Western Satraps

TheWestern Satraps,orWestern Kshatrapas(Brahmi:,Mahakṣatrapa,"GreatSatraps") wereIndo-Scythian(Saka) rulers of the western and central parts of India (extending fromSaurashtrain the south andMalwain the east, covering modern-daySindh,Gujarat,Maharashtra,RajasthanandMadhya Pradeshstates), between 35 and 415 CE. The Western Satraps were contemporaneous with theKushanswho ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and were possibly vassals of the Kushans. They were also contemporaneous with theSatavahanawho ruled in Central India. They are called "Western Satraps" in modern historiography in order to differentiate them from the "Northern Satraps",who ruled inPunjabandMathurauntil the 2nd century CE.

Western Satraps
35–415 CE
KAMARUPAS GAUDA South-Asia c. 350 CE IKSHVAKUS KALABHRAS WESTERN GANGAS KADAMBAS PALLAVAS LITTLE KUSHANS SASANIAN HIND MAHAMEGHA- VAHANAS SAMATATAS ABHIRAS VAKATAKAS GUPTA EMPIRE KIDARITES KUSHANO- SASANIANS SASANIAN EMPIRE ◁▷ Approximate territory of the Western Satraps (35–415) circa 350 CE.
Capital	Ujjain Barygaza Minnagara
Common languages	Pali(Kharoshthiscript) Sanskrit,Prakrit(Brahmiscript)
Religion	Hinduism Buddhism
Government	Monarchy
Satrap, King
•c. 35	Abhiraka
• 388–415	Rudrasimha III
Historical era	Antiquity
• Established	35
• Disestablished	415 CE
Preceded by Succeeded by Indo-Scythians Malavas Satavahana dynasty Gupta Empire Vakataka dynasty Kalachuri dynasty Traikutaka dynasty Maitraka dynasty
Today part of	India Pakistan

The power of the Western Satraps started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Saka rulers were defeated by the EmperorGautamiputra Satakarniof theSatavahana dynasty.After this, the Saka kingdom revived, but wasultimately defeatedbyChandragupta IIof theGupta Empirein the 4th century CE.The Western Satraps, having been defeated by theAbhiras/Ahirs,declined rapidly during the second half of the third century.

Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years.

Name

The rulers of the Western Satraps were calledMahākhatapa(𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀔𑀢𑀧, "Great Satrap" ) in theirBrahmi scriptinscriptions, as here in a dedicatory inscription by Prime Minister Ayama in the name of his rulerNahapana,Manmodi Caves,circa 100 CE. Nahapana was also attributed the titles ofRaño( "King" ) andSāmi( "Lord" ) conjointly.

They are named Western Satraps in contrast to the "Northern Satraps"who ruled aroundEast Punjaband the area ofMathura,such asRajuvula,and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.

Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps",Ptolemyin his 2nd century "Geographia"still called them" Indo-Scythians ".The wordKṣatrapahas the same origin as the wordsatrapand are both descended fromMedianxšaθrapāvan-,which means viceroy or governor of a province, and according to John Marshall, the wordkṣatrapameans the viceroy of the "King of kings". The title of theMahakṣatrapaor the "Great Satrap" was given to the ruling Satrap, and the title ofkṣatrapawas given to the heir apparent. The western Kshatrapas were also known as Sakas to Indians.

The titleKṣaharātaby which the Western Satraps styled themselves is a derivation of aSaka languageterm*xšaθrapati,meaning "lord of the country", and was likely the Saka synonym for the Indian titleKṣatrapa,which had itself been borrowed from the IranianMedian language.

The Sakas of Western India spoke the Saka language, also known asKhotaneseas it is first attested in theTarim Basin.

History

First expansion: Kshaharata dynasty (1st century CE)

Coin ofBhumaka(?–119).Obv:Arrow, pellet, and thunderbolt.KharoshthiinscriptionChaharasada Chatrapasa Bhumakasa:"Ksaharata Satrap Bhumaka".Rev:Capital of a pillar with seated lion with upraised paw, and wheel (dharmachakra).Brahmiinscription:Kshaharatasa Kshatrapasa Bhumakasa.

The Western Satraps are thought to have started with the rather short-livedKshaharatadynasty (also calledChaharada,KhaharataorKhakharatadepending on sources).The termKshaharatais also known from the 6 CETaxila copper plateinscription, in which it qualifies the Indo-Scythian rulerLiaka Kusulaka.TheNasikinscription of the 19th year ofSri Pulamavialso mentions theKhakharatavasa,orKshaharatarace.

The earliest Kshaharata for whom there is evidence isAbhiraka,whose rare coins are known. He was succeeded byBhumaka,father ofNahapana,who only used on his coins the title of Satrap, and not that ofRajaorRaño(king). Nahapana's rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE, according to one of his coins, which bearBuddhistsymbols, such as the eight-spoked wheel (dharmachakra), or the lion seated on a capital, a representation of a pillar ofAshoka.

Coin ofNahapana(whose rule is variously dated to 24-70 CE, 66-71 CE, or 119–124 CE), a direct derivation fromIndo-Greekcoinage.British Museum.

TheGreco-Prakrittitle "RANNIO KSAHARATA" ( "ΡΑΝΝΙωΞΑΗΑΡΑΤΑ(Ϲ) ", Prakrit for" King Kshaharata "rendered in corrupted Greek letters) on the obverse of the coinage of Nahapana.

South-Asia
c. 120 CE

Junnar

Nasik

Karli

SATAVAHANAS

PANDYAS

CHOLAS

KUSHAN EMPIRE

WESTERN
SATRAPS

PARATA
RAJAS

MAHAMEGA-
VAHANA

INDO-
PARTHIANS

HAN DYNASTY

class=notpageimage|

Location of Western Satrap inscriptions in Buddhist rock-cut caves, indicating the southern extent of their territory, circa 120 CE,and main neighbouring polities at that time.

Nahapana succeeded him, and became a very powerful ruler. He occupied portions of theSatavahana Empirein western and central India. Nahapana held sway overMalwa,SouthernGujarat,and NorthernKonkan,fromBharuchtoSoparaand theNasikandPoonadistricts.At that time, the area northwest of the Western Satraps inBaluchistanwas ruled by theParatarajas,anIndo-Parthianpolity, while theKushanswere expanding their empire in the North.

His son-in-law, the SakaUshavadata(married to his daughter Dakshamitra), is known from inscriptions inNasikandKarleandJunnar(Manmodi Caves,inscription of the year 46) to have been viceroy of Nahapana, ruling over the southern part of his territory.

Nahapana established the silver coinage of the Kshatrapas.

Circa 120 CE, the Western Satraps are known to have allied with theUttamabhadrasin order to repulse an attack by theMalavas,whom they finally crushed.The claim appears in an inscription at theNashik Caves,made by theNahapana's viceroyUshavadata:

...And by order of the lord I went to release the chief of the Uttamabhadras, who had been besieged for the rainy season by the Malayas, and those Malayas fled at the mere roar (of my approaching) as it were, and were all made prisoners of the Uttamabhadra warriors.

— Inscription in Cave No.10 of theNashik Caves.

Support of Indian religions

An important inscription related toNahapanain the Great Chaitya atKarla Cavesshows his support of Buddhism and Hinduism:

Karla Caves,inscription of Nahapana.

Success!! ByUshabadata,the son of Dinaka and the son-in-law of the king, the Kshaharata, theKshatrapaNahapana,who gave three hundred thousand cows, who made gifts of gold and atirthaon the river Banasa, who gave to the Devas andBrahmanassixteen villages, who at the pure tirtha Prabhasa gave eight wives to the Brahmanas, and who also fed annually a hundred thousand Brahmanas- there has been given the village of Karajika for the support of the ascetics living in the caves atValurakawithout any distinction of sect or origin, for all who would keep thevarsha.

— Inscription of Nahapana, Karla Caves.

Construction of Buddhist caves

The Western Satraps are known for the construction and dedication of numerous Buddhist caves in Central India, particularly inMaharashtraandGujarat.It is thought that Nahapana ruled at least 35 years in the region ofKarla,JunnarandNasik,giving him ample time for construction work there.

Numerous inscriptions in the caves are known, which were made by the family of Nahapana: six inscriptions inNasik Caves,one inscription atKarla Caves,and one by Nahapana's minister in theManmodi CavesatJunnar.At the same time, "Yavanas",Greeks orIndo-Greeks,also left donative inscriptions at the Nasik Caves, Karla Caves,LenyadriandManmodi Caves.

Great Chaitya hall at Karla Caves

See also:Karla Caves

In particular, thechaityacave complex of the Karla Caves, the largest inSouth Asia,was constructed and dedicated in 120 CE by the Western Satraps ruler Nahapana.

• Great Chaitya hall at Karla
• 
  Hall of the Great Chaitya Cave at Karla (120 CE)
• 
  Right row of columns
• 
  Chaitya roof
• 
  Capitals
• 
  Donative inscription by aYavana( "Indo-Greek") named Vitasamghata.

Cave No.10 of Nasik, the 'Nahapana Vihara'

See also:Nasik CavesandNasik inscription of Ushavadata

Parts of the Nasik Caves, also called Pandavleni Caves, were also carved during the time of Nahapana.

The inscriptions of cave no.10 in the Nasik Caves nearNasik,reveal that in 105-106 CE, Kshatrapas defeated the Satavahanas after which KshatrapaNahapana’s son-in-law and Dinika's son-Ushavadatadonated 3000 gold coins for this cave as well as for the food and clothing of the monks. Usabhdatta's wife (Nahapana's daughter), Dakshmitra also donated one cave for the Buddhist monks. Cave 10 - 'Nahapana Vihara' is spacious with 16 rooms.

• Nasik Caves,cave No. 10
• 
  Front
• 
  Veranda
• 
  Interior
• 
  Chaitya and Umbrellas
• 
  Inscription

Two inscriptions in Cave 10 mention the building and the gift of the whole cave to theSamghabyUshavadata,theSakason-in-law and viceroy of Nahapana:

Nasik Caveinscription No.10. of Nahapana, Cave No.10.

One of the pillars built byUshavadata,viceroy ofNahapana,circa 120 CE,Nasik Caves,cave No10.

Success!Ushavadata,son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, (...) inspired by (true) religion, in the Trirasmi hills atGovardhana,has caused this cave to be made and these cisterns.

— Inscription No.10 of Nahapana,Cave No.10, Nasik

Success! In the year 42, in the month Vesakha,Ushavadata,son of Dinika, son-in-law of king Nahapana, the Kshaharata Kshatrapa, has bestowed this cave on theSamghagenerally....

— Inscription No.12 of Nahapana,Cave No.10, Nasik

According to the inscriptions, Ushavadata accomplished various charities and conquests on behalf of his father-in-law. He constructed rest-houses, gardens and tanks at Bharukachchha (Broach), Dashapura (MandasorinMalva),Govardhana(nearNasik) and Shorparaga (Soparain theThanadistrict).

Junnar dedication

A dedication in theLenyadri complexof theJunnarcaves (inscription No. 26 in Cave VI of the Bhimasankar group of caves), mentions a gift by Nahapana's prime minister Ayama in the "year 46":

The meritorious gift.... of Ayama of the Vachhasagotra, prime minister of the King Mahakshatrapa the lord Nahapana

— Junnar inscription No. 26, 124 CE

This inscription, the last one of the reign of Nahapana, suggests that Nahapana may have become an independent ruler since he is described as a King.

International trade: the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

Nahapana is mentioned in thePeriplus of the Erythraean Seaunder the nameNambanus,as ruler of the area aroundBarigaza:

Beyond thegulf of Baracais that ofBarygazaand the coast of the country ofAriaca,which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is calledAbiria,but the coast is calledSyrastrene.It is a fertile country, yieldingwheatandriceandsesameoil and clarified butter,cottonand the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country isMinnagara,from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41

Nahapana coin hoard.

Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centers ofRoman trade with India.The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged:

There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, alsoLaodiceanandArabian;copper,tin,andlead;coralandtopaz;thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass,realgar,antimony,gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these placesspikenard,costus,bdellium,ivory,agateandcarnelian,lycium,cotton cloth of all kinds,silkcloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town fromEgyptmake the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 49.

The Western Satraps under Nahapana, with their harbour of Barigaza, were among the main actors of the 1st century CE international trade according to thePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Goods were also brought down in quantity fromUjjain,the capital of the Western Satraps:

Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 48.

Some ships were also fitted out from Barigaza, to export goods westward across the Indian Ocean:

Ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across this sea, from Ariaca and Barygaza, bringing to these far-side market-towns the products of their own places; wheat, rice, clarified butter, sesame oil, cotton cloth (the monache and the sagmatogene), and girdles, and honey from the reed called sacchari. Some make the voyage especially to these market-towns, and others exchange their cargoes while sailing along the coast.

— Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 14.

Pompei Lakshmi

An Indian statuette, thePompeii Lakshmi,was found in the ruins ofPompeiand is thought to have been the result ofIndo-Roman trade relationsin the 1st century CE.There is a possibility that the statuette found its way to the west during the rule ofWestern SatrapNahapanain theBhokardanarea, and was shipped toRomefrom the port ofBarigaza.

Defeat by Gautamiputra Satakarni

The "Saka-Yavana-Palhava"(Brahmi script:𑀲𑀓 𑀬𑀯𑀦 𑀧𑀮𑁆𑀳𑀯) defeated byGautamiputra Satakarni,mentioned in theNasik cave3 inscription of Queen Gotami Balasiri (end of line 5 of the inscription).

Coin ofGautamiputra Yajna Satakarnistruck over a drachm of Nahapana. Circa 167-196 CE.Ujjainsymbol and three arched mountain symbol struck respectively on the obverse and reverse of a drachm of Nahapana.

Nahapana and Ushavadata were ultimately defeated by the powerful Satavahana kingGautamiputra Satakarni.Gautamiputra drove the Sakas from Malwa and Western Maharashtra, forcing Nahapana west to Gujarat. His victory is known from the fact that Gautamiputra restruck many of Nahapana's coins (such a hoard was found in Jogalthambi,NashikDistrict),) and that he claimed victory on them in an inscription atCave No. 3of thePandavleni CavesinNashik:

Gautamiputra Satakarni(…) who crushed down the pride and conceit of theKshatriyas;who destroyed theSakas(Western Satraps),Yavanas(Indo-Greeks) andPahlavas(Indo-Parthians),who rooted out the Khakharata family (the Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana race.

— Inscription of Queen Mother Gautami Balashri atCave No. 3of thePandavleni CavesinNashik.

Colonization of Java and Sumatra

It seems that the Indian colonization of the islands ofJavaandSumatratook place during the time of the Western Satraps.People may have fled the sub-continent due to the conflicts there. Some foundation legends of Java describe the leader of the colonists asAji Saka,a prince fromGujarat,at the beginning of theShaka era(which is also the Java era).

Kardamaka dynasty, family of Castana (1st–4th century)

Coin of the Western SatrapChastana(c. 130 CE).Obv:King in profile. The legend typically reads "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA" (corrupted Greek script), transliteration of the PrakritRaño Kshatrapasa Castana:"King and Satrap Castana".

A new dynasty, called the Bhadramukhas or Kardamaka dynasty, was established by the "Satrap"Castana.The date of Castana is not certain, but many believe his reign started in the year 78 CE, thus making him the founder of theSaka era.This is consistent with the fact that his descendants (who we know used the Saka era on their coins and inscriptions) would use the date of their founder as their era. Castana was satrap ofUjjainduring that period. A statue found in Mathura together with statues of theKushankingKanishkaandVima Taktu,and bearing the name "Shastana" is often attributed to Castana himself, and suggests Castana may have been a feudatory of the Kushans. Conversely, theRabatak inscriptionalso claims Kushan dominion over Western Satrap territory (by mentioning Kushan control over the capitalUjjain) during the reign ofKanishka(c. 127–150 CE).

Territory under Chastana

Statue of Chastana, with costume details. The belt displays designs of horsemen andtritons/anguipeds,the coat has a highly ornate hem. Inscription "Shastana" (Middle Brahmi script:Ṣa-sta-na).Mathura Museum.

The territory of the Western Satraps at the time of Chastana is described extensively by the geographerPtolemyin his "Geographia", where he qualifies them as "Indo-Scythians". He describes this territory as starting fromPatalenein the West, toUjjainin the east ( "Ozena-Regia Tiastani", "Ozene/Ujjain, capital of kingChastana"),and beyondBarigazain the south.

Moreover the region which is next to the western part of India, is called Indoscythia. A part of this region around the (Indus) river mouth isPatalena,above which isAbiria.That which is about the mouth of the Indus and the Canthicolpus bay is calledSyrastrena.(...) In the island formed by this river are the cities Pantala,Barbaria.(...) The Larica region of Indoscythia is located eastward from the swamp near the sea, in which on the west of theNamadus riveris the interior city ofBarygazaemporium. On the east side of the river (...)Ozena-Regia Tiastani (...)Minnagara.

— Ptolemy,Geographia,Book Seven, Chapter I

Rudradaman I (130-150 CE)

Victory against the Satavahanas

Silver coin ofRudradaman I(130–150).Obv:Bust of Rudradaman, with corrupted Greek legend "OVONIΛOOCVΛCHΛNO".Rev:Three-arched hill orChaityawith river, crescent and sun.Brahmilegend:Rajno Ksatrapasa Jayadamasaputrasa Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudradamasa:"King and Great Satrap Rudradaman, son of King and SatrapJayadaman"16mm, 2.0 grams.

TheJunagadhrock contains inscriptions ofAshoka(fourteen of theEdicts of Ashoka),Rudradaman I(theJunagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman) andSkandagupta.

Around 130 CE,Rudradaman I,grandson ofChastana,took the title "Mahakshatrapa" ( "Great Satrap" ), and defended his kingdom from theSatavahanas.The conflict between Rudradaman and Satavahanas became so gruelling, that in order to contain the conflict, a matrimonial relationship was concluded by giving Rudradaman's daughter to the Satavahana kingVashishtiputra Satakarni.The inscription relating the marriage between Rudradaman's daughter andVashishtiputra Satakarniappears in a cave atKanheri:

Of the queen... of the illustriousSatakarni Vasishthiputra,descended from the race of Karddamaka kings, (and) daughter of the Mahakshatrapa Ru(dra)................of the confidential minister Sateraka, a water-cistern, the meritorious gift.

— Kanheri inscription of Rudradaman I's daughter.

The Satavahanas and the Western Satraps remained at war however, and Rudradaman I defeated the Satavahanas twice in these conflicts, only sparing the life of Vashishtiputra Satakarni due to their family alliance:

Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord ofDakshinapatha,on account of the nearness of their connection did not destroy him.

— Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman

Rudradaman regained all the previous territories held by Nahapana, probably with the exception of the southern areas ofPoonaandNasik(epigraphical remains in these two areas at that time are exclusively Satavahana):

Rudradaman (...) who is the lord of the whole of eastern and western Akaravanti (Akara:East MalwaandAvanti:West Malwa), theAnupacountry,Anarta,Surashtra,Svabhra (northernGujarat), Maru (Marwar), Kachchha (Cutch),Sindhu-Sauvira(SindhandMultandistricts), Kukura (EasternRajputana),Aparanta( "Western Border" – NorthernKonkan),Nishada(an aboriginal tribe,Malwaand parts ofCentral India) and other territories gained by his own valour, the towns, marts and rural parts of which are never troubled by robbers, snakes, wild beasts, diseases and the like, where all subjects are attached to him, (and) where through his might the objects of (religion), wealth and pleasure (are duly attained).

— Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman.Geographical interpretations in parentheses from Rapson.

Victory against the Yaudheyas

Later, the Junagadh rock inscription (c. 150 CE) ofRudradaman Iacknowledged the military might of theYaudheyas"who would not submit because they were proud of their title 'heroes among the Kshatriyas'", before explaining that they were ultimately vanquished by Rudradaman I.

Rudradaman (...) who by force destroyed the Yaudheyas who were loath to submit, rendered proud as they were by having manifested their title of 'heroes among all Kshatriyas'.

— Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman

Recently discovered pillar inscriptions describe the presence of a Western Satrap namedRupiammain theBhandaradistrict of the area ofVidarbha,in the extreme northeastern area ofMaharashtra,where he erected the pillars.

Rudradarman is known for his sponsoring of the arts. He is known to have written poetry in the purest of Sanskrit, and made it his court language. His name is forever attached to the inscription by Sudharshini lake.

He had at his court a Greek writer namedYavanesvara( "Lord of the Greeks" ), who translated from Greek to Sanskrit theYavanajataka( "Saying of the Greeks" ), an astrological treatise and India's earliest Sanskrit work in horoscopy.

Jivadaman (178-181 CE, 197-198 CE)

A coin dated to the beginning of the first reign ofJivadaman,in the year 100 () of theSaka Era(corresponding to 178 CE).

KingJivadamanbecame king for the centenary of theSaka Era,in the year 100 (corresponding to 178 CE). His reign is otherwise undocumented, but he is the first Western Satrap ruler who started to print the minting date on his coins, using theBrāhmī numeralsof theBrāhmī scriptbehind the king's head.This is of immense value to date precisely Western Satrap rulers, and to clarify perfectly the chronology and succession between them, as they also mention their predecessor on their coins. According to his coins, Jivadaman seems to have ruled two times, once betweenSaka Era100 and 103 (178-181 CE), before the rule ofRudrasimha I,and once between Saka Era 119 and 120 (197-198 CE).

Rudrasimha I (180-197)

Coin of the Western Kshatrapa rulerRudrasimha I(178–197).Obv:Bust of Rudrasimha, with corrupted Greek legend "..OHIIOIH.." (Indo-Greekstyle).Rev:Three-arched hill orChaitya,with river, crescent and sun, withinPrakritlegend inBrahmiscript:

"King and Great Satrap Rudrasimha, son of King and Great SatrapRudradaman".

An inscription ofRudrasimha I(178-197) was recently found at Setkhedi inShajapur district,dated to 107Saka Era,that is 185 CE, confirming the expansion of the Western Satraps to the east at that date.There is also an earlier inscription related to Saka rule inUjjain,as well as a later one, theKanakerha inscription,related to Saka rule in the area ofVidisha,SanchiandEranin the early 4th century.

Great Satrap Rupiamma (2nd century CE)

Main article:Rupiamma

A memorial pillar with an inscription in the name of "Mahakshatrapa KumaraRupiamma"has been recovered inPauniin the central region ofVidharba,and is dated to the 2nd century CE.Although this Great Satrap is not otherwise known from coinage, this memorial pillar is thought to mark the southern extent of the conquests of the Western Satraps, much beyond the traditionally held boundary of theNarmada River.The use of the word "Kumara" may also mean that Rupiamma was the son of a Great Satrap, rather than holding the title himself.

Loss of southern territories to the Satavahanas (end of 2nd century CE)

The south Indian rulerYajna Sri Satakarni(170-199 CE) of theSatavahana dynastydefeated the Western Satraps in the late 2nd century CE, thereby reconquering their southern regions in western and central India, which led to the decline of the Western Satraps.

Yajna Sri Satakarni left inscriptions inNasik Caves,KanheriandGuntur,testifying to the renewed extent of Satavahana territory.There are two inscriptions of Yajna Sri Satakarni atKanheri,in cave No. 81,and in the Chaitya cave No. 3.In theNasik Caves,there is one inscription ofSri Yajna Satakarni,in the 7th year of his reign.

There is a possibility, however, that the areas ofPoonaandNasikhad remained in the hands of the Satavahanas since the time ofGautamiputra Satakarniafter his victory overNahapana,as there are no epigraphical records of the Kardamakas in this area.

Rudrasena II (256–278)

Rudrasena II(256-278 CE). Head right, wearing close-fitting cap / Three-arched hill; group of five pellets to right.

Vidisha/Sanchi

Eran

Ujjain

Barigaza

Devnimori

Nagarjunakonda
(Alliances)

Ajanta
(Viśvasena coinage)

Pauni
(Rupiamma pillar)

class=notpageimage|

Western Satrap territory extended from the west coast ofIndiatoVidisha/SanchiandEran,from the time ofRudrasena II(256–278) well into the 4th century.Marital alliances with theIkshvakuof southern India are mentioned in inscriptions atNagarjunakonda(3rd century CE).

The Kshatrapa dynasty seems to have reached a high level of prosperity under the rule ofRudrasena II(256–278), 19th ruler of Kshatrapa.

A marital alliance between theAndhra Ikshvakuand the Western Satraps seems to have occurred during the time of Rudrasena II, as the Andhra Ikshvaku ruler Māṭharīputra Vīrapuruṣadatta (250-275 CE) seems to have had as one of his wives Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of "the ruler ofUjjain",possibly king Rudrasena II.According to an inscription at Nagarjunakonda, Iksvaku king Virapurushadatta had multiple wives,including Rudradhara-bhattarika, the daughter of the ruler ofUjjain(Uj(e)nika mahara(ja) balika).

The region ofSanchi-Vidishawas again captured from the Satavahanas during the rule of Rudrasena II (255-278 CE), as shown by finds of Rudrasena II's coinage in the area.The region would then remain under Western Satrap rule until the 4th century CE, as attested by theKanakerha inscription.

The last Kshatrapa ruler of the Chastana family wasVisvasena(Vishwasen, r.293–304 CE), brother and successor toBhartrdamanand son of Rudrasena II. A coin of Visvasena was found in excavations at theAjanta Caves,in the burnt-brick monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the riverWaghora.

Rudrasimha II dynasty (c. 304–396 CE)

Head of Buddha Shakyamuni,Devnimori,Gujarat(375-400). Derived from theGreco-Buddhist artofGandhara,an example of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.

A new family took over, started by the rule ofRudrasimha II(r. 304–348 CE). He declared on his coins to be the son of a Lord (Svami) Jivadaman.His rule is partly coeval with that of other rulers, who were his sons as written on their coins and may have been sub-kings:Yasodaman II(r. 317–332 CE) andRudradaman II(r. 332–348 CE).

Contributions to Buddhism

Under Rudrasimha II, the Western Satraps are known to have maintained their presence in theCentral Indianareas ofVidisha/Sanchi/Eranwell into the 4th century: during his rule, in 319 CE, a Saka ruler inscribed theKanakerha inscription,on the hill ofSanchimentioning the construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" (dharmaviyagi mahadandanayaka)Sridharavarman(339-368 CE).Another inscription of the same Sridhavarman with his military commander is known fromEran.These inscriptions point to the extent of Saka rule as of the time of Rudrasimha II.

The construction of Buddhist monuments in the area ofGujaratduring the later part of Western Satrap rule is attested with the site ofDevnimori,which incorporatesviharasand astupa.Coins of Rudrasimha were found inside theBuddhiststupaof Devnimori.The Buddha images in Devnimori clearly show the influence of theGreco-Buddhist artofGandhara,and have been described as examples of the Western Indian art of the Western Satraps.It has been suggested that the art of Devnimori represented a Western Indian artistic tradition that was anterior to the rise ofGupta Empireart, and that it may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of theAjanta Caves,Sarnathand other places from the 5th century onward.

Overall, the Western Satraps may have played a role in the transmission of theart of Gandharato the westernDeccanregion.

Sasanian expansion in the northwest

Location of theSasanian coinage of Sindh,circa 400 CE, in relation with the other polities of the time.

After a period of control of the areas as far asGandharaby theKushano-Sasanians,theSasanian Empirefurther expanded into the northwest of the subcontinent, particularly in the regions of Gandhara andPunjab,from the time ofShapur IIcirca 350 CE.Further south, as far as the mouth of theIndus river,the Sasanians exerted some sort of control or influence, as suggested by theSasanian coinage of Sindh.It is probable that the Sasanian expansion in India, which put an end to the remnants ofKushanrule, was also made in part at the expense of the Western Satraps.

Conquered by the Guptas (c. 335–415 CE)

Main articles:Gupta EmpireandGupta-Saka Wars

Central India conquered bySamudragupta(r. 336–380 CE)

The Central Indian region aroundVidisha/SanchiandEranhad been occupied by a Saka ruler namedSridharavarman,who his known from theKanakerha inscriptionat Sanchi, and another inscription with his Naga general at Eran.AtEran,it seems that Sridharavarman's inscription is succeeded by a monument and an inscription byGupta EmpireSamudragupta(r.336-380 CE), established "for the sake of augmenting his fame", who may therefore have ousted Sridharavarman's Sakas in his campaigns to the West.Sridharavarman is probably the "Saka" ruler mentioned in theAllahabad pillarinscription of Samudragupta, as having "paid homage" to the Gupta Emperor,forced to "self-surrender, offering (their own) daughters in marriage and a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces".

Gujarat campaign ofRamagupta

Coin of the last Western Satrap rulerRudrasimha III(388–395).

Rudrasimha IIIseems to have been the last of the Western Satrap rulers.A fragment from theNatya-darpanamentions that theGuptakingRamagupta,the elder brother ofChandragupta II,decided to expand his kingdom by attacking the Western Satraps inGujarat.

The campaign soon took a turn for the worse and the Gupta army was trapped. The Saka king, Rudrasimha III, demanded that Ramagupta hand over his wife Dhruvadevi in exchange for peace. To avoid the ignominy, the Guptas decided to send Madhavasena, a courtesan and a beloved of Chandragupta, disguised as the queen. However, Chandragupta changed the plan and himself went to the Saka King disguised as the queen. He then killed Rudrasimha and later his own brother, Ramagupta. Dhruvadevi was then married to Chandragupta.

Conquests ofChandragupta II(r. 380–415 CE)

The victoriousSanchi inscription of Chandragupta II(412-413 CE).

The Western Satraps were eventually conquered by emperor Chandragupta II. Inscriptions of a victoriousChandragupta IIin the year 412-413 CE can be found on the railing near the Eastern Gateway of the Great Stupa inSanchi.

The glorious Candragupta (II), (...) who proclaims in the world the good behaviour of the excellent people, namely, the dependents (of the king), and who has acquired banners of victory and fame in many battles

— Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II,412-413 CE.

The Gupta rulerSkandagupta(455-467 CE) is known for a long inscription where he describes himself as "the ruler of the earth" on a large rock atJunagadh,inGujarat,next to the older inscriptions ofAshokaandRudradaman I,confirming the Gupta hold on the western regions.

Following these conquests, the silver coins of the Gupta kingsChandragupta IIand his sonKumaragupta Iadopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from theIndo-Greeks) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle (Garuda,the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing thechaityahill with star and crescent on the reverse.

• Gupta Empire coins on the model of the Western Satraps
• 
  Coin of Gupta rulerChandragupta II(r.380–415) in the style of the Western Satraps.
• 
  Coin of Gupta rulerKumaragupta I(r.414–455) (Western territories).
• 
  Coin of Gupta rulerSkandagupta(r.455-467), in the style of the Western Satraps.

The campaigns of Chandragupta II brought an end to nearly four centuries of Saka rule on the subcontinent. This period also corresponds to the wane of the very lastKushanrulers in thePunjaband the arrival of theKidarite Huns,the firstHunainvaders from the steppes ofCentral Asia.Less than a century later, theAlchon Hunsin turn invaded northern India, bringing an end to theGupta Empireand the Classical period of India.

Coinage

The Kshatrapas have a very rich and interesting coinage. It was based on the coinage of the earlierIndo-GreekKings, with Greek or pseudo-Greek legend and stylized profiles of royal busts on the obverse. The reverse of the coins, however, is original and typically depict a thunderbolt and an arrow, and later, a chaitya or three-arched hill and river symbol with a crescent and the sun, within a legend in Brahmi. These coins are very informative, since they record the name of the King, of his father, and the date of issue, and have helped clarify the early history of India.

Regnal dates

Coin ofDamasena.The minting date, here 153 (100-50-3 inBrahmi script numerals) of theSaka era,therefore 232 CE, clearly appears behind the head of the king.

From the reigns ofJivadamanandRudrasimha I,the date of minting of each coin, reckoned in theSaka era,is usually written on the obverse behind the king's head inBrahmi numerals,allowing for a quite precise datation of the rule of each king.This is a rather uncommon case in Indian numismatics. Some, such as the numismat R.C Senior considered that these dates might correspond to the much earlierAzes erainstead.

Also the father of each king is systematically mentioned in the reverse legends, which allows reconstruction of the regnal succession.

Languages

Kharoshthi,a script in use in more northern territories (area ofGandhara), is employed together with theBrahmiscript and theGreekscript on the first coins of the Western Satraps, but is finally abandoned from the time ofChastana.From that time, only the Brahmi script would remain, together with the pseudo-Greek script on the facing, to write thePrakritlanguage employed by the Western satraps. Occasionally, the legends are inSanskritinstead.

The coins ofNahapanabear the Greek script legend "PANNIΩ IAHAPATAC NAHAΠANAC", transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshaharatasa Nahapanasa": "In the reign of Kshaharata Nahapana". The coins ofCastanaalso have a readable legend "PANNIΩ IATPAΠAC CIASTANCA", transliteration of the Prakrit "Raño Kshatrapasa Castana": "In the reign of the Satrap Castana". After these two rulers, the legend in Greek script becomes denaturated, and seems to lose all signification, only retaining an aesthetic value. By the 4th century, the coins ofRudrasimha IIexhibit the following type of meaningless legend in corrupted Greek script: "...ΛIOΛVICIVIIIΛ...".

Influences

An imitation of Western Satrap coinage: silver coin of kingDahrasena(c. 415–455 CE), of theTraikutaka dynasty.

The coins of the Kshatrapas were also very influential and imitated by neighbouring or later dynasties, such as the Satavahanas, and theGuptas.Silver coins of the Gupta kingsChandragupta IIand his sonKumaragupta Iadopted the Western Satrap design (itself derived from theIndo-Greeks) with bust of the ruler and pseudo-Greek inscription on the obverse, and a royal eagle (Garuda,the dynastic symbol of the Guptas) replacing thechaityahill with star and crescent on the reverse.

The Western Satrap coin design was also adopted by the subsequent dynasty of theTraikutakas(388–456) or theMaitrakas(475–776).

Monuments

Sudarshan Lake of the Satrap period is mentioned in major rock edicts ofJunagadhbut no trace of it remains. Six inscription-stones calledLashtis of 1st century were recovered from a hillock near Andhau village in the Khavda region ofKutchand were moved to theKutch MuseuminBhuj.They are the earliest dated monuments of the Satrap period and were erected in the time of Rudradaman I.

The large number of stone inscriptions from Kutch and Saurastra as well as hundreds of coins throughout Gujarat are found belonging to the Satrap period. The earlier caves atSana,Junagadh,Dhank,Talaja,Sidhasar, Prabhas Patan and Ranapar in the Barada Hills are mostly plain and austere in looks except some carvings in theBava Pyara Cavesof Junagadh. They are comparable to Andhra-Satrap period caves in Deccan. As they have almost no carvings, the determination of their date and chronology is difficult. TheUparkot Cavesof Junagadh and theKhambhalida Cavesbelong to the later years of the Satraps.Thestupasexcavated at Boria and Intwa near Junagadh belonged to the Satrap period. Thestupaexcavated at Shamlaji probably belonged to this period or to the Gupta period.

Contribution to Sanskrit epigraphy

The inscription ofUshavadata,son-in-law ofNahapana,runs the length of the entrance wall of one of the Nasik caves, over the doors, and is here visible in parts between the pillars. Actual image, and corresponding rubbing. Cave No.10,Nasik Caves.

Main article:Sanskrit

In what has been described as "the great linguisticalparadoxof India ",Sanskritinscriptions first appeared much later thanPrakritinscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influentialEdicts of Ashoka(circa 250 BCE).

Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of theIndo-Scythianrulers, either theNorthern SatrapsaroundMathurafor the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely related Western Satraps in western and central India.It is thought that they became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture: according to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".

TheJunagadh rock inscription,inscribed byRudradaman Icirca 150 CE, is "the first long inscription recorded entirely in more or less standard Sanskrit".

In western India, the first known inscription in Sanskrit appears to have been made byUshavadata,son-in-law of the Western Satrap rulerNahapana,at the front of Cave no.10 in theNasik Caves.The inscription dates to the early 2nd century CE, and has hybrid features.

Scythian warriors

"Scythian"soldier,NagarjunakondaPalace site, circa 2nd century CE.

TheJunagadh rock inscriptionof Western Satraps rulerRudradaman I(c. 150 AD,Gujarat) is the first long inscription in fairly standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon, being "the first extensive record in the poetic style" in "more or less standard Sanskrit".The Rudradaman inscription is "not pure classical Sanskrit", but with few epic-vernacular Sanskrit exceptions, it approaches high classical Sanskrit.It is important because it is likely the prototype of the extensive Sanskrit inscriptions of theGupta Empireera.These inscriptions are also in theBrāhmīscript. During the reign of Rudradaman, circa 150 CE, it is also known that the Greek writerYavanesvaratranslated theYavanajatakafrom Greek to Sanskrit, for "the use of those who could not speak Greek", a translation which became an authority for all later astrology works in India.

The spread of the usage of Sanskrit inscriptions to the south can also probably be attributed to the influence of the Western Satraps, who were in close relation with southern Indian rulers: according to Salomon "aNagarjunakondamemorial pillar inscription of the time of KingRudrapurusadattaattests to a marital alliance between the Western Ksatrapas and theIksvakurulers of Nagarjunakonda ".TheNagarjunakondainscriptions are the earliest substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd-century to early 4th-century CE. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and to theShaivismtradition of Hinduism, and parts of them reflect both standard Sanskrit and hybridized Sanskrit.An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd-century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism.After the 3rd-century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived.

Possible vassalage to the Kushans

Statue of Chastana
Mathura Museum

Inscribed statue of Saka King Chastana, with inscription "Shastana" (Middle Brahmi script:Sha-sta-na).Kushan period.

It is still unclear whether the Western Satraps were independent rulers or vassals of theKushan Empire(30–375 CE). The continued use of the word "Satrap"on their coin would suggest a recognized subjection to a higher ruler, possibly the Kushan emperor.

The Western Satraps (orange) and theKushan Empire(green), in the 2nd century CE

Also, a statue ofChastanawas found inMathuraat the Temple of Mat together with the famous statues ofVima KadphisesandKanishka.The statue has the inscription "Shastana" (Middle Brahmi script:Sha-sta-na).This also would suggest at least alliance and friendship, if not vassalage. Finally Kanishka claims in theRabatak inscriptionthat his power extends toUjjain,the classical capital of the Western Satrap realm. This combined with the presence of the Chastana statue side by side with Kanishka would also suggest Kushan alliance with the Western Satraps.

Finally, following the period of the "Northern Satraps"who ruled in the area ofMathura,the "Great Satrap"Kharapallanaand the "Satrap"Vanasparaare known from an inscription inSarnathto have been feudatories of the Kushans.

Generally, the position taken by modern scholarship is that the Western Satraps were vassals of the Kushans, at least in the early period untilRudradaman Iconquered theYaudheyas,who are usually thought to be Kushan vassals. The question is not considered perfectly settled.

List of rulers

Main article:List of Indo-Scythian dynasties and rulers

Family tree

Genealogical table of the Western Satraps

See also

• History of India
• Indo-Greek Kingdom
• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthians
• Kushan Empire
• Rulers of Malwa

References

• Rapson, "A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc."
• John Rosenfield, "The dynastic art of the Kushans", 1976
• Claudius Ptolemy, "The geography", Translated and edited by Edward Luther Stevenson, Dover Publications Inc., New York,ISBN0-486-26896-9

Sources

• Salomon, Richard (1998).Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-509984-3.
• K. Krishna Murthy (1977).Nāgārjunakoṇḍā: A Cultural Study.Concept.OCLC4541213.

External links

• [3]History of the Andhras, Prasad 1988 With many references to Western Satrap rule
• Online catalogue of Western Kshatrapa coins
• Coins of the Western Kshatrapas
• The Kshatrapas in Nasik
• The Origins of the Indian Coinage TraditionatAcademia.edu