Austriacontinued to use the title to refer to their realms in the Netherlands.

Outside the empire

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In surrounding parts of Europe the original Frankish church advocacies, and the later imperial advocacies were also influential, and evolved in various ways.

France

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InFrance,theadvocati,known asavoués,were of two types. The first included secular lords, who held the advocateship (avouerie) of an abbey or abbeys, rather as an office than a fief, though they were indemnified for the protection they afforded by adomainandpreachrevenues granted by the abbey: thus theduke of Normandywasadvocatusof nearly all the abbeys in theduchy.The second class included the pettylordswho held their advocateships as hereditary fiefs and often as their sole means of subsistence. An abbey'savoué,of this class, corresponded to a bishop'svidame.Their function was generally to represent the abbot in his capacity as feudal lord, act as his representative in the courts of his superior, exercise secularjusticein the abbot's name in the abbatialcourt,and lead the retainers of the abbey to battle under the banner of thepatron saint.[3]

Theadvocatus ecclesiaewas also known as acustosoradjutatorin the 10th and 11th centuries. Initially, only counts and dukes were appointedadvocati,but by the end of the 11th century the title was being bestowed on mere castellans. The monks usually consulted their advocate before electing a new abbot, giving the advocate influence over the selection. When a nobleman founded or reformed a monastery, he usually became its advocate. In the 12th century, the office of the advocate was on the decline - a result of theGregorian reforms. TheCistercian Order,for example, never allowed lay advocates.[9]

England

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InEngland,the wordadvocatuswas never used to denote a hereditary representative of an abbot; but in some of the larger abbeys there were hereditary stewards whose functions and privileges were not dissimilar to those of the continentaladvocati.Instead, the wordadvocatus,or more commonlyavowee,was in constant use in England to denote thepatronof an ecclesiasticalbenefice,whose sole right of any importance was a hereditary one of presenting aparsonto the bishop for institution. In this way the hereditary right of presentation to a benefice came to be called in English anadvowson(Latin:advocatio).[3]

Poland

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Trial before thewójtbyJózef Chełmoński(1873),National MuseuminWarsaw

In medievalPoland,awójtwas the hereditary head of a town (under the overlordship of the town's owner – the king, church, or noble).

In modern Poland, awójtis the elected head of a ruralgmina,whereas heads of urbangminasare calledburmistrz(burgomaster), orpresident.

Denmark

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InDanish,the wordfogedcarries different connotations, all pertaining to guarding or keeping watch over something. In modernDanish law,thefogedret(vogtcourt) administers the forcible enforcement and execution of judgments or other valid legal claims.

Finland

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The localbailiff(distrainer) is calledkihlakunnanvouti,wherekihlakunta(hundred) is a local judicial district. Their duty is to enforce the financial judgements of the local courts. In practice, thevoutileads a team of assistant distrainers who process most distrainments/garnishments.

See also

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References

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  1. ^Jean-Louis Gazzaniga, "Advocate", inAndré Vauchez(ed.),Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages(Oxford University Press, 2002).
  2. ^Hefele,Conciliengeschichte, 2d ed., I, p. 83.
  3. ^abcdeOne or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911). "Advocate".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 241–242.This cites:
    • Du Cange,Glossarium(ed. 1883, Niort), s. "Advocati"
    • A. Luchaire,Manuel des institutions françaises(Paris, 1892)
    • Herzog-Hauck,Realencyklopädie(ed. Leipzig, 1896), s. "Advocatus ecclesiae," where further references will be found.
  4. ^Monumenta German. Histor., Cap. Reg. Francor., I, p. 201.
  5. ^See Capitulary of 802, and 801–813, 1. c. I, pp. 93, 172.
  6. ^This institutional struggle is analysed byTheodor Mayer,Fürsten und Staat: Studien zur Verfassungsgeschichte des deutschen Mittelalters(Weimar, 1950) chapters i to xii.
  7. ^Folker Reichert,Landesherrschaft, Adel, und Vogtei: Zur Vorgeschichte des spätmittelalterlichen Ständestaates im Herzogtum Österreich(Cologne and Vienna, 1985).
  8. ^Benjamin, Arnold (1991),Princes and Territories in Medieval Germany,Cambridge University Press, pp. 189–190
  9. ^Constance B. Bouchard, "Advocatus/Avoué", inMedieval France: An Encyclopedia(Garland, 1995), pp. 16–17.

Further reading

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  • Charles West, "The Significance of the Carolingian Advocate",Early Medieval Europe17 (2009), pp. 186–206