New Orleans[a] (commonly known as NOLA or The Big Easy among other nicknames) is a consolidated city-parish located along the Mississippi River in the southeastern region of the U.S. state of Louisiana. With a population of 383,997 according to the 2020 U.S. census,[8] it is the most populous city in Louisiana and the French Louisiana region;[9] the third-most populous city in the Deep South; and the twelfth-most populous city in the southeastern United States. Serving as a major port, New Orleans is considered an economic and commercial hub for the broader Gulf Coast region of the United States.
New Orleans
La Nouvelle-Orléans (French) Nouvèl Orleans (Louisiana Creole) | |
|---|---|
 Logo | |
| Nicknames: "The Crescent City", "The Big Easy", "The City That Care Forgot", "NOLA", "The City of Yes", "Hollywood South", "The Creole City" | |
 Interactive map of New Orleans | |
  New Orleans Location in Louisiana  New Orleans Location in the United States | |
| Coordinates: 29°58′34″N 90°4′42″W / 29.97611°N 90.07833°W | |
| Country | United States |
| State | Louisiana |
| Parish | Orleans (coterminous) |
| Founded | 1718 |
| Founded by | Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville |
| Named for | Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (1674–1723) |
| Government | |
| • Type | Mayor–council |
| • Mayor | LaToya Cantrell (D) |
| • Council | New Orleans City Council |
| Area | |
| 349.85 sq mi (906.10 km2) | |
| • Land | 169.42 sq mi (438.80 km2) |
| • Water | 180.43 sq mi (467.30 km2) |
| • Metro | 3,755.2 sq mi (9,726.6 km2) |
| Elevation | −6.5 to 20 ft (−2 to 6 m) |
| Population | |
| 383,997 | |
| • Density | 2,267/sq mi (875/km2) |
| • Urban | 963,212 (US: 49th) |
| • Urban density | 3,563.8/sq mi (1,376.0/km2) |
| • Metro | 1,270,530 (US: 45th) |
| Demonym | New Orleanian |
| GDP | |
| • Consolidated city-parish | $27.333 billion (2022) |
| • Metro | $94.031 billion (2022) |
| Time zone | UTC−6 (CST) |
| • Summer (DST) | UTC−5 (CDT) |
| Area code | 504 |
| FIPS code | 22-55000 |
| GNIS feature ID | 1629985 |
| Website | nola |
New Orleans is world-renowned for its distinctive music, Creole cuisine, unique dialects, and its annual celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The historic heart of the city is the French Quarter, known for its French and Spanish Creole architecture and vibrant nightlife along Bourbon Street. The city has been described as the "most unique" in the United States,[10][11][12][13] owing in large part to its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage.[14] Additionally, New Orleans has increasingly been known as "Hollywood South" due to its prominent role in the film industry and in pop culture.[15][16]
Founded in 1718 by French colonists, New Orleans was once the territorial capital of French Louisiana before becoming part of the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. New Orleans in 1840 was the third most populous city in the United States,[17] and it was the largest city in the American South from the Antebellum era until after World War II. The city has historically been very vulnerable to flooding, due to its high rainfall, low lying elevation, poor natural drainage, and proximity to multiple bodies of water. State and federal authorities have installed a complex system of levees and drainage pumps in an effort to protect the city.[18][19]
New Orleans was severely affected by Hurricane Katrina in late August 2005, which flooded more than 80% of the city, killed more than 1,800 people, and displaced thousands of residents, causing a population decline of over 50%.[20] Since Katrina, major redevelopment efforts have led to a rebound in the city's population. Concerns have been expressed about gentrification, new residents buying property in formerly close-knit communities, and displacement of longtime residents.[21][22][23][24] Additionally, high rates of violent crime continue to plague the city with New Orleans experiencing 280 murders in 2022, resulting in the highest per capita homicide rate in the United States.[25][26]
The city and Orleans Parish (French: paroisse d'Orléans) are coterminous.[27] As of 2017, Orleans Parish is the third most populous parish in Louisiana, behind East Baton Rouge Parish and neighboring Jefferson Parish.[28] The city and parish are bounded by St. Tammany Parish and Lake Pontchartrain to the north, St. Bernard Parish and Lake Borgne to the east, Plaquemines Parish to the south, and Jefferson Parish to the south and west.
The city anchors the larger Greater New Orleans metropolitan area, which had a population of 1,271,845 in 2020.[29] Greater New Orleans is the most populous metropolitan statistical area (MSA) in Louisiana and, since the 2020 census, has been the 46th most populous MSA in the United States.[30]
Etymology and nicknames
Before the arrival of European colonists, the indigenous Choctaw people called the area of present-day New Orleans Bulbancha, which translates as "land of many tongues".[31][32] It appears to have been a contraction of balbáha a̱shah, which means "there are foreign speakers". In his book Histoire de la Louisiane, Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz wrote that the indigenous name referred to the Mississippi River and that the use of the same name for the settlement relates to Native American concepts of the close interaction between rivers and their surrounding land.[33]
The name of New Orleans derives from the original French name, La Nouvelle-Orléans, which was given to the city in honor of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who served as Louis XV's regent from 1715 to 1723.[34] The French city of Orléans itself is named after the Roman emperor Aurelian, originally being known as Aurelianum. Thus, by extension, since New Orleans is also named after Aurelian, its name in Latin would translate to Nova Aurelia.
Following the defeat in the Seven Years' War, France formally transferred the possession of Louisiana to Spain, with which France had secretly signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau a year earlier, in the Treaty of Paris of 1763. The Spanish renamed the city Nueva Orleans (pronounced [ˌnweβa oɾleˈans]), which was used until 1800.[35] The United States, which had acquired possession from France in 1803, adopted the French name and anglicized it to New Orleans.
New Orleans has several nicknames, including these:
- Crescent City, alluding to the course of the Lower Mississippi River around and through the city.[36]
- The Big Easy, possibly a reference by musicians in the early 20th century to the relative ease of finding work there.[37][38]
- The City that Care Forgot, used since at least 1938,[39] referring to the outwardly easygoing, carefree nature of the residents.[38]
- NOLA, the acronym for New Orleans, Louisiana.
History
French–Spanish colonial era
La Nouvelle-Orléans (New Orleans) was founded in the spring of 1718 (May 7 has become the traditional date to mark the anniversary, but the actual day is unknown)[40] by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was regent of the Kingdom of France at the time.[34] His title came from the French city of Orléans.
As a French colony, Louisiana faced struggles with numerous Native American tribes, who were navigating the competing interests of France, Spain, and England, as well as traditional rivals. Notably, the Natchez, whose traditional lands were along the Mississippi near the modern city of Natchez, Mississippi, had a series of wars culminating in the Natchez Revolt that began in 1729 with the Natchez overrunning Fort Rosalie. Approximately 230 French colonists were killed and the Natchez settlement destroyed, causing fear and concern in New Orleans and the rest of the territory.[41] In retaliation, then-governor Étienne Perier launched a campaign to completely destroy the Natchez nation and its Native allies.[42] By 1731, the Natchez people had been killed, enslaved, or dispersed among other tribes, but the campaign soured relations between France and the territory's Native Americans leading directly into the Chickasaw Wars of the 1730s.[43]
Relations with Louisiana's Native American population remained a concern into the 1740s for governor Marquis de Vaudreuil. In the early 1740s traders from the Thirteen Colonies crossed into the Appalachian Mountains. The Native American tribes would now operate dependent on which of various European colonists would most benefit them. Several of these tribes and especially the Chickasaw and Choctaw would trade goods and gifts for their loyalty.[44] The economic issue in the colony, which continued under Vaudreuil, resulted in many raids by Native American tribes, taking advantage of the French weakness. In 1747 and 1748, the Chickasaw would raid along the east bank of the Mississippi all the way south to Baton Rouge. These raids would often force residents of French Louisiana to take refuge in New Orleans proper.[citation needed]
Inability to find labor was the most pressing issue in the young colony. The colonists turned to sub-Saharan African slaves to make their investments in Louisiana profitable. In the late 1710s the transatlantic slave trade imported enslaved Africans into the colony. This led to the biggest shipment in 1716 where several trading ships appeared with slaves as cargo to the local residents in a one-year span. By 1724, the large number of blacks in Louisiana prompted the institutionalizing of laws governing slavery within the colony.[45] These laws required that slaves be baptized in the Roman Catholic faith, slaves be married in the church; the slave law formed in the 1720s is known as the Code Noir, which would bleed into the antebellum period of the American South as well. Louisiana slave culture had its own distinct Afro-Creole society that called on past cultures and the situation for slaves in the New World. Afro-Creole was present in religious beliefs and the Louisiana Creole language. The religion most associated with this period was called Voodoo.[46][47]
In the city of New Orleans an inspiring mixture of foreign influences created a melting pot of culture that is still celebrated today. By the end of French colonization in Louisiana, New Orleans was recognized commercially in the Atlantic world. Its inhabitants traded across the French commercial system. New Orleans was a hub for this trade both physically and culturally because it served as the exit point to the rest of the globe for the interior of the North American continent. In one instance the French government established a chapter house of sisters in New Orleans. The Ursuline sisters after being sponsored by the Company of the Indies, founded a convent in the city in 1727.[48] At the end of the colonial era, the Ursuline Academy maintained a house of 70 boarding and 100 day students. Today numerous schools in New Orleans can trace their lineage from this academy.[citation needed]
Another notable example is the street plan and architecture still distinguishing New Orleans today. French Louisiana had early architects in the province who were trained as military engineers and were now assigned to design government buildings. Pierre Le Blond de Tour and Adrien de Pauger, for example, planned many early fortifications, along with the street plan for the city of New Orleans.[49] After them in the 1740s, Ignace François Broutin, as engineer-in-chief of Louisiana, reworked the architecture of New Orleans with an extensive public works program. French policy-makers in Paris attempted to set political and economic norms for New Orleans. The city acted autonomously in much of its cultural and physical aspects, but stayed in communication with the foreign trends as well.[citation needed]
The French colony of Louisiana was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, following France's defeat by Great Britain in the Seven Years' War. After the French relinquished West Louisiana to the Spanish, New Orleans merchants attempted to ignore Spanish rule and even re-institute French control on the colony. The citizens of New Orleans held a series of public meetings during 1765 to keep the populace in opposition of the establishment of Spanish rule. Anti-Spanish passions in New Orleans reached their highest level after two years of Spanish administration in Louisiana. On October 27, 1768, a mob of local residents, spiked the guns guarding New Orleans and took control of the city from the Spanish.[50] The rebellion organized a group to sail for Paris, where it met with officials of the French government. This group brought with them a long memorial to summarize the abuses the colony had endured from the Spanish. King Louis XV and his ministers reaffirmed Spain's sovereignty over Louisiana.[51] Nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré (French Quarter) dates from the Spanish period, notably excepting the Old Ursuline Convent.[52]
During the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the American revolutionaries, and transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Beginning in the 1760s, Filipinos began to settle in and around New Orleans.[53] Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully directed a southern campaign against the British from the city in 1779.[54]
United States territorial era
The Third Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800 restored French control of New Orleans and Louisiana, but Napoleon sold both to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803.[55] Thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, Poles and Italians. Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on nearby large plantations.
Between 1791 and 1810, thousands of St. Dominican refugees from the Haitian Revolution, both whites and free people of color (affranchis or gens de couleur libres), arrived in New Orleans; a number brought their slaves with them, many of whom were native Africans or of full-blood descent.[56] While Governor Claiborne and other officials wanted to keep out additional free black people, the French Creoles wanted to increase the French-speaking population. In addition to bolstering the territory's French-speaking population, these refugees had a significant impact on the culture of Louisiana, including developing its sugar industry and cultural institutions.[57]
As more refugees were allowed into the Territory of Orleans, St. Dominican refugees who had first gone to Cuba also arrived.[58] Many of the white Francophones had been deported by officials in Cuba in 1809 as retaliation for Bonapartist schemes.[59] Nearly 90 percent of these immigrants settled in New Orleans. The 1809 migration brought 2,731 whites, 3,102 free people of color (of mixed-race European and African descent), and 3,226 slaves of primarily African descent, doubling the city's population. The city became 63 percent black, a greater proportion than Charleston, South Carolina's 53 percent at that time.[58]
Slave rebellion
On January 8-11, 1811, about 500 enslaved Africans in St. Charles and St. John the Baptist parishes rose up in rebellion against their enslavers, killing two white men in the process. They proceeded to march south toward New Orleans and were eventually controlled by the local militia, with numerous casualties on both sides. The uprising has been called the "largest slave rebellion in US history."[60]
Battle of New Orleans
During the final campaign of the War of 1812, the British sent a force of 11,000 in an attempt to capture New Orleans. Despite great challenges, General Andrew Jackson, with support from the U.S. Navy, successfully cobbled together a force of militia from Louisiana and Mississippi, U.S. Army regulars, a large contingent of Tennessee state militia, Kentucky frontiersmen and local privateers (the latter led by the pirate Jean Lafitte), to decisively defeat the British, led by Sir Edward Pakenham, in the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815.[62]
The armies had not learned of the Treaty of Ghent, which had been signed on December 24, 1814 (however, the treaty did not call for cessation of hostilities until after both governments had ratified it. The U.S. government ratified it on February 16, 1815). The fighting in Louisiana began in December 1814 and did not end until late January, after the Americans held off the Royal Navy during a ten-day siege of Fort St. Philip (the Royal Navy went on to capture Fort Bowyer near Mobile, before the commanders received news of the peace treaty).[62]
Port
As a port, New Orleans played a major role during the antebellum period in the Atlantic slave trade. The port handled commodities for export from the interior and imported goods from other countries, which were warehoused and transferred in New Orleans to smaller vessels and distributed along the Mississippi River watershed. The river was filled with steamboats, flatboats and sailing ships. Despite its role in the slave trade, New Orleans at the time also had the largest and most prosperous community of free persons of color in the nation, who were often educated, middle-class property owners.[63][64]
Dwarfing the other cities in the Antebellum South, New Orleans had the U.S.' largest slave market. The market expanded after the United States ended the international trade in 1808. Two-thirds of the more than one million slaves brought to the Deep South arrived via forced migration in the domestic slave trade. The money generated by the sale of slaves in the Upper South has been estimated at 15 percent of the value of the staple crop economy. The slaves were collectively valued at half a billion dollars. The trade spawned an ancillary economy—transportation, housing and clothing, fees, etc., estimated at 13.5 percent of the price per person, amounting to tens of billions of dollars (2005 dollars, adjusted for inflation) during the antebellum period, with New Orleans as a prime beneficiary.[65]
According to historian Paul Lachance,
the addition of white immigrants [from Saint-Domingue] to the white creole population enabled French-speakers to remain a majority of the white population until almost 1830. If a substantial proportion of free persons of color and slaves had not also spoken French, however, the Gallic community would have become a minority of the total population as early as 1820.[66]
After the Louisiana Purchase, numerous Anglo-Americans migrated to the city. The population doubled in the 1830s and by 1840, New Orleans had become the nation's wealthiest and the third-most populous city, after New York and Baltimore.[67] German and Irish immigrants began arriving in the 1840s, working as port laborers. In this period, the state legislature passed more restrictions on manumissions of slaves and virtually ended it in 1852.[68]
In the 1850s, white Francophones remained an intact and vibrant community in New Orleans. They maintained instruction in French in two of the city's four school districts (all served white students).[69] In 1860, the city had 13,000 free people of color (gens de couleur libres), the class of free, mostly mixed-race people that expanded in number during French and Spanish rule. They set up some private schools for their children. The census recorded 81 percent of the free people of color as mulatto, a term used to cover all degrees of mixed race.[68][page needed] Mostly part of the Francophone group, they constituted the artisan, educated and professional class of African Americans. The mass of blacks were still enslaved, working at the port, in domestic service, in crafts, and mostly on the many large, surrounding sugarcane plantations.
Throughout New Orleans' history, until the early 20th century when medical and scientific advances ameliorated the situation, the city suffered repeated epidemics of yellow fever and other tropical and infectious diseases.[70] In the first half of the 19th century, yellow fever epidemics killed over 150,000 people in New Orleans.[71]
After growing by 45 percent in the 1850s, by 1860, the city had nearly 170,000 people.[72] It had grown in wealth, with a "per capita income [that] was second in the nation and the highest in the South."[72] The city had a role as the "primary commercial gateway for the nation's booming midsection."[72] The port was the nation's third largest in terms of tonnage of imported goods, after Boston and New York, handling 659,000 tons in 1859.[72]
Civil War–Reconstruction era
As the Creole elite feared, the American Civil War changed their world. In April 1862, following the city's occupation by the Union Navy after the Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, Gen. Benjamin F. Butler – a respected Massachusetts lawyer serving in that state's militia – was appointed military governor. New Orleans residents supportive of the Confederacy nicknamed him "Beast" Butler, because of an order he issued. After his troops had been assaulted and harassed in the streets by women still loyal to the Confederate cause, his order warned that such future occurrences would result in his men treating such women as those "plying their avocation in the streets", implying that they would treat the women like prostitutes. Accounts of this spread widely. He also came to be called "Spoons" Butler because of the alleged looting that his troops did while occupying the city, during which time he himself supposedly pilfered silver flatware.[73]
Significantly, Butler abolished French-language instruction in city schools. Statewide measures in 1864 and, after the war, 1868 further strengthened the English-only policy imposed by federal representatives. With the predominance of English speakers, that language had already become dominant in business and government.[69] By the end of the 19th century, French usage had faded. It was also under pressure from Irish, Italian and German immigrants.[74] However, as late as 1902 "one-fourth of the population of the city spoke French in ordinary daily intercourse, while another two-fourths was able to understand the language perfectly,"[75] and as late as 1945, many elderly Creole women spoke no English.[76] The last major French language newspaper, L'Abeille de la Nouvelle-Orléans (New Orleans Bee), ceased publication on December 27, 1923, after 96 years.[77] According to some sources, Le Courrier de la Nouvelle Orleans continued until 1955.[78]
As the city was captured and occupied early in the war, it was spared the destruction through warfare suffered by many other cities of the American South. The Union Army eventually extended its control north along the Mississippi River and along the coastal areas. As a result, most of the southern portion of Louisiana was originally exempted from the liberating provisions of the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation issued by President Abraham Lincoln. Large numbers of rural ex-slaves and some free people of color from the city volunteered for the first regiments of Black troops in the War. Led by Brigadier General Daniel Ullman (1810–1892), of the 78th Regiment of New York State Volunteers Militia, they were known as the "Corps d'Afrique". While that name had been used by a militia before the war, that group was composed of free people of color. The new group was made up mostly of former slaves. They were supplemented in the last two years of the War by newly organized United States Colored Troops, who played an increasingly important part in the war.[79]
Violence throughout the South, especially the Memphis Riots of 1866 followed by the New Orleans Riot in the same year, led Congress to pass the Reconstruction Act and the Fourteenth Amendment, extending the protections of full citizenship to freedmen and free people of color. Louisiana and Texas were put under the authority of the "Fifth Military District" of the United States during Reconstruction. Louisiana was readmitted to the Union in 1868. Its Constitution of 1868 granted universal male suffrage and established universal public education. Both blacks and whites were elected to local and state offices. In 1872, lieutenant governor P.B.S. Pinchback, who was of mixed race, succeeded Henry Clay Warmouth for a brief period as Republican governor of Louisiana, becoming the first governor of African descent of a U.S. state (the next African American to serve as governor of a U.S. state was Douglas Wilder, elected in Virginia in 1989). New Orleans operated a racially integrated public school system during this period.
Wartime damage to levees and cities along the Mississippi River adversely affected southern crops and trade. The federal government contributed to restoring infrastructure. The nationwide financial recession and Panic of 1873 adversely affected businesses and slowed economic recovery.
From 1868, elections in Louisiana were marked by violence, as white insurgents tried to suppress black voting and disrupt Republican Party gatherings. The disputed 1872 gubernatorial election resulted in conflicts that ran for years. The "White League", an insurgent paramilitary group that supported the Democratic Party, was organized in 1874 and operated in the open, violently suppressing the black vote and running off Republican officeholders. In 1874, in the Battle of Liberty Place, 5,000 members of the White League fought with city police to take over the state offices for the Democratic candidate for governor, holding them for three days. By 1876, such tactics resulted in the white Democrats, the so-called Redeemers, regaining political control of the state legislature. The federal government gave up and withdrew its troops in 1877, ending Reconstruction.
In 1892 the racially integrated unions of New Orleans led a general strike in the city from November 8 to 12, shutting down the city & winning the vast majority of their demands.[80][81]
Jim Crow era
Dixiecrats passed Jim Crow laws, establishing racial segregation in public facilities. In 1889, the legislature passed a constitutional amendment incorporating a "grandfather clause" that effectively disfranchised freedmen as well as the propertied people of color manumitted before the war. Unable to vote, African Americans could not serve on juries or in local office, and were closed out of formal politics for generations. The Southern U.S. was ruled by a white Democratic Party. Public schools were racially segregated and remained so until 1960.
New Orleans' large community of well-educated, often French-speaking free persons of color (gens de couleur libres), who had been free prior to the Civil War, fought against Jim Crow. They organized the Comité des Citoyens (Citizens Committee) to work for civil rights. As part of their legal campaign, they recruited one of their own, Homer Plessy, to test whether Louisiana's newly enacted Separate Car Act was constitutional. Plessy boarded a commuter train departing New Orleans for Covington, Louisiana, sat in the car reserved for whites only, and was arrested. The case resulting from this incident, Plessy v. Ferguson, was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1896. The court ruled that "separate but equal" accommodations were constitutional, effectively upholding Jim Crow measures.
In practice, African American public schools and facilities were underfunded across the South. The Supreme Court ruling contributed to this period as the nadir of race relations in the United States. The rate of lynchings of black men was high across the South, as other states also disfranchised blacks and sought to impose Jim Crow. Nativist prejudices also surfaced. Anti-Italian sentiment in 1891 contributed to the lynchings of 11 Italians, some of whom had been acquitted of the murder of the police chief. Some were shot and killed in the jail where they were detained. It was the largest mass lynching in U.S. history.[82][83] In July 1900 the city was swept by white mobs rioting after Robert Charles, a young African American, killed a policeman and temporarily escaped. The mob killed him and an estimated 20 other blacks; seven whites died in the days-long conflict, until a state militia suppressed it.
20th century
New Orleans' economic and population zenith in relation to other American cities occurred in the antebellum period. It was the nation's fifth-largest city in 1860 (after New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore) and was significantly larger than all other southern cities.[84] From the mid-19th century onward rapid economic growth shifted to other areas, while New Orleans' relative importance steadily declined. The growth of railways and highways decreased river traffic, diverting goods to other transportation corridors and markets.[84] Thousands of the most ambitious people of color left the state in the Great Migration around World War II and after, many for West Coast destinations. From the late 1800s, most censuses recorded New Orleans slipping down the ranks in the list of largest American cities (New Orleans' population still continued to increase throughout the period, but at a slower rate than before the Civil War).
In 1929 the New Orleans streetcar strike during which serious unrest occurred.[85] It is also credited for the creation of the distinctly Louisianan Po' boy sandwich.[86][87]
By the mid-20th century, New Orleanians recognized that their city was no longer the leading urban area in the South. By 1950, Houston, Dallas, and Atlanta exceeded New Orleans in size, and in 1960 Miami eclipsed New Orleans, even as the latter's population reached its historic peak.[84] As with other older American cities, highway construction and suburban development drew residents from the center city to newer housing outside. The 1970 census recorded the first absolute decline in population since the city became part of the United States in 1803. The Greater New Orleans metropolitan area continued expanding in population, albeit more slowly than other major Sun Belt cities. While the port remained one of the nation's largest, automation and containerization cost many jobs. The city's former role as banker to the South was supplanted by larger peer cities. New Orleans' economy had always been based more on trade and financial services than on manufacturing, but the city's relatively small manufacturing sector also shrank after World War II. Despite some economic development successes under the administrations of DeLesseps "Chep" Morrison (1946–1961) and Victor "Vic" Schiro (1961–1970), metropolitan New Orleans' growth rate consistently lagged behind more vigorous cities.
Civil Rights movement
During the later years of Morrison's administration, and for the entirety of Schiro's, the city was a center of the Civil Rights movement. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference was founded in New Orleans, and lunch counter sit-ins were held in Canal Street department stores. A prominent and violent series of confrontations occurred in 1960 when the city attempted school desegregation, following the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education (1954). When six-year-old Ruby Bridges integrated William Frantz Elementary School in the Ninth Ward, she was the first child of color to attend a previously all-white school in the South. Much controversy preceded the 1956 Sugar Bowl at Tulane Stadium, when the Pitt Panthers, with African-American fullback Bobby Grier on the roster, met the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets.[88] There had been controversy over whether Grier should be allowed to play due to his race, and whether Georgia Tech should even play at all due to Georgia's Governor Marvin Griffin's opposition to racial integration.[89][90][91] After Griffin publicly sent a telegram to the state's Board Of Regents requesting Georgia Tech not to engage in racially integrated events, Georgia Tech's president Blake R. Van Leer rejected the request and threatened to resign. The game went on as planned.[92]
The Civil Rights movement's success in gaining federal passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 renewed constitutional rights, including voting for blacks. Together, these resulted in the most far-reaching changes in New Orleans' 20th century history.[93] Though legal and civil equality were re-established by the end of the 1960s, a large gap in income levels and educational attainment persisted between the city's White and African American communities.[94] As the middle class and wealthier members of both races left the center city, its population's income level dropped, and it became proportionately more African American. From 1980, the African American majority elected primarily officials from its own community. They struggled to narrow the gap by creating conditions conducive to the economic uplift of the African American community.
New Orleans became increasingly dependent on tourism as an economic mainstay during the administrations of Sidney Barthelemy (1986–1994) and Marc Morial (1994–2002). Relatively low levels of educational attainment, high rates of household poverty, and rising crime threatened the city's prosperity in the later decades of the century.[94] The negative effects of these socioeconomic conditions aligned poorly with the changes in the late-20th century to the economy of the United States, which reflected a post-industrial, knowledge-based paradigm in which mental skills and education were more important to advancement than manual skills.
Drainage and flood control
In the 20th century, New Orleans' government and business leaders believed they needed to drain and develop outlying areas to provide for the city's expansion. The most ambitious development during this period was a drainage plan devised by engineer and inventor A. Baldwin Wood, designed to break the surrounding swamp's stranglehold on the city's geographic expansion. Until then, urban development in New Orleans was largely limited to higher ground along the natural river levees and bayous.
Wood's pump system allowed the city to drain huge tracts of swamp and marshland and expand into low-lying areas. Over the 20th century, rapid subsidence, both natural and human-induced, resulted in these newly populated areas subsiding to several feet below sea level.[95][96]
New Orleans was vulnerable to flooding even before the city's footprint departed from the natural high ground near the Mississippi River. In the late 20th century, however, scientists and New Orleans residents gradually became aware of the city's increased vulnerability. In 1965, flooding from Hurricane Betsy killed dozens of residents, although the majority of the city remained dry. The rain-induced flood of May 8, 1995, demonstrated the weakness of the pumping system. After that event, measures were undertaken to dramatically upgrade pumping capacity. By the 1980s and 1990s, scientists observed that extensive, rapid, and ongoing erosion of the marshlands and swamp surrounding New Orleans, especially that related to the Mississippi River–Gulf Outlet Canal, had the unintended result of leaving the city more vulnerable than before to hurricane-induced catastrophic storm surges.[citation needed]
21st century
Hurricane Katrina
New Orleans was catastrophically affected by what Raymond B. Seed called "the worst engineering disaster in the world since Chernobyl", when the federal levee system failed during Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005.[97] By the time the hurricane approached the city on August 29, 2005, most residents had evacuated. As the hurricane passed through the Gulf Coast region that day, the city's federal flood protection system failed, resulting in the worst civil engineering disaster in American history at the time.[98] Floodwalls and levees constructed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers failed below design specifications and 80% of the city flooded. Tens of thousands of residents who had remained were rescued or otherwise made their way to shelters of last resort at the Louisiana Superdome or the New Orleans Morial Convention Center. More than 1,500 people were recorded as having died in Louisiana, most in New Orleans, while others remain unaccounted for.[99][100] Before Hurricane Katrina, the city called for the first mandatory evacuation in its history, to be followed by another mandatory evacuation three years later with Hurricane Gustav.[101]
Hurricane Rita
The city was declared off-limits to residents while efforts to clean up after Hurricane Katrina began. The approach of Hurricane Rita in September 2005 caused repopulation efforts to be postponed,[102] and the Lower Ninth Ward was reflooded by Rita's storm surge.[100]
Post-disaster recovery
Because of the scale of damage, many people resettled permanently outside the area. Federal, state, and local efforts supported recovery and rebuilding in severely damaged neighborhoods. The U.S. Census Bureau in July 2006 estimated the population to be 223,000; a subsequent study estimated that 32,000 additional residents had moved to the city as of March 2007, bringing the estimated population to 255,000, approximately 56% of the pre-Katrina population level. Another estimate, based on utility usage from July 2007, estimated the population to be approximately 274,000 or 60% of the pre-Katrina population. These estimates are somewhat smaller to a third estimate, based on mail delivery records, from the Greater New Orleans Community Data Center in June 2007, which indicated that the city had regained approximately two-thirds of its pre-Katrina population.[103] In 2008, the U.S. Census Bureau revised its population estimate for the city upward, to 336,644.[104] Most recently, by July 2015, the population was back up to 386,617—80% of what it was in 2000.[105]
Several major tourist events and other forms of revenue for the city have returned. Large conventions returned.[106][107] College bowl games returned for the 2006–2007 season. The New Orleans Saints returned that season. The New Orleans Hornets (now named the Pelicans) returned to the city for the 2007–2008 season. New Orleans hosted the 2008 NBA All-Star Game in addition to Super Bowl XLVII.
Major annual events such as Mardi Gras, Voodoo Experience, and the Jazz & Heritage Festival were never displaced or canceled. A new annual festival, "The Running of the Bulls New Orleans", was created in 2007.[108]
Hurricane Ida
On August 29, 2021, coincidentally the 16th anniversary of the landfall of Hurricane Katrina, Hurricane Ida, a category 4 hurricane, made landfall near Port Fourchon, where the Hurricane Ida tornado outbreak caused damage.[109]
Geography
New Orleans is located in the Mississippi River Delta, south of Lake Pontchartrain, on the banks of the Mississippi River, approximately 105 miles (169 km) upriver from the Gulf of Mexico. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city's area is 350 square miles (910 km2), of which 169 square miles (440 km2) is land and 181 square miles (470 km2) (52%) is water.[110] The area along the river is characterized by ridges and hollows.
Elevation
New Orleans was originally settled on the river's natural levees or high ground. After the Flood Control Act of 1965, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built floodwalls and man-made levees around a much larger geographic footprint that included previous marshland and swamp. Over time, pumping of water from marshland allowed for development into lower elevation areas. Today, half of the city is at or below local mean sea level, while the other half is slightly above sea level. Evidence suggests that portions of the city may be dropping in elevation due to subsidence.[111]
A 2007 study by Tulane and Xavier University suggested that "51%... of the contiguous urbanized portions of Orleans, Jefferson, and St. Bernard parishes lie at or above sea level," with the more densely populated areas generally on higher ground. The average elevation of the city is currently between 1 and 2 feet (0.30 and 0.61 m) below sea level, with some portions of the city as high as 20 feet (6 m) at the base of the river levee in Uptown and others as low as 7 feet (2 m) below sea level in the farthest reaches of Eastern New Orleans.[112][113] A study published by the ASCE Journal of Hydrologic Engineering in 2016, however, stated:
...most of New Orleans proper—about 65%—is at or below mean sea level, as defined by the average elevation of Lake Pontchartrain[114]
The magnitude of subsidence potentially caused by the draining of natural marsh in the New Orleans area and southeast Louisiana is a topic of debate. A study published in Geology in 2006 by an associate professor at Tulane University claims:
While erosion and wetland loss are huge problems along Louisiana's coast, the basement 30 feet (9.1 m) to 50 feet (15 m) beneath much of the Mississippi Delta has been highly stable for the past 8,000 years with negligible subsidence rates.[115]
The study noted, however, that the results did not necessarily apply to the Mississippi River Delta, nor the New Orleans metropolitan area proper. On the other hand, a report by the American Society of Civil Engineers claims that "New Orleans is subsiding (sinking)":[116]
Large portions of Orleans, St. Bernard, and Jefferson parishes are currently below sea level—and continue to sink. New Orleans is built on thousands of feet of soft sand, silt, and clay. Subsidence, or settling of the ground surface, occurs naturally due to the consolidation and oxidation of organic soils (called "marsh" in New Orleans) and local groundwater pumping. In the past, flooding and deposition of sediments from the Mississippi River counterbalanced the natural subsidence, leaving southeast Louisiana at or above sea level. However, due to major flood control structures being built upstream on the Mississippi River and levees being built around New Orleans, fresh layers of sediment are not replenishing the ground lost by subsidence.[116]
In May 2016, NASA published a study which suggested that most areas were, in fact, experiencing subsidence at a "highly variable rate" which was "generally consistent with, but somewhat higher than, previous studies."[117]
Cityscape
The Central Business District is located immediately north and west of the Mississippi and was historically called the "American Quarter" or "American Sector". It was developed after the heart of French and Spanish settlement. It includes Lafayette Square. Most streets in this area fan out from a central point. Major streets include Canal Street, Poydras Street, Tulane Avenue and Loyola Avenue. Canal Street divides the traditional "downtown" area from the "uptown" area.
Every street crossing Canal Street between the Mississippi River and Rampart Street, which is the northern edge of the French Quarter, has a different name for the "uptown" and "downtown" portions. For example, St. Charles Avenue, known for its street car line, is called Royal Street below Canal Street, though where it traverses the Central Business District between Canal and Lee Circle, it is properly called St. Charles Street.[118] Elsewhere in the city, Canal Street serves as the dividing point between the "South" and "North" portions of various streets. In the local parlance downtown means "downriver from Canal Street", while uptown means "upriver from Canal Street". Downtown neighborhoods include the French Quarter, Tremé, the 7th Ward, Faubourg Marigny, Bywater (the Upper Ninth Ward), and the Lower Ninth Ward. Uptown neighborhoods include the Warehouse District, the Lower Garden District, the Garden District, the Irish Channel, the University District, Carrollton, Gert Town, Fontainebleau and Broadmoor. However, the Warehouse and the Central Business District are frequently called "Downtown" as a specific region, as in the Downtown Development District.
Other major districts within the city include Bayou St. John, Mid-City, Gentilly, Lakeview, Lakefront, New Orleans East and Algiers.
Historic and residential architecture
New Orleans is world-famous for its abundance of architectural styles that reflect the city's multicultural heritage. Though New Orleans possesses numerous structures of national architectural significance, it is equally, if not more, revered for its enormous, largely intact (even post-Katrina) historic built environment. Twenty National Register Historic Districts have been established, and fourteen local historic districts aid in preservation. Thirteen of the districts are administered by the New Orleans Historic District Landmarks Commission (HDLC), while one—the French Quarter—is administered by the Vieux Carre Commission (VCC). Additionally, both the National Park Service, via the National Register of Historic Places, and the HDLC have landmarked individual buildings, many of which lie outside the boundaries of existing historic districts.[119]
Housing styles include the shotgun house and the bungalow style. Creole cottages and townhouses, notable for their large courtyards and intricate iron balconies, line the streets of the French Quarter. American townhouses, double-gallery houses, and Raised Center-Hall Cottages are notable. St. Charles Avenue is famed for its large antebellum homes. Its mansions are in various styles, such as Greek Revival, American Colonial and the Victorian styles of Queen Anne and Italianate architecture. New Orleans is also noted for its large, European-style Catholic cemeteries.
Tallest buildings
For much of its history, New Orleans' skyline displayed only low- and mid-rise structures. The soft soils are susceptible to subsidence, and there was doubt about the feasibility of constructing high rises. Developments in engineering throughout the 20th century eventually made it possible to build sturdy foundations in the foundations that underlie the structures. In the 1960s, the World Trade Center New Orleans and Plaza Tower demonstrated skyscrapers' viability. One Shell Square became the city's tallest building in 1972. The oil boom of the 1970s and early 1980s redefined New Orleans' skyline with the development of the Poydras Street corridor. Most are clustered along Canal Street and Poydras Street in the Central Business District.
| Name | Stories | Height |
|---|---|---|
| One Shell Square | 51 | 697 ft (212 m) |
| Place St. Charles | 53 | 645 ft (197 m) |
| Plaza Tower | 45 | 531 ft (162 m) |
| Energy Centre | 39 | 530 ft (160 m) |
| First Bank and Trust Tower | 36 | 481 ft (147 m) |
Climate
The climate of New Orleans is humid subtropical (Köppen: Cfa), with short, generally mild winters and hot, humid summers; in the 1991-2020 climate normals the USDA hardiness zone is 9b, with the coldest temperature in most years being about 27.6 °F (−2.4 °C). The monthly daily average temperature ranges from 54.3 °F (12.4 °C) in January to 84 °F (28.9 °C) in August. Officially, as measured at New Orleans International Airport, temperature records range from 11 to 105 °F (−12 to 41 °C) on December 23, 1989, and August 27, 2023, respectively; Audubon Park has recorded temperatures ranging from 6 °F (−14 °C) on February 13, 1899, up to 104 °F (40 °C) on June 24, 2009.[120] Dewpoints in the summer months (June–August) are relatively high, ranging from 71.1 to 73.4 °F (21.7 to 23.0 °C).[121]
The average precipitation is 62.5 inches (1,590 mm) annually; the summer months are the wettest, while October is the driest month.[120] Precipitation in winter usually accompanies the passing of a cold front. There are a median of over 80 days of 90 °F (32 °C)+ highs, 9 days per winter where the high does not exceed 50 °F (10 °C), and less than 8 nights with freezing lows annually, although it is not uncommon for entire winter seasons to pass with no freezing temperatures at all, such as the 2003-04 winter, the 2012-13 winter, the 2015-16 winter and the consecutive winters of 2018-19 and 2019–20. It is rare for the temperature to reach 20 or 100 °F (−7 or 38 °C), with the last occurrence of each being January 17, 2018, and August 27, 2023, respectively.[120][122]
New Orleans experiences snowfall only on rare occasions. A small amount of snow fell during the 2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm and again on Christmas (December 25) when a combination of rain, sleet, and snow fell on the city, leaving some bridges icy. The New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm affected New Orleans and brought 4.5 inches (11 cm). Snow fell again on December 22, 1989, during the December 1989 United States cold wave, when most of the city received 1–2 inches (2.5–5.1 cm).
The last significant snowfall in New Orleans was on the morning of December 11, 2008.[123]
| Climate data for Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport (1991–2020 normals,[b] extremes 1946–present)[c] | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °F (°C) | 83 (28) |
85 (29) |
89 (32) |
92 (33) |
97 (36) |
101 (38) |
101 (38) |
105 (41) |
101 (38) |
97 (36) |
88 (31) |
85 (29) |
105 (41) |
| Mean maximum °F (°C) | 77.5 (25.3) |
79.7 (26.5) |
82.9 (28.3) |
86.5 (30.3) |
91.9 (33.3) |
95.2 (35.1) |
96.6 (35.9) |
96.7 (35.9) |
94.3 (34.6) |
89.8 (32.1) |
83.8 (28.8) |
80.3 (26.8) |
97.6 (36.4) |
| Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 62.5 (16.9) |
66.4 (19.1) |
72.3 (22.4) |
78.5 (25.8) |
85.3 (29.6) |
90.0 (32.2) |
91.4 (33.0) |
91.3 (32.9) |
88.1 (31.2) |
80.6 (27.0) |
71.2 (21.8) |
64.8 (18.2) |
78.5 (25.8) |
| Daily mean °F (°C) | 54.3 (12.4) |
58.0 (14.4) |
63.8 (17.7) |
70.1 (21.2) |
77.1 (25.1) |
82.4 (28.0) |
83.9 (28.8) |
84.0 (28.9) |
80.8 (27.1) |
72.5 (22.5) |
62.4 (16.9) |
56.6 (13.7) |
70.5 (21.4) |
| Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 46.1 (7.8) |
49.7 (9.8) |
55.3 (12.9) |
61.7 (16.5) |
69.0 (20.6) |
74.7 (23.7) |
76.5 (24.7) |
76.6 (24.8) |
73.5 (23.1) |
64.3 (17.9) |
53.7 (12.1) |
48.4 (9.1) |
62.5 (16.9) |
| Mean minimum °F (°C) | 29.5 (−1.4) |
33.4 (0.8) |
38.0 (3.3) |
47.1 (8.4) |
57.3 (14.1) |
67.4 (19.7) |
71.4 (21.9) |
71.1 (21.7) |
63.3 (17.4) |
47.7 (8.7) |
37.7 (3.2) |
32.6 (0.3) |
27.6 (−2.4) |
| Record low °F (°C) | 14 (−10) |
16 (−9) |
25 (−4) |
32 (0) |
41 (5) |
50 (10) |
60 (16) |
60 (16) |
42 (6) |
35 (2) |
24 (−4) |
11 (−12) |
11 (−12) |
| Average precipitation inches (mm) | 5.18 (132) |
4.13 (105) |
4.36 (111) |
5.22 (133) |
5.64 (143) |
7.62 (194) |
6.79 (172) |
6.91 (176) |
5.11 (130) |
3.70 (94) |
3.87 (98) |
4.82 (122) |
63.35 (1,609) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 9.5 | 9.0 | 8.1 | 7.3 | 7.8 | 12.7 | 13.9 | 13.6 | 9.8 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 9.2 | 115.1 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 75.6 | 73.0 | 72.9 | 73.4 | 74.4 | 76.4 | 79.2 | 79.4 | 77.8 | 74.9 | 77.2 | 76.9 | 75.9 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 153.0 | 161.5 | 219.4 | 251.9 | 278.9 | 274.3 | 257.1 | 251.9 | 228.7 | 242.6 | 171.8 | 157.8 | 2,648.9 |
| Percent possible sunshine | 47 | 52 | 59 | 65 | 66 | 65 | 60 | 62 | 62 | 68 | 54 | 50 | 60 |
| Source: NOAA (relative humidity and sun 1961–1990)[d][120][125][121] | |||||||||||||
| Climate data for Audubon Park, New Orleans (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1893–present) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °F (°C) | 84 (29) |
86 (30) |
91 (33) |
93 (34) |
99 (37) |
104 (40) |
102 (39) |
104 (40) |
101 (38) |
97 (36) |
92 (33) |
85 (29) |
104 (40) |
| Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 64.3 (17.9) |
68.4 (20.2) |
74.5 (23.6) |
80.9 (27.2) |
87.9 (31.1) |
92.5 (33.6) |
93.9 (34.4) |
94.0 (34.4) |
90.1 (32.3) |
82.6 (28.1) |
72.9 (22.7) |
66.4 (19.1) |
80.7 (27.1) |
| Daily mean °F (°C) | 55.4 (13.0) |
59.4 (15.2) |
65.2 (18.4) |
71.4 (21.9) |
78.6 (25.9) |
83.7 (28.7) |
85.2 (29.6) |
85.5 (29.7) |
81.8 (27.7) |
73.6 (23.1) |
63.7 (17.6) |
57.7 (14.3) |
71.8 (22.1) |
| Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 46.5 (8.1) |
50.5 (10.3) |
55.8 (13.2) |
62.0 (16.7) |
69.3 (20.7) |
74.9 (23.8) |
76.6 (24.8) |
76.9 (24.9) |
73.6 (23.1) |
64.7 (18.2) |
54.6 (12.6) |
49.0 (9.4) |
62.9 (17.2) |
| Record low °F (°C) | 13 (−11) |
6 (−14) |
26 (−3) |
32 (0) |
46 (8) |
54 (12) |
61 (16) |
60 (16) |
49 (9) |
35 (2) |
26 (−3) |
12 (−11) |
6 (−14) |
| Average precipitation inches (mm) | 4.95 (126) |
4.14 (105) |
4.60 (117) |
4.99 (127) |
5.39 (137) |
7.37 (187) |
8.77 (223) |
6.80 (173) |
5.72 (145) |
3.58 (91) |
3.78 (96) |
4.51 (115) |
64.60 (1,641) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 9.8 | 8.9 | 7.5 | 7.0 | 7.4 | 12.6 | 15.1 | 13.3 | 10.0 | 6.8 | 7.3 | 8.8 | 114.5 |
| Source: NOAA[120][126] | |||||||||||||
Threat from tropical cyclones
Hurricanes pose a severe threat to the area, and the city is particularly at risk due to its low elevation, the city being surrounded by water from the north, east, and south, and Louisiana's sinking coast.[127] According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, New Orleans is the nation's most vulnerable city to hurricanes.[128] Indeed, portions of Greater New Orleans have been flooded by the Grand Isle Hurricane of 1909,[129] the New Orleans Hurricane of 1915,[129] 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane,[129] Hurricane Flossy[130] in 1956, Hurricane Betsy in 1965, Hurricane Georges in 1998, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, Hurricane Gustav in 2008, Hurricane Isaac in 2012, Hurricane Zeta in 2020 (Zeta was also the most intense hurricane to pass over New Orleans) and Hurricane Ida in 2021. The flooding from Betsy was significant and in a few neighborhoods severe, and that from Katrina was disastrous for the majority of the city.[131][132][133]
On August 29, 2005, storm surge from Hurricane Katrina caused catastrophic failure of the federally designed and built levees, flooding 80% of the city.[134][135] A report by the American Society of Civil Engineers says that "had the levees and floodwalls not failed and had the pump stations operated, nearly two-thirds of the deaths would not have occurred".[116]
New Orleans has always had to consider the risk of hurricanes, but the risks are dramatically greater today due to coastal erosion from human interference.[136] Since the beginning of the 20th century, it has been estimated that Louisiana has lost 2,000 square miles (5,000 km2) of coast (including many of its barrier islands), which once protected New Orleans against storm surge. Following Hurricane Katrina, the Army Corps of Engineers has instituted massive levee repair and hurricane protection measures to protect the city.
In 2006, Louisiana voters overwhelmingly adopted an amendment to the state's constitution to dedicate all revenues from off-shore drilling to restore Louisiana's eroding coast line.[137] U.S. Congress has allocated $7 billion to bolster New Orleans' flood protection.[138]
According to a study by the National Academy of Engineering and the National Research Council, levees and floodwalls surrounding New Orleans—no matter how large or sturdy—cannot provide absolute protection against overtopping or failure in extreme events. Levees and floodwalls should be viewed as a way to reduce risks from hurricanes and storm surges, not as measures that eliminate risk. For structures in hazardous areas and residents who do not relocate, the committee recommended major floodproofing measures—such as elevating the first floor of buildings to at least the 100-year flood level.[139]
Demographics
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1769 | 3,190 | — |
| 1778 | 3,060 | −4.1% |
| 1791 | 5,497 | +79.6% |
| 1810 | 17,242 | +213.7% |
| 1820 | 27,176 | +57.6% |
| 1830 | 46,082 | +69.6% |
| 1840 | 102,193 | +121.8% |
| 1850 | 116,375 | +13.9% |
| 1860 | 168,675 | +44.9% |
| 1870 | 191,418 | +13.5% |
| 1880 | 216,090 | +12.9% |
| 1890 | 242,039 | +12.0% |
| 1900 | 287,104 | +18.6% |
| 1910 | 339,075 | +18.1% |
| 1920 | 387,219 | +14.2% |
| 1930 | 458,762 | +18.5% |
| 1940 | 494,537 | +7.8% |
| 1950 | 570,445 | +15.3% |
| 1960 | 627,525 | +10.0% |
| 1970 | 593,471 | −5.4% |
| 1980 | 557,515 | −6.1% |
| 1990 | 496,938 | −10.9% |
| 2000 | 484,674 | −2.5% |
| 2010 | 343,829 | −29.1% |
| 2020 | 383,997 | +11.7% |
| 2023 (est.) | 364,136 | −5.2% |
| Population given for the City of New Orleans, not for Orleans Parish, before New Orleans absorbed suburbs and rural areas of Orleans Parish in 1874, since which time the city and parish have been coterminous. Population for Orleans Parish was 41,351 in 1820; 49,826 in 1830; 102,193 in 1840; 119,460 in 1850; 174,491 in 1860; and 191,418 in 1870. Source: U.S. Decennial Census[140] Historical Population Figures[104][141][142][143][144] 1790–1960[145] 1900–1990[146] 1990–2000[147] 2010–2013[148] 2020 estimate[149] | ||
From the 2010 U.S. census to 2014 census estimates the city grew by 12%, adding an average of more than 10,000 new residents each year following the official decennial census.[141] According to the 2020 United States census, there were 383,997 people, 151,753 households, and 69,370 families residing in the city. Prior to 1960, the population of New Orleans steadily increased to a historic 627,525.
Beginning in 1960, the population decreased due to factors such as the cycles of oil production and tourism,[150][151][additional citation(s) needed] and as suburbanization increased (as with many cities),[152] and jobs migrated to surrounding parishes.[153] This economic and population decline resulted in high levels of poverty in the city; in 1960 it had the fifth-highest poverty rate of all U.S. cities,[154] and was almost twice the national average in 2005, at 24.5%.[152] New Orleans experienced an increase in residential segregation from 1900 to 1980, leaving the disproportionately Black and African American poor in older, low-lying locations.[153] These areas were especially susceptible to flood and storm damage.[155]
The last population estimate before Hurricane Katrina was 454,865, as of July 1, 2005.[156] A population analysis released in August 2007 estimated the population to be 273,000, 60% of the pre-Katrina population and an increase of about 50,000 since July 2006.[157] A September 2007 report by The Greater New Orleans Community Data Center, which tracks population based on U.S. Postal Service figures, found that in August 2007, just over 137,000 households received mail. That compares with about 198,000 households in July 2005, representing about 70% of pre-Katrina population.[158] In 2010, the U.S. Census Bureau revised upward its 2008 population estimate for the city, to 336,644 inhabitants.[104] Estimates from 2010 showed that neighborhoods that did not flood were near or even greater than 100% of their pre-Katrina populations.[159]
Katrina displaced 800,000 people, contributing significantly to the decline.[160] Black and African Americans, renters, the elderly, and people with low income were disproportionately affected by Katrina, compared to affluent and White residents.[161][162] In Katrina's aftermath, city government commissioned groups such as Bring New Orleans Back Commission, the New Orleans Neighborhood Rebuilding Plan, the Unified New Orleans Plan, and the Office of Recovery Management to contribute to plans addressing depopulation. Their ideas included shrinking the city's footprint from before the storm, incorporating community voices into development plans, and creating green spaces,[161] some of which incited controversy.[163][164]
A 2006 study by researchers at Tulane University and the University of California, Berkeley determined that as many as 10,000 to 14,000 undocumented immigrants, many from Mexico, resided in New Orleans.[165] In 2016, the Pew Research Center estimated at least 35,000 undocumented immigrants lived in New Orleans and its metropolitan area.[166] The New Orleans Police Department began a new policy to "no longer cooperate with federal immigration enforcement" beginning on February 28, 2016.[167]
As of 2010[update], 90.3% of residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 4.8% spoke Spanish, 1.9% Vietnamese, and 1.1% spoke French. In total, 9.7% population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.[168]
Race and ethnicity
| Historic racial and ethnic composition | 2020[169] | 2010[170] | 1990[171] | 1970[171] | 1940[171] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| White | n/a | 33.0% | 34.9% | 54.5% | 69.7% |
| —Non-Hispanic | 31.61% | 30.5% | 33.1% | 50.6%[e] | n/a |
| Black or African American | 53.61% | 60.2% | 61.9% | 45.0% | 30.1% |
| Hispanic or Latino (of any race) | 8.08% | 5.2% | 3.5% | 4.4%[e] | n/a |
| Asian | 2.75% | 2.9% | 1.9% | 0.2% | 0.1% |
| Pacific Islander | 0.03% | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Two or more races | 3.71% | 1.7% | n/a | n/a | n/a |
| Race / Ethnicity (NH = Non-Hispanic) | Pop 2000[172] | Pop 2010[173] | Pop 2020[174] | % 2000 | % 2010 | % 2020 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| White alone (NH) | 128,971 | 104,770 | 121,385 | 26.59% | 30.47% | 31.61% |
| Black or African American alone (NH) | 323,392 | 204,866 | 205,876 | 66.72% | 59.58% | 53.61% |
| Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) | 852 | 827 | 761 | 0.18% | 0.24% | 0.20% |
| Asian alone (NH) | 10,919 | 9,883 | 10,573 | 2.25% | 2.87% | 2.75% |
| Pacific Islander alone (NH) | 88 | 105 | 125 | 0.02% | 0.03% | 0.03% |
| Other race alone (NH) | 961 | 967 | 2,075 | 0.20% | 0.28% | 0.54% |
| Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) | 4,765 | 4,360 | 12,185 | 0.98% | 1.27% | 3.17% |
| Hispanic or Latino (any race) | 14,826 | 18,051 | 31,017 | 3.06% | 5.25% | 8.08% |
| Total | 484,674 | 343,829 | 373,977 | 100.00% | 100.00% | 100.00% |
Growing into a predominantly Black and African American city by race and ethnicity since 1990,[171] in 2010 the racial and ethnic makeup of New Orleans was 60.2% Black and African American, 33.0% White, 2.9% Asian (1.7% Vietnamese, 0.3% Indian, 0.3% Chinese, 0.1% Filipino, 0.1% Korean), 0.0% Pacific Islander, and 1.7% people of two or more races.[175] People of Hispanic or Latino American origin made up 5.3% of the population; 1.3% were Mexican, 1.3% Honduran, 0.4% Cuban, 0.3% Puerto Rican, and 0.3% Nicaraguan. In 2020, the racial and ethnic makeup of the city was 53.61% Black or African American, 31.61% non-Hispanic white, 0.2% American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 3.71% multiracial or of another race, and 8.08% Hispanic and Latino American of any race.[169] The growth of the Hispanic and Latino population in New Orleans proper from 2010 to 2020 reflected national demographic trends of diversification throughout regions once predominantly non-Hispanic white.[176] Additionally, the 2020 census revealed the city now has a more diverse population than it did before Katrina, yet 21% fewer people than it had in 2000.[177]
As of 2011[update], the Hispanic and Latino American population had also grown in the Greater New Orleans area alongside Black and African American residents, including in Kenner, central Metairie, and Terrytown in Jefferson Parish and Eastern New Orleans and Mid-City in New Orleans proper.[178] Janet Murguía, president and chief executive officer of the UnidosUS, stated that up to 120,000 Hispanic and Latino Americans workers lived in New Orleans. In June 2007, one study stated that the Hispanic and Latino American population had risen from 15,000, pre-Katrina, to over 50,000.[179]
After Katrina the small Brazilian American population expanded. Portuguese speakers were the second most numerous group to take English as a second language classes in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans, after Spanish speakers. Many Brazilians worked in skilled trades such as tile and flooring, although fewer worked as day laborers than other Hispanic and Latino Americans. Many had moved from Brazilian communities in the northeastern United States, and Florida and Georgia. Brazilians settled throughout the metropolitan area; most were undocumented. In January 2008, the New Orleans Brazilian population had a mid-range estimate of 3,000 people. By 2008, Brazilians had opened many small churches, shops and restaurants catering to their community.[180]
Among the growing Asian American community, the earliest Filipino Americans to live within the city arrived in the early 1800s.[181] The Vietnamese American community grew to become the largest by 2010 as many fled the aftermath of the Vietnam War in the 1970s.[182]
Sexual orientation and gender identity
New Orleans and its metropolitan area have historically been popular destinations for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities.[183][184] In 2015, a Gallup survey determined New Orleans was one of the largest cities in the American South with a significant LGBT population.[185][186] Much of the LGBT community in New Orleans lives near the Central Business District, Mid-City, and Uptown; several gay bars and nightclubs are present in those areas.[187]
Religion
New Orleans' colonial history of French and Spanish settlement generated a strong Roman Catholic tradition. Catholic missions ministered to slaves and free people of color and established schools for them. In addition, many late 19th and early 20th century European immigrants, such as the Irish, some Germans, and Italians were Catholic. Within the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans (which includes not only the city but the surrounding parishes as well), 40% percent of the population was Roman Catholic since 2016.[188] Catholicism is reflected in French and Spanish cultural traditions, including its many parochial schools, street names, architecture and festivals, including Mardi Gras. Within the city and metropolitan area, Catholicism is also reflected in the Black and African cultural traditions with Gospel Mass.[189]
Influenced by the Bible Belt's prominent Protestant population, New Orleans also has a sizable non-Catholic Christian demographic. Roughly the majority of Protestant Christians were Baptist, and the city proper's largest non-Catholic bodies were the Southern Baptist Convention, the National Missionary Baptist Convention of America, non-denominationals, the National Baptist Convention, the United Methodist Church, the Episcopal Church, the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the National Baptist Convention of America, and the Church of God in Christ according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020.[190]
New Orleans displays a distinctive variety of Louisiana Voodoo, due in part to syncretism with African and Afro-Caribbean Roman Catholic beliefs. The fame of voodoo practitioner Marie Laveau contributed to this, as did New Orleans' Caribbean cultural influences.[191][192][193] Although the tourism industry strongly associated Voodoo with the city, only a small number of people are serious adherents.
New Orleans was also home to the occultist Mary Oneida Toups, who was nicknamed the "Witch Queen of New Orleans". Toups' coven, The Religious Order of Witchcraft, was the first coven to be officially recognized as a religious institution by the state of Louisiana.[194] They would meet at Popp Fountain in City Park.[195]
Jewish settlers, primarily Sephardim, settled in New Orleans from the early nineteenth century. Some migrated from the communities established in the colonial years in Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia. The merchant Abraham Cohen Labatt helped found the first Jewish congregation in New Orleans in the 1830s, which became known as the Portuguese Jewish Nefutzot Yehudah congregation (he and some other members were Sephardic Jews, whose ancestors had lived in Portugal and Spain). Ashkenazi Jews from eastern Europe immigrated in the late 19th and 20th centuries.
By the beginning of the 21st century, 10,000 Jews lived in New Orleans. This number dropped to 7,000 after Hurricane Katrina, but rose again after efforts to incentivize the community's growth resulted in the arrival of about an additional 2,000 Jews.[196] New Orleans synagogues lost members, but most re-opened in their original locations. The exception was Congregation Beth Israel, the oldest and most prominent Orthodox synagogue in the New Orleans region. Beth Israel's building in Lakeview was destroyed by flooding. After seven years of holding services in temporary quarters, the congregation consecrated a new synagogue on land purchased from the Reform Congregation Gates of Prayer in Metairie.[197]
A visible religious minority,[198][199] Muslims constituted 0.6% of the religious population as of 2019 according to Sperling's BestPlaces.[200] The Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020 estimated that there were 6,150 Muslims in the city proper. The Islamic demographic in New Orleans and its metropolitan area have been mainly made up of Middle Eastern immigrants and African Americans.
Economy
New Orleans operates one of the world's largest and busiest ports and metropolitan New Orleans is a center of maritime industry.[201] The region accounts for a significant portion of the nation's oil refining and petrochemical production, and serves as a white-collar corporate base for onshore and offshore petroleum and natural gas production. Since the beginning of the 21st century, New Orleans has also grown into a technology hub.[202][203]
New Orleans is also a center for higher learning, with over 50,000 students enrolled in the region's eleven two- and four-year degree-granting institutions. Tulane University, a top-50 research university, is located in Uptown. Metropolitan New Orleans is a major regional hub for the health care industry and boasts a small, globally competitive manufacturing sector. The center city possesses a rapidly growing, entrepreneurial creative industries sector and is renowned for its cultural tourism. Greater New Orleans, Inc. (GNO, Inc.)[204] acts as the first point-of-contact for regional economic development, coordinating between Louisiana's Department of Economic Development and the various business development agencies.
Port
New Orleans began as a strategically located trading entrepôt and it remains, above all, a crucial transportation hub and distribution center for waterborne commerce. The Port of New Orleans is the fifth-largest in the United States based on cargo volume, and second-largest in the state after the Port of South Louisiana. It is the twelfth-largest in the U.S. based on cargo value. The Port of South Louisiana, also located in the New Orleans area, is the world's busiest in terms of bulk tonnage. When combined with Port of New Orleans, it forms the 4th-largest port system in volume. Many shipbuilding, shipping, logistics, freight forwarding and commodity brokerage firms either are based in metropolitan New Orleans or maintain a local presence. Examples include Intermarine,[205] Bisso Towboat,[206] Northrop Grumman Ship Systems,[207] Trinity Yachts, Expeditors International,[208] Bollinger Shipyards, IMTT, International Coffee Corp, Boasso America, Transoceanic Shipping, Transportation Consultants Inc., Dupuy Storage & Forwarding and Silocaf.[209] The largest coffee-roasting plant in the world, operated by Folgers, is located in New Orleans East.[210][211]
New Orleans is located near to the Gulf of Mexico and its many oil rigs. Louisiana ranks fifth among states in oil production and eighth in reserves. It has two of the four Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) storage facilities: West Hackberry in Cameron Parish and Bayou Choctaw in Iberville Parish. The area hosts 17 petroleum refineries, with a combined crude oil distillation capacity of nearly 2.8 million barrels per day (450,000 m3/d), the second highest after Texas. Louisiana's numerous ports include the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), which is capable of receiving the largest oil tankers. Given the quantity of oil imports, Louisiana is home to many major pipelines: Crude Oil (Exxon, Chevron, BP, Texaco, Shell, Scurloch-Permian, Mid-Valley, Calumet, Conoco, Koch Industries, Unocal, U.S. Dept. of Energy, Locap); Product (TEPPCO Partners, Colonial, Plantation, Explorer, Texaco, Collins); and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (Dixie, TEPPCO, Black Lake, Koch, Chevron, Dynegy, Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, Dow Chemical Company, Bridgeline, FMP, Tejas, Texaco, UTP).[212] Several energy companies have regional headquarters in the area, including Shell plc, Eni and Chevron. Other energy producers and oilfield services companies are headquartered in the city or region, and the sector supports a large professional services base of specialized engineering and design firms, as well as a term office for the federal government's Minerals Management Service.
Business
The city is the home to a single Fortune 500 company: Entergy, a power generation utility and nuclear power plant operations specialist.[213] After Katrina, the city lost its other Fortune 500 company, Freeport-McMoRan, when it merged its copper and gold exploration unit with an Arizona company and relocated that division to Phoenix. Its McMoRan Exploration affiliate remains headquartered in New Orleans.[214]
Companies with significant operations or headquarters in New Orleans include: Pan American Life Insurance, Pool Corp, Rolls-Royce, Newpark Resources, AT&T, TurboSquid, iSeatz, IBM, Navtech, Superior Energy Services, Textron Marine & Land Systems, McDermott International, Pellerin Milnor, Lockheed Martin, Imperial Trading, Laitram, Harrah's Entertainment, Stewart Enterprises, Edison Chouest Offshore, Zatarain's, Waldemar S. Nelson & Co., Whitney National Bank, Capital One, Tidewater Marine, Popeyes Chicken & Biscuits, Parsons Brinckerhoff, MWH Global, CH2M Hill, Energy Partners Ltd, The Receivables Exchange, GE Capital, and Smoothie King.
Tourist and convention business
Tourism is a staple of the city's economy. Perhaps more visible than any other sector, New Orleans' tourist and convention industry is a $5.5 billion industry that accounts for 40 percent of city tax revenues. In 2004, the hospitality industry employed 85,000 people, making it the city's top economic sector as measured by employment.[215] New Orleans also hosts the World Cultural Economic Forum (WCEF). The forum, held annually at the New Orleans Morial Convention Center, is directed toward promoting cultural and economic development opportunities through the strategic convening of cultural ambassadors and leaders from around the world. The first WCEF took place in October 2008.[216]
Federal and military agencies
Federal agencies and the Armed forces operate significant facilities there. The U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals operates at the US. Courthouse downtown. NASA's Michoud Assembly Facility is located in New Orleans East and has multiple tenants including Lockheed Martin and Boeing. It is a huge manufacturing complex that produced the external fuel tanks for the Space Shuttles, the Saturn V first stage, the Integrated Truss Structure of the International Space Station, and is now used for the construction of NASA's Space Launch System. The rocket factory lies within the enormous New Orleans Regional Business Park, also home to the National Finance Center, operated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the Crescent Crown distribution center. Other large governmental installations include the U.S. Navy's Space and Naval Warfare (SPAWAR) Systems Command, located within the University of New Orleans Research and Technology Park in Gentilly, Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base New Orleans; and the headquarters for the Marine Force Reserves in Federal City in Algiers.
Culture and contemporary life
Tourism
New Orleans has many visitor attractions, from the world-renowned French Quarter to St. Charles Avenue, (home of Tulane and Loyola universities, the historic Pontchartrain Hotel and many 19th-century mansions) to Magazine Street with its boutique stores and antique shops.
According to current travel guides, New Orleans is one of the top ten most-visited cities in the United States; 10.1 million visitors came to New Orleans in 2004.[215][217] Prior to Katrina, 265 hotels with 38,338 rooms operated in the Greater New Orleans Area. In May 2007, that had declined to some 140 hotels and motels with over 31,000 rooms.[218]
A 2009 Travel + Leisure poll of "America's Favorite Cities" ranked New Orleans first in ten categories, the most first-place rankings of the 30 cities included. According to the poll, New Orleans was the best U.S. city as a spring break destination and for "wild weekends", stylish boutique hotels, cocktail hours, singles/bar scenes, live music/concerts and bands, antique and vintage shops, cafés/coffee bars, neighborhood restaurants, and people watching. The city ranked second for: friendliness (behind Charleston, South Carolina), gay-friendliness (behind San Francisco), bed and breakfast hotels/inns, and ethnic food. However, the city placed near the bottom in cleanliness, safety and as a family destination.[219][220]
The French Quarter (known locally as "the Quarter" or Vieux Carré), which was the colonial-era city and is bounded by the Mississippi River, Rampart Street, Canal Street, and Esplanade Avenue, contains popular hotels, bars and nightclubs. Notable tourist attractions in the Quarter include Bourbon Street, Jackson Square, St. Louis Cathedral, the French Market (including Café du Monde, famous for café au lait and beignets) and Preservation Hall. Also in the French Quarter is the old New Orleans Mint, a former branch of the United States Mint which now operates as a museum, and The Historic New Orleans Collection, a museum and research center housing art and artifacts relating to the history and the Gulf South.
Close to the Quarter is the Tremé community, which contains the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park and the New Orleans African American Museum—a site which is listed on the Louisiana African American Heritage Trail.
The Natchez is an authentic steamboat with a calliope that cruises the length of the city twice daily. Unlike most other places in the United States, New Orleans has become widely known for its elegant decay. The city's historic cemeteries and their distinct above-ground tombs are attractions in themselves, the oldest and most famous of which, Saint Louis Cemetery, greatly resembles Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.
The National WWII Museum offers a multi-building odyssey through the history of the Pacific and European theaters. Nearby, Confederate Memorial Hall Museum, the oldest continually operating museum in Louisiana (although under renovation since Hurricane Katrina), contains the second-largest collection of Confederate memorabilia. Art museums include the Contemporary Arts Center, the New Orleans Museum of Art (NOMA) in City Park, and the Ogden Museum of Southern Art.
New Orleans is home to the Audubon Nature Institute (which consists of Audubon Park, the Audubon Zoo, the Aquarium of the Americas and the Audubon Insectarium), and home to gardens which include Longue Vue House and Gardens and the New Orleans Botanical Garden. City Park, one of the country's most expansive and visited urban parks, has one of the largest stands of oak trees in the world.
Other points of interest can be found in the surrounding areas. Many wetlands are found nearby, including Honey Island Swamp and Barataria Preserve. Chalmette Battlefield and National Cemetery, located just south of the city, is the site of the 1815 Battle of New Orleans.
Entertainment and performing arts
The New Orleans area is home to numerous annual celebrations. The most well known is Carnival, or Mardi Gras. Carnival officially begins on the Feast of the Epiphany, also known in some Christian traditions as the "Twelfth Night" of Christmas. Mardi Gras (French for "Fat Tuesday"), the final and grandest day of traditional Catholic festivities, is the last Tuesday before the Christian liturgical season of Lent, which commences on Ash Wednesday.
The largest of the city's many music festivals is the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival. Commonly referred to simply as "Jazz Fest", it is one of the nation's largest music festivals. The festival features a variety of music, including both native Louisiana and international artists. Along with Jazz Fest, New Orleans' Voodoo Experience ("Voodoo Fest") and the Essence Music Festival also feature local and international artists.
Other major festivals include Southern Decadence, the French Quarter Festival, and the Tennessee Williams/New Orleans Literary Festival. The American playwright lived and wrote in New Orleans early in his career, and set his play, Streetcar Named Desire, there.
In 2002, Louisiana began offering tax incentives for film and television production. This has resulted in a substantial increase in activity and brought the nickname of "Hollywood South" for New Orleans. Films produced in and around the city include Ray, Runaway Jury, The Pelican Brief, Glory Road, All the King's Men, Déjà Vu, Last Holiday, The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, 12 Years a Slave, and Project Power. In 2006, work began on the Louisiana Film & Television studio complex, based in the Tremé neighborhood.[221] Louisiana began to offer similar tax incentives for music and theater productions in 2007, and some commentators began to refer to New Orleans as "Broadway South".[222]
The first theatre in New Orleans was the French-language Theatre de la Rue Saint Pierre, which opened in 1792. The first opera in New Orleans was performed there in 1796. In the nineteenth century, the city was the home of two of America's most important venues for French opera, the Théâtre d'Orléans and later the French Opera House. Today, opera is performed by the New Orleans Opera. The Marigny Opera House is home to the Marigny Opera Ballet and also hosts opera, jazz, and classical music performances.
New Orleans has long been a significant center for music, showcasing its intertwined European, African and Latino American cultures. The city's unique musical heritage was born in its colonial and early American days from a unique blending of European musical instruments with African rhythms. As the only North American city to have allowed slaves to gather in public and play their native music (largely in Congo Square, now located within Louis Armstrong Park), New Orleans gave birth in the early 20th century to an epochal indigenous music: jazz. Soon, African American brass bands formed, beginning a century-long tradition. The Louis Armstrong Park area, near the French Quarter in Tremé, contains the New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park. The city's music was later also significantly influenced by Acadiana, home of Cajun and Zydeco music, and by Delta blues.
New Orleans' unique musical culture is on display in its traditional funerals. A spin on military funerals, New Orleans' traditional funerals feature sad music (mostly dirges and hymns) in processions on the way to the cemetery and happier music (hot jazz) on the way back. Until the 1990s, most locals preferred to call these "funerals with music". Visitors to the city have long dubbed them "jazz funerals".
Much later in its musical development, New Orleans was home to a distinctive brand of rhythm and blues that contributed greatly to the growth of rock and roll. An example of the New Orleans' sound in the 1960s is the No. 1 U.S. hit "Chapel of Love" by the Dixie Cups, a song which knocked the Beatles out of the top spot on the Billboard Hot 100. New Orleans became a hotbed for funk music in the 1960s and 1970s, and by the late 1980s, it had developed its own localized variant of hip hop, called bounce music. While not commercially successful outside of the Deep South, bounce music was immensely popular in poorer neighborhoods throughout the 1990s.
A cousin of bounce, New Orleans hip hop achieved commercial success locally and internationally, producing Lil Wayne, Master P, Birdman, Juvenile, Suicideboys, Cash Money Records and No Limit Records. Additionally, the popularity of cowpunk, a fast form of southern rock, originated with the help of several local bands, such as The Radiators, Better Than Ezra, Cowboy Mouth and Dash Rip Rock. Throughout the 1990s, many sludge metal bands started. New Orleans' heavy metal bands such as Eyehategod,[223] Soilent Green,[224] Crowbar,[225] and Down incorporated styles such as hardcore punk,[226] doom metal, and southern rock to create an original and heady brew of swampy and aggravated metal that has largely avoided standardization.[223][224][225][226]
New Orleans is the southern terminus of the famed Highway 61, made musically famous by musician Bob Dylan in his song, "Highway 61 Revisited".
Cuisine
New Orleans is world-famous for its cuisine. The indigenous cuisine is distinctive and influential. New Orleans food combined local Creole, haute Creole and New Orleans French cuisines. Local ingredients, French, Spanish, Italian, African, Native American, Cajun, Chinese, and a hint of Cuban traditions combine to produce a truly unique and easily recognizable New Orleans flavor.
New Orleans is known for specialties including beignets (locally pronounced like "ben-yays"), square-shaped fried dough that could be called "French doughnuts" (served with café au lait made with a blend of coffee and chicory rather than only coffee); and po' boy[227] and Italian muffuletta sandwiches; Gulf oysters on the half-shell, fried oysters, boiled crawfish and other seafood; étouffée, jambalaya, gumbo and other Creole dishes; and the Monday favorite of red beans and rice (Louis Armstrong often signed his letters, "Red beans and ricely yours"). Another New Orleans specialty is the praline locally /ˈprɑːliːn/, a candy made with brown sugar, granulated sugar, cream, butter, and pecans. The city offers notable street food[228] including the Asian inspired beef Yaka mein.
Dialect
New Orleans developed a distinctive local dialect that is neither Cajun English nor the stereotypical Southern accent that is often misportrayed by film and television actors. Like earlier Southern Englishes, it features frequent deletion of the pre-consonantal "r", though the local white dialect also came to be quite similar to New York accents.[229] No consensus describes how this happened, but it likely resulted from New Orleans' geographic isolation by water and the fact that the city was a major immigration port throughout the 19th century and early 20th century. Specifically, many members of European immigrant families originally raised in the cities of the Northeast, namely New York, moved to New Orleans during this time frame, bringing their Northeastern accents along with their Irish, Italian (especially Sicilian), German, and Jewish culture.[230]
One of the strongest varieties of the New Orleans accent is sometimes identified as the Yat dialect, from the greeting "Where y'at?" This distinctive accent is dying out in the city, but remains strong in the surrounding parishes.
Less visibly, various ethnic groups throughout the area have retained distinct language traditions. Since Louisiana became the first U.S. state to join the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie in 2018, New Orleans has reemerged as an important center for the state's francophone and creolophone cultures and languages, as seen in new organizations such as the Nous Foundation.[231] Although rare, Louisiana French and Louisiana Creole are still spoken in the city. There is also Louisiana-Canarian Spanish dialect, the Isleño Spanish, spoken by the Isleño people and older members of the population.
Sports
| Club | Sport | League | Venue (capacity) | Founded | Titles | Record attendance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| New Orleans Saints | American football | NFL | Caesars Superdome (73,208) | 1967 | 1 | 73,373 |
| New Orleans Pelicans | Basketball | NBA | Smoothie King Center (16,867) | 2002 | 0 | 18,444 |
| New Orleans Jesters | Soccer | NPSL | Pan American Stadium (5,000) | 2003 | 0 | 5,000 |
| NOLA Gold | Rugby Union | MLR | Goldmine on Airline (10,000) | 2017 | 0 |
New Orleans' professional sports teams include the 2009 Super Bowl XLIV champion New Orleans Saints (NFL) and the New Orleans Pelicans (NBA).[232][233][234] It is also home to the Big Easy Rollergirls, an all-female flat track roller derby team, and the New Orleans Blaze, a women's football team.[235][236] New Orleans is also home to two NCAA Division I athletic programs, the Tulane Green Wave of the American Athletic Conference and the UNO Privateers of the Southland Conference.
The Caesars Superdome is the home of the Saints, the Sugar Bowl, and other prominent events. It has hosted the Super Bowl a record seven times (1978, 1981, 1986, 1990, 1997, 2002, and 2013). The Smoothie King Center is the home of the Pelicans, VooDoo, and many events that are not large enough to need the Superdome. New Orleans is also home to the Fair Grounds Race Course, the nation's third-oldest thoroughbred track. The city's Lakefront Arena has also been home to sporting events.
Each year New Orleans plays host to the Sugar Bowl, the New Orleans Bowl, the Bayou Classic, and the Zurich Classic, a golf tournament on the PGA Tour. In addition, it has often hosted major sporting events that have no permanent home, such as the Super Bowl, ArenaBowl, NBA All-Star Game, BCS National Championship Game, and the NCAA Final Four. The Rock 'n' Roll Mardi Gras Marathon and the Crescent City Classic are two annual road running events.
In 2017, Major League Rugby had its inaugural season, and NOLA Gold were one of the first teams in the league.[237] They play at the Gold Mine on Airline, a former minor league baseball stadium in the suburb of Metairie. In 2022, a consortium started an attempt to bring professional soccer to New Orleans, hoping to place teams in the male USL Championship and women's USL Super League by 2025.[238]
National protected areas
Government
| Year | Republican | Democratic | Third party(ies) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | % | No. | % | No. | % | |
| 2024 | 24,119 | 15.16% | 130,749 | 82.16% | 4,262 | 2.68% |
| 2020 | 26,664 | 15.00% | 147,854 | 83.15% | 3,301 | 1.86% |
| 2016 | 24,292 | 14.65% | 133,996 | 80.81% | 7,524 | 4.54% |
| 2012 | 28,003 | 17.74% | 126,722 | 80.30% | 3,088 | 1.96% |
| 2008 | 28,130 | 19.08% | 117,102 | 79.42% | 2,207 | 1.50% |
| 2004 | 42,847 | 21.74% | 152,610 | 77.43% | 1,646 | 0.84% |
| 2000 | 39,404 | 21.74% | 137,630 | 75.95% | 4,187 | 2.31% |
| 1996 | 39,576 | 20.84% | 144,720 | 76.20% | 5,615 | 2.96% |
| 1992 | 52,019 | 26.36% | 133,261 | 67.53% | 12,069 | 6.12% |
| 1988 | 64,763 | 35.24% | 116,851 | 63.58% | 2,186 | 1.19% |
| 1984 | 86,316 | 41.71% | 119,478 | 57.73% | 1,162 | 0.56% |
| 1980 | 74,302 | 39.54% | 106,858 | 56.87% | 6,744 | 3.59% |
| 1976 | 70,925 | 42.14% | 93,130 | 55.33% | 4,249 | 2.52% |
| 1972 | 88,075 | 54.55% | 60,790 | 37.65% | 12,581 | 7.79% |
| 1968 | 47,728 | 26.71% | 72,451 | 40.55% | 58,489 | 32.74% |
| 1964 | 81,049 | 49.69% | 82,045 | 50.31% | 0 | 0.00% |
| 1960 | 47,111 | 26.80% | 87,242 | 49.64% | 41,414 | 23.56% |
| 1956 | 93,082 | 56.54% | 64,958 | 39.46% | 6,594 | 4.01% |
| 1952 | 85,572 | 48.74% | 89,999 | 51.26% | 0 | 0.00% |
| 1948 | 29,442 | 23.78% | 41,900 | 33.85% | 52,443 | 42.37% |
| 1944 | 20,190 | 18.25% | 90,411 | 81.74% | 7 | 0.01% |
| 1940 | 16,406 | 14.35% | 97,930 | 85.63% | 28 | 0.02% |
| 1936 | 10,254 | 8.67% | 108,012 | 91.32% | 16 | 0.01% |
| 1932 | 5,407 | 5.95% | 85,288 | 93.87% | 165 | 0.18% |
| 1928 | 14,424 | 20.51% | 55,919 | 79.49% | 0 | 0.00% |
| 1924 | 7,865 | 16.46% | 37,785 | 79.06% | 2,141 | 4.48% |
| 1920 | 17,819 | 35.26% | 32,724 | 64.74% | 0 | 0.00% |
| 1916 | 2,531 | 7.45% | 30,936 | 91.03% | 516 | 1.52% |
| 1912 | 904 | 2.74% | 26,433 | 80.03% | 5,692 | 17.23% |
The city of New Orleans is a political subdivision of the U.S. state of Louisiana. The city and the parish of Orleans operate as a merged city-parish government.[240] The original city was composed of what are now the 1st through 9th wards. The city of Lafayette (including the Garden District) was added in 1852 as the 10th and 11th wards. In 1870, Jefferson City, including Faubourg Bouligny and much of the Audubon and University areas, was annexed as the 12th, 13th, and 14th wards. Algiers, on the west bank of the Mississippi, was also annexed in 1870, becoming the 15th ward.
New Orleans has a mayor-council government, following a home rule charter adopted in 1954, as later amended. The city council consists of seven members, five elected from single-member districts and two members elected at-large, that is, across the city-parish. LaToya Cantrell assumed the mayor's office in 2018 as the first female mayor of the city. An ordinance in 2006 established an Office of Inspector General to review city government activities.
New Orleans' government is largely centralized in the city council and mayor's office, but it maintains earlier systems from when various sections of the city managed their affairs separately. For example, New Orleans had seven elected tax assessors, each with their own staff, representing various districts of the city, rather than one centralized office. A constitutional amendment passed on November 7, 2006, consolidated the seven assessors into one in 2010.[241]
The City of New Orleans, used Archon Information Systems software and services to host multiple online tax sales. The first tax sale was held after Hurricane Katrina.[242] The New Orleans government operates both a fire department and the New Orleans Emergency Medical Services.
New Orleans is the only city in Louisiana that refuses to pay court-ordered judgements when it loses a case that were awarded to the other party.[243] The city uses a provision in the Louisiana Constitution that prohibits the seizure of a city's property to pay a judgment when it loses a lawsuit. According to an article, "The constitution says the funds can't be seized and can only be paid out if the government appropriates the money. In other words, if the City of New Orleans doesn't budget the funds for judgments, no judge can force the city to pay."[244] Only if the city council chooses to vote to pay a judgment can the other party be paid. Since the city cannot be forced to pay judgments unless it chooses to do so, it simply does not pay. More than $36 million in over 500 unpaid judgements issued against the city are simply ignored, some going as far back as 1996.[245]
The Orleans Parish Civil Sheriff's Office serves papers involving lawsuits, provides court security, and operates the city's correctional facilities, including Orleans Parish Prison. The sheriff's office shares legal jurisdiction with the New Orleans Police Department and provides it with backup on an as-needed basis. Before 2010, New Orleans (and all other parishes in Louisiana) had separate criminal and civil sheriff's offices, corresponding to the separate criminal and civil courts: these were merged in 2010 by Louisiana Revised Statute 33:1500.[246] As of 2024[update] the sheriff is Susan Hutson, who defeated 17-year incumbent Marlin Gusman in the 2021 New Orleans City Election.[247][248]
Crime
Crime is a notable ongoing problem in New Orleans. As in comparable U.S. cities, the incidence of homicide and other violent crimes is usually highly concentrated in certain impoverished neighborhoods.[249] Arrested offenders in New Orleans are almost exclusively black males from impoverished communities: in 2011, 97% were black and 95% were male; 91% of victims were black as well.[250] The city's murder rate has been historically high and consistently among the highest rates nationwide since the 1970s. From 1994 to 2013, New Orleans was the country's "Murder Capital", annually averaging over 200 murders.[251] The first record was broken in 1979 when the city reached 242 homicides.[251] The record was broken again reaching 250 by 1989 to 345 by the end of 1991.[252][253] By 1993, New Orleans had 395 murders: 80.5 for every 100,000 residents.[254] In 1994, the city was officially named the "Murder Capital of America", hitting a historic peak of 424 murders. The murder count was one of the highest in the world and surpassed that of such cities as Gary, Indiana, Washington, D.C., and Baltimore.[255][256][257][258] In 1999, the city's murder rate dropped down to a low of 158 and climbed to the high 200s in the early 2000s. Between 2000 and 2004, New Orleans had the highest homicide rate per capita of any city in the U.S., with 59 people killed per year per 100,000 citizens.[259][260][261][257]
In 2006, with nearly half the population gone and widespread disruption and dislocation because of deaths and refugee relocations from Hurricane Katrina, the city hit another record of homicides. It was ranked as the most dangerous city in the country.[262][263] By 2009, there was a 17% decrease in violent crime, a decrease seen in other cities across the country. But the homicide rate remained among the highest[264] in the United States, at between 55 and 64 per 100,000 residents.[265] In 2010, New Orleans' homicide rate dropped to 49.1 per 100,000, but increased again in 2012, to 53.2,[266] the highest rate among cities of 250,000 population or larger.[267]
The violent crime rate is a key issue in every modern mayoral race. In January 2007, several thousand New Orleans residents marched to City Hall for a rally demanding police and city leaders tackle the crime problem. Then-Mayor Ray Nagin said he was "totally and solely focused" on addressing the problem. Later, the city implemented checkpoints during late night hours in problem areas.[268] The murder rate climbed 14% in 2011 to 57.88 per 100,000[269] rising to #21 in the world.[270] In 2016, according to annual crime statistics released by the New Orleans Police Department (NOPD), 176 were murdered.[271][272] In 2017, New Orleans had the highest rate of gun violence, surpassing the more populated Chicago and Detroit.[273][274] In 2020, murders increased 68% from 2019 with a total of 202 murders. Criminal justice observers blamed impacts from COVID-19 and changes in police strategies for the uptick.[275][276] In 2022, New Orleans' homicide rate skyrocketed, leading every major city, hence the city again being declared as the "Murder Capital of America". The 2022 city homicide count increased to 280 which was a 26-year high.[277][278] The NOPD dropped to under 1,000 officers in 2022 which means the department is severely understaffed for the city's population.[279] NOPD is actively working to reduce violent crime by offering attractive incentives to recruit and retain more officers.[280]
Education
Colleges and universities
New Orleans has the highest concentration of colleges and universities in Louisiana and one of the highest in the Southern United States. New Orleans also has the third highest concentration of historically black collegiate institutions in the U.S.
Colleges and universities based within the city include:
- Tulane University
- Loyola University New Orleans
- University of New Orleans
- Xavier University of Louisiana
- Southern University at New Orleans
- Dillard University
- Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center
- University of Holy Cross
- Notre Dame Seminary
- New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary
- Delgado Community College
- William Carey College School of Nursing
Primary and secondary schools
Orleans Parish School Board (OPSB), also known as New Orleans Public Schools (NOPS), is the public school district for the entire city.[281] Katrina was a watershed moment for the school system. Pre-Katrina, NOPS was one of the area's largest systems (along with the Jefferson Parish public school system). It was also the lowest-performing school district in Louisiana. According to researchers Carl L. Bankston and Stephen J. Caldas, only 12 of the 103 public schools within the city limits showed reasonably good performance.[282]
Following Hurricane Katrina, the state of Louisiana took over most of the schools within the system (all schools that matched a nominal "worst-performing" metric). Many of these schools (and others) were subsequently granted operating charters giving them administrative independence from the Orleans Parish School Board, the Recovery School District or the Louisiana Board of Elementary and Secondary Education (BESE). At the start of the 2014 school year, all public school students in the NOPS system attended these independent public charter schools, the nation's first to do so.[283]
The charter schools made significant and sustained gains in student achievement, led by outside operators such as KIPP, the Algiers Charter School Network, and the Capital One–University of New Orleans Charter School Network. An October 2009 assessment demonstrated continued growth in the academic performance of public schools. Considering the scores of all public schools in New Orleans gives an overall school district performance score of 70.6. This score represents a 24% improvement over an equivalent pre-Katrina (2004) metric, when a district score of 56.9 was posted.[284] Notably, this score of 70.6 approaches the score (78.4) posted in 2009 by the adjacent, suburban Jefferson Parish public school system, though that system's performance score is itself below the state average of 91.[285]
One particular change was that parents could choose which school to enroll their children in, rather than attending the school nearest them.[286]
Libraries
Academic and public libraries as well as archives in New Orleans include Monroe Library at Loyola University, Howard-Tilton Memorial Library at Tulane University,[287] the Law Library of Louisiana,[288] and the Earl K. Long Library at the University of New Orleans.[289]
The New Orleans Public Library operates in 13 locations.[290] The main library includes a Louisiana Division that houses city archives and special collections.[291]
Other research archives are located at the Historic New Orleans Collection[292] and the Old U.S. Mint.[293]
An independently operated lending library called Iron Rail Book Collective specializes in radical and hard-to-find books. The library contains over 8,000 titles and is open to the public.
The Louisiana Historical Association was founded in New Orleans in 1889. It operated first at Howard Memorial Library. A separate Memorial Hall for it was later added to Howard Library, designed by New Orleans architect Thomas Sully.[294]
Media
Historically, the major newspaper in the area was The Times-Picayune. The paper made headlines of its own in 2012 when owner Advance Publications cut its print schedule to three days each week, instead focusing its efforts on its website, NOLA.com. That action briefly made New Orleans the largest city in the country without a daily newspaper, until the Baton Rouge newspaper The Advocate began a New Orleans edition in September 2012. In June 2013, the Times-Picayune resumed daily printing with a condensed newsstand tabloid edition, nicknamed TP Street, which is published on the three days each week that its namesake broadsheet edition is not printed (the Picayune has not returned to daily delivery). With the resumption of daily print editions from the Times-Picayune and the launch of the New Orleans edition of The Advocate, now The New Orleans Advocate, the city had two daily newspapers for the first time since the afternoon States-Item ceased publication on May 31, 1980. In 2019, the papers merged to form The Times-Picayune/The New Orleans Advocate.
In addition to the daily newspaper, weekly publications include The Louisiana Weekly and Gambit Weekly.[295] Also in wide circulation is the Clarion Herald, the newspaper of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans.
Greater New Orleans is the 54th largest designated market area (DMA) in the U.S., serving at least 566,960 homes.[296] Major television network affiliates serving the area include:
WWOZ,[297] the New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Station, broadcasts[298] modern and traditional jazz, blues, rhythm and blues, brass band, gospel, cajun, zydeco, Caribbean, Latin, Brazilian, African and bluegrass 24 hours per day.
WTUL is Tulane University's radio station.[299] Its programming includes 20th century classical, reggae, jazz, showtunes, indie rock, electronic music, soul/funk, goth, punk, hip hop, New Orleans music, opera, folk, hardcore, Americana, country, blues, Latin, cheese, techno, local, world, ska, swing and big band, kids' shows, and news programming. WTUL is listener-supported and non-commercial. The disc jockeys are volunteers, many of them college students.
Louisiana's film and television tax credits spurred growth in the television industry, although to a lesser degree than in the film industry. Many films and advertisements were set there, along with television programs such as The Real World: New Orleans in 2000,[300] The Real World: Back to New Orleans in 2009 and 2010,[301][302] and Bad Girls Club: New Orleans in 2011.[303]
Two radio stations that were influential in promoting New Orleans–based bands and singers were 50,000-watt WNOE (1060) and 10,000-watt WTIX (690 AM). These two stations competed head-to-head from the late 1950s to the late 1970s.
Transportation
Public transportation
Hurricane Katrina devastated transit service in 2005. The New Orleans Regional Transit Authority (RTA) was quicker to restore the streetcars to service, while bus service had only been restored to 35% of pre-Katrina levels as recently as the end of 2013. During the same period, streetcars arrived at an average of once every seventeen minutes, compared to bus frequencies of once every thirty-eight minutes. The same priority was demonstrated in RTA's spending, increasing the proportion of its budget devoted to streetcars to more than three times compared to its pre-Katrina budget.[304] Through the end of 2017, counting both streetcar and bus trips, only 51% of service had been restored to pre-Katrina levels.[305]
In 2017, the New Orleans Regional Transit Authority began operation on the extension of the Rampart–St. Claude streetcar line. Another change to transit service that year was the re-routing of the 15 Freret and 28 Martin Luther King bus routes to Canal Street. These increased the number of jobs accessible by a thirty-minute walk or transit ride: from 83,722 in 2016 to 89,216 in 2017. This resulted in a regional increase in such job access by more than a full percentage point.[305]
Streetcars
New Orleans has four active streetcar lines:
- The St. Charles Streetcar Line is the oldest continuously operating streetcar line in the U.S.[306] The line first operated as local rail service in 1835 between Carrollton and downtown New Orleans. Operated by the Carrollton & New Orleans R.R. Co., the locomotives were then powered by steam engines, and a one-way fare cost 25 cents.[307] Each car is a historic landmark. It runs from Canal Street to the other end of St. Charles Avenue, then turns right into South Carrollton Avenue to its terminal at Carrollton and Claiborne.
- The Riverfront Streetcar Line runs parallel to the river from Esplanade Street through the French Quarter to Canal Street to the Convention Center above Julia Street in the Arts District.
- The Canal Streetcar Line uses the Riverfront line tracks from the intersection of Canal Street and Poydras Street, down Canal Street, then branches off and ends at the cemeteries at City Park Avenue, with a spur running from the intersection of Canal and Carrollton Avenue to the entrance of City Park at Esplanade, near the entrance to the New Orleans Museum of Art.
- The Rampart–St. Claude Streetcar Line opened on January 28, 2013, as the Loyola-UPT Line running along Loyola Avenue from New Orleans Union Passenger Terminal to Canal Street, then continuing along Canal Street to the river, and on weekends on the Riverfront line tracks to French Market. The French Quarter Rail Expansion extended the line from the Loyola Avenue/Canal Street intersection along Rampart Street and St. Claude Avenue to Elysian Fields Avenue. It no longer runs along Canal Street to the river, or on weekends on the Riverfront line tracks to French Market.
The city's streetcars were featured in the Tennessee Williams play A Streetcar Named Desire. The streetcar line to Desire Street became a bus line in 1948.
Buses
Public transportation is operated by the New Orleans Regional Transit Authority ("RTA"). Many bus routes connect the city and suburban areas. The RTA lost 200+ buses in the flood. Some of the replacement buses operate on biodiesel.[308] The Jefferson Parish Department of Transit Administration[309] operates Jefferson Transit, which provides service between the city and its suburbs.[310]
Ferries
New Orleans has had continuous ferry service since 1827,[311] operating three routes as of 2017. The Canal Street Ferry (or Algiers Ferry) connects downtown New Orleans at the foot of Canal Street with the National Historic Landmark District of Algiers Point across the Mississippi ("West Bank" in local parlance). It services passenger vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. This same terminal also serves the Canal Street/Gretna Ferry, connecting Gretna, Louisiana for pedestrians and bicyclists only. A third auto/bicycle/pedestrian connects Chalmette, Louisiana and Lower Algiers.[312]
Bicycling
The city's flat landscape, simple street grid and mild winters facilitate bicycle ridership, helping to make New Orleans eighth among U.S. cities in its rate of bicycle and pedestrian transportation as of 2010,[313] and sixth in terms of the percentage of bicycling commuters.[314] New Orleans is located at the start of the Mississippi River Trail, a 3,000-mile (4,800 km) bicycle path that stretches from the city's Audubon Park to Minnesota.[315] Since Katrina the city has actively sought to promote bicycling by constructing a $1.5 million bike trail from Mid-City to Lake Pontchartrain,[316] and by adding over 37 miles (60 km) of bicycle lanes to various streets, including St. Charles Avenue.[313] In 2009, Tulane University contributed to these efforts by converting the main street through its Uptown campus, McAlister Place, into a pedestrian mall open to bicycle traffic.[317] The Lafitte Greenway bicycle and pedestrian trail opened in 2015, and is ultimately planned to extend 3.1-mile (5.0 km) from the French Quarter to Lakeview. New Orleans has been recognized for its abundance of uniquely decorated and uniquely designed bicycles.[318]
Roads
New Orleans is served by Interstate 10, Interstate 610 and Interstate 510. I-10 travels east–west through the city as the Pontchartrain Expressway. In New Orleans East it is known as the Eastern Expressway. I-610 provides a direct shortcut for traffic passing through New Orleans via I-10, allowing that traffic to bypass I-10's southward curve.
In addition to the interstates, U.S. 90 travels through the city, while U.S. 61 terminates downtown. In addition, U.S. 11 terminates in the eastern portion of the city.
New Orleans is home to many bridges; Crescent City Connection is perhaps the most notable. It serves as New Orleans' major bridge across the Mississippi, providing a connection between the city's downtown on the eastbank and its westbank suburbs. Other Mississippi crossings are the Huey P. Long Bridge, carrying U.S. 90 and the Hale Boggs Memorial Bridge, carrying Interstate 310.
The Twin Span Bridge, a five-mile (8 km) causeway in eastern New Orleans, carries I-10 across Lake Pontchartrain. Also in eastern New Orleans, Interstate 510/LA 47 travels across the Intracoastal Waterway/Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet Canal via the Paris Road Bridge, connecting New Orleans East and suburban Chalmette.
The tolled Lake Pontchartrain Causeway, consisting of two parallel bridges are, at 24 miles (39 km) long, the longest bridges in the world. Built in the 1950s (southbound span) and 1960s (northbound span), the bridges connect New Orleans with its suburbs on the north shore of Lake Pontchartrain via Metairie.
Taxi service
United Cab is the city's largest taxi service, with a fleet of over 300 cabs.[319] It has operated 365 days a year since its establishment in 1938, with the exception of the month after Hurricane Katrina, in which operations were temporarily shut down due to disruptions in radio service.[320]
United Cab's fleet was once larger than 450 cabs, but has been reduced in recent years due to competition from services like Uber and Lyft, according to owner Syed Kazmi.[319] In January 2016, New Orleans-based sweet shop Sucré approached United Cab with to deliver its king cakes locally on-demand. Sucré saw this partnership as a way to alleviate some of the financial pressure being placed on taxi services due to Uber's presence in the city.[321]
Airports
The metropolitan area is served by the Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport, located in the suburb of Kenner. Regional airports include the Lakefront Airport, Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base New Orleans (Callender Field) in the suburb of Belle Chasse and Southern Seaplane Airport, also located in Belle Chasse. Southern Seaplane has a 3,200-foot (980 m) runway for wheeled planes and a 5,000-foot (1,500 m) water runway for seaplanes.
Armstrong International is the busiest airport in Louisiana and the only to handle scheduled international passenger flights. As of 2018, more than 13 million passengers passed through Armstrong, on nonstops flights from more than 57 destinations, including foreign nonstops from the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Mexico, Jamaica and the Dominican Republic.
Rail
The city is served by Amtrak. The New Orleans Union Passenger Terminal is the central rail depot and is served by the Crescent, operating between New Orleans and New York City; the City of New Orleans, operating between New Orleans and Chicago and the Sunset Limited, operating between New Orleans and Los Angeles. Up until August 2005 (when Hurricane Katrina struck), the Sunset Limited's route continued east to Orlando.
With the strategic benefits of both the port and its double-track Mississippi River crossings, the city attracted all six of the Class I railroads in North America: Union Pacific Railroad, BNSF Railway, Norfolk Southern Railway, Canadian Pacific Kansas City, CSX Transportation and Canadian National Railway. The New Orleans Public Belt Railroad provides interchange services between the railroads.
Modal characteristics
According to the 2016 American Community Survey, 67.4% of working city of New Orleans residents commuted by driving alone, 9.7% carpooled, 7.3% used public transportation, and 4.9% walked. About 5% used all other forms of transportation, including taxicab, motorcycle, and bicycle. About 5.7% of working New Orleans residents worked at home.[322]
Many city of New Orleans households own no personal automobiles. In 2015, 18.8% of New Orleans households were without a car, which increased to 20.2% in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. New Orleans averaged 1.26 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household.[323]
New Orleans ranks high among cities in terms of the percentage of working residents who commute by walking or bicycling. In 2013, 5% of working people from New Orleans commuted by walking and 2.8% commuted by cycling. During the same period, New Orleans ranked thirteenth for percentage of workers who commuted by walking or biking among cities not included within the fifty most populous cities. Only nine of the most fifty most populous cities had a higher percentage of commuters who walked or biked than did New Orleans in 2013.[324]
Notable people
Sister cities
Sister cities of New Orleans are:[325]
Cap-Haïtien, Haiti[326]
Caracas, Venezuela
Durban, South Africa
Innsbruck, Austria
Isola del Liri, Italy
Juan-les-Pins (Antibes), France- Maracaibo, Venezuela
Matsue, Japan
Mérida, Mexico- Orléans, France
Pointe-Noire, Republic of the Congo
San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
Tainan, Taiwan
Tegucigalpa, Honduras
See also
- Buildings and architecture of New Orleans
- Cancer Alley
- The Cabildo
- French Quarter Festival
- Île d'Orléans, Louisiana
- List of people from New Orleans
- Mississippi (River) Suite, with an orchestral portrayal of Mardi Gras
- National Register of Historic Places listings in Orleans Parish, Louisiana
- Neighborhoods in New Orleans
- New Orleans in fiction
- New Orleans Suite, Duke Ellington recording
- New Orleans Union Passenger Terminal
- New Orleans Public Schools
- Pontalba Buildings
- The Presbytere
- Southern Food and Beverage Museum
- USS New Orleans, 5 ships
- USS Orleans Parish
Notes
- ^
- English: /ˈɔːrl(i)ənz/ OR-l(ee)ənz, /ɔːrˈliːnz/ or-LEENZ,[6] locally /ˈɔːrlənz/ OR-lənz[7]
- French: La Nouvelle-Orléans, pronounced [la nuvɛlɔʁleɑ̃]
- Louisiana Creole: Nouvèl Orleans
- ^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.
- ^ Official records for New Orleans have been kept at MSY since May 1, 1946.[124] Additional records from Audubon Park dating back to 1893 have also been included.
- ^ Sunshine normals are based on only 20 to 22 years of data.
- ^ a b From 15% sample
References
- ^ "2016 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on April 25, 2018. Retrieved July 2, 2017.
- ^ "U.S. Population Totals 2010–2020". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on August 29, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2021.
- ^ "List of 2020 Census Urban Areas". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on January 14, 2023. Retrieved July 22, 2023.
- ^ "Total Gross Domestic Product for New Orleans-Metairie, LA (MSA)". fred.stlouisfed.org. Archived from the original on January 4, 2024. Retrieved January 4, 2024.
- ^ "Gross Domestic Product: All Industries in Orleans Parish, LA". fred.stlouisfed.org. December 18, 2023.
- ^ New Orleans Archived March 6, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Merriam-Webster.
- ^ Romer, Megan. "How to Say 'New Orleans' Correctly". About Travel. about.com. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2015.
- ^ "QuickFacts: New Orleans city, Louisiana". United States Census Bureau. August 10, 2021. Archived from the original on August 29, 2021. Retrieved August 12, 2021.
- ^ Henry Louis Mencken (1924). The American Language: An Inquiry Into the Development of English in the United States. A. A. Knopf. p. 412.
- ^ Institute of New Orleans History and Culture Archived December 7, 2006, at the Wayback Machine at Gwynedd-Mercy College
- ^ "Hurricane on the Bayou – A MacGillivray Freeman Film". Hurricane on the Bayou. Archived from the original on January 15, 2016.
- ^ David Billings, "New Orleans: A Choice Between Destruction and Reparations", The Fellowship of Reconciliation, November/December 2005
- ^ Damian Dovarganes, Associated Press, "Spike Lee offers his take on Hurricane Katrina" Archived September 17, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, MSNBC, July 14, 2006
- ^ "The Founding French Fathers". Archived from the original on April 12, 2008. Retrieved April 26, 2008.
- ^ "Hollywood South: Why New Orleans Is the New Movie-Making Capital". ABC News. Archived from the original on September 17, 2022. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ "Hollywood South: Film Production and Movie Going in New Orleans". New Orleans Historical. Archived from the original on September 17, 2022. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ "Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1840". United States Census Bureau. 1998. Archived from the original on February 14, 2018. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
- ^ "About the Orleans Levee District". Orleans Levee. Archived from the original on June 25, 2018. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
- ^ Jervis, Rick. "Fifteen years and $15 billion since Katrina, New Orleans is more prepared for a major hurricane – for now". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on September 17, 2022. Retrieved July 16, 2021.
- ^ "Report: New Orleans Three Years After the Storm: The Second Kaiser Post-Katrina Survey, 2008". The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. August 1, 2008. Archived from the original on July 7, 2018. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
- ^ "Is Post-Katrina Gentrification Saving New Orleans Or Ruining It?". BuzzFeed. Archived from the original on September 2, 2017. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
- ^ Elie, Lolis (August 27, 2019). "Opinion | Gentrification Might Kill New Orleans Before Climate Change Does". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on September 27, 2022. Retrieved July 29, 2021.
- ^ "Gentrification a Growing Threat for Many New Orleans Residents". Louisiana Fair Housing Action Center. Archived from the original on September 14, 2021. Retrieved July 29, 2021.
- ^ Kinniburgh, Colin (August 9, 2017). "How to Stop Gentrification". The New Republic. ISSN 0028-6583. Archived from the original on September 17, 2022. Retrieved July 29, 2021.
- ^ Schirm, Cassie (January 4, 2023). "'It has been a horrific year': New Orleans' 2022 was a violent year, what analysts say we can learn from it for 2023". WDSU. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved August 20, 2023.
- ^ Robin, Natasha (September 19, 2022). "New Orleans tops the nation for homicides per capita". www.fox8live.com. Archived from the original on August 20, 2023. Retrieved August 20, 2023.
- ^ "Orleans Parish History and Information". Archived from the original on May 15, 2005. Retrieved March 18, 2008.
- ^ "Quick Facts – Louisiana Population Estimates". US Department of Commerce. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved January 6, 2017.
- ^ "2020 Population and Housing State Data". The United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on August 24, 2021. Retrieved August 18, 2021.
- ^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on December 27, 1996. Retrieved July 7, 2018.
- ^ "The Founding of New Orleans". American Battlefield Trust. August 2, 2023. Retrieved October 17, 2024.
- ^ "What's in a Name? Bulbancha and Mobilian Jargon". French Quarter Journal. Retrieved October 17, 2024.
- ^ Darensbourg, Jeffery U. (May 1, 2024). "Bulbancha". 64 Parishes. Retrieved October 17, 2024.
- ^ a b "French History in New Orleans". www.neworleans.com. Archived from the original on October 31, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ "History of New Orleans". www.neworleans.com. Archived from the original on August 19, 2022. Retrieved July 4, 2022.
- ^ "New Orleans Nicknames". New Orleans Convention & Visitors Bureau. Archived from the original on January 7, 2009. Retrieved December 2, 2008.
- ^ "Why Is New Orleans Called "The Big Easy?"". Southern Living. Archived from the original on October 31, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ a b "What do you call New Orleans? 11 of the good, bad and silly nicknames for an iconic city". NOLA.com. October 3, 2017. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ Ingersoll, Steve (March 2004). "New Orleans—"The City That Care Forgot" and Other Nicknames A Preliminary Investigation". New Orleans Public Library. Archived from the original on September 20, 2004. Retrieved February 9, 2009.
- ^ "VERIFY: Does New Orleans have an actual birthday?". WWL. December 15, 2017. Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
- ^ "Slave Resistance in Natchez, Mississippi (1719–1861) | Mississippi History Now". mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us. Archived from the original on October 26, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ Gayarré, Charles (1854). History of Louisiana: The French Domination. Vol. 1. New York, New York: Redfield. pp. 447–450. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
- ^ Gayarré 1854, p. 450.
- ^ Cummins, Light Townsend; Kheher Schafer, Judith; Haas, Edward F.; Kurtz, Micahel L. (2014). Wall, Bennett H.; Rodrigue, John C. (eds.). Louisiana: A History (6th ed.). Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley Blackwell. p. 59. ISBN 9781118619292. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ BlackPast (July 28, 2007). "(1724) Louisiana's Code Noir". Archived from the original on October 27, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ "From Benin to Bourbon Street: A Brief History of Louisiana Voodoo". www.vice.com. October 5, 2014. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ "The True History and Faith Behind Voodoo". FrenchQuarter.com. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ Cruzat, Heloise Hulse (1919). "The Ursulines of Louisiana". The Louisiana Historical Quarterly. 2 (1). Archived from the original on March 16, 2021. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ "Pauger's Savvy Move" (PDF). richcampanella.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 9, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ Cummins et al. 2014, p. 70.
- ^ José Presas y Marull (1828). Juicio imparcial sobre las principales causas de la revolución de la América Española y acerca de las poderosas razones que tiene la metrópoli para reconocer su absoluta independencia. (original document) [Fair judgment about the main causes of the revolution of Spanish America and about the powerful reasons that the metropolis has for recognizing its absolute independence]. Burdeaux: Imprenta de D. Pedro Beaume. pp. 22, 23. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved December 18, 2019.
- ^ "National Park Service. Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings. Ursuline Convent". Archived from the original on December 15, 2018. Retrieved September 10, 2010.
- ^ Ding, Loni (2001). "Part 1. Coolies, Sailors and Settlers". NAATA. PBS. Archived from the original on May 16, 2012. Retrieved May 19, 2011.
Some of the Filipinos who left their ships in Mexico ultimately found their way to the bayous of Louisiana, where they settled in the 1760s. The film shows the remains of Filipino shrimping villages in Louisiana, where, eight to ten generations later, their descendants still reside, making them the oldest continuous settlement of Asians in America.
Ding, Loni (2001). "1763 Filipinos in Louisiana". NAATA. PBS. Archived from the original on March 21, 2012. Retrieved May 19, 2011.These are the "Louisiana Manila men" with presence recorded as early as 1763.
Westbrook, Laura (2008). "Mabuhay Pilipino! (Long Life!): Filipino Culture in Southeast Louisiana". Louisiana Folklife Program. Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation & Tourism. Archived from the original on May 18, 2018. Retrieved May 13, 2018.
Fabros, Alex S. Jr. (February 1995). "When Hilario Met Sally: The Fight Against Anti-Miscegenation Laws". Filipinas Magazine. Burlingame, California: Positively Filipino LLC. Archived from the original on August 26, 2018. Retrieved August 25, 2018 – via Positively Filipino.
Mercene, Floro L. (2007). Manila Men in the New World: Filipino Migration to Mexico and the Americas from the Sixteenth Century. UP Press. pp. 106–08. ISBN 978-971-542-529-2. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved September 19, 2018. - ^ Mitchell, Barbara (Autumn 2010). "America's Spanish Savior: Bernardo de Gálvez marches to rescue the colonies". MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History: 98–104. Archived from the original on June 5, 2016. Retrieved June 11, 2016.
- ^ "The Louisiana Purchase". Monticello. Archived from the original on March 21, 2019. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ Lachance, Paul F. (1988). "The 1809 Immigration of Saint-Domingue Refugees to New Orleans: Reception, Integration and Impact". Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 29 (2): 110. JSTOR 4232650.
- ^ Brasseaux, Carl A.; Conrad, Glenn R., eds. (2016). The Road to Louisiana: The Saint-Domingue Refugees 1792–1809. Lafayette, Louisiana: University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press. ISBN 9781935754602. Archived from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved August 14, 2021.
- ^ a b "Haitian Immigration: 18th & 19th Centuries" Archived June 12, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, In Motion: African American Migration Experience, New York Public Library, accessed May 7, 2008
- ^ Gitlin 2009, p. 54.
- ^ Rasmussen, Daniel (2012). American Uprising: The Untold Story of America's Largest Slave Revolt. Harper Potential. ISBN 9780061995224.
- ^ Tom (March 18, 2015). "Rare 1815 Plan of the City and Suburbs of New Orleans". Cool Old Photos. Archived from the original on February 23, 2019. Retrieved February 23, 2019.
- ^ a b Groom, Winston (2007). Patriotic Fire: Andrew Jackson and Jean Laffite at the Battle of New Orleans. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-9566-7. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
- ^ "New Orleans: The Birthplace of Jazz" (primarily excerpted from Jazz: A History of America's Music). PBS – JAZZ A Film By Ken Burns. Archived from the original on August 12, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
- ^ "History of Les Gens De Couleur Libres". Archived from the original on May 22, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
- ^ Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999, pp. 2, 6
- ^ Gitlin 2009, p. 159.
- ^ Lewis, Peirce F., New Orleans: The Making of an Urban Landscape, Santa Fe, 2003, p. 175
- ^ a b Lawrence J. Kotlikoff and Anton J. Rupert, "The Manumission of Slaves in New Orleans, 1827–1846" Archived April 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, Southern Studies, Summer 1980
- ^ a b Gitlin 2009, p. 166.
- ^ "How Yellow Fever Turned New Orleans Into The 'City Of The Dead'". NPR. October 31, 2018. Archived from the original on June 28, 2023. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ "A lesson from history: How the yellow fever epidemic changed society". Palo Alto Weekly. May 10, 2020. Archived from the original on July 21, 2023. Retrieved July 21, 2023.
- ^ a b c d Nystrom, Justin A. (2010). New Orleans after the Civil War: Race, Politics, and a New Birth of Freedom. JHU Press. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-0-8018-9997-3.
- ^ "Benjamin Butler". 64 Parishes. Archived from the original on June 16, 2021. Retrieved July 29, 2021.
- ^ Gitlin 2009, p. 180.
- ^ Leslie's Weekly, December 11, 1902
- ^ Robert Tallant & Lyle Saxon, Gumbo Ya-Ya: Folk Tales of Louisiana, Louisiana Library Commission: 1945, p. 178
- ^ Brasseaux, Carl A. (2005). French, Cajun, Creole, Houma: A Primer on Francophone Louisiana. LSU Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-8071-3036-0. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
- ^ New Orleans City Guide. The Federal Writers' Project of the Works Progress Administration: 1938, p. 90
- ^ "Usticesi in the United States Civil War". The Ustica Connection. March 22, 2003. Archived from the original on February 16, 2019. Retrieved July 29, 2018.
- ^ Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, Vol. 2: From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism, 1955, p. 203.
- ^ Cook, "The Typographical Union and the New Orleans General Strike of 1892," Louisiana History, 1983; "Labor Trouble In New-Orleans," New York Times, November 5, 1892.
- ^ "Immigration / Italian". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. Retrieved December 29, 2017.
- ^ Gambino, Richard (2000). Vendetta: The True Story of the Largest Lynching in U.S. History. Guernica Editions. ISBN 978-1-55071-103-5. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
- ^ a b c Lewis, Peirce F., New Orleans: The Making of an Urban Landscape, Santa Fe, 2003, p. 175.
- ^ "July 1, 1929: Streetcar Workers Strike in New Orleans". Zinn Education Project. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved July 16, 2023.
- ^ Mizell-Nelson, Michael. "1929 Streetcar Strike - Stop 4 of 9 in the Streetcars and their Historian Michael Mizell-Nelson tour". New Orleans Historical. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved July 16, 2023.
- ^ Mizell-Nelson, Michael. "Po-Boy Sandwich - Stop 6 of 7 in the French Quarter Street Food tour". New Orleans Historical. Archived from the original on July 16, 2023. Retrieved July 16, 2023.
- ^ Sell, Jack (December 30, 1955). "Panthers defeat flu; face Ga. Tech next". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. p. 1. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved December 30, 2020.
- ^ Mulé, Marty – A Time For Change: Bobby Grier And The 1956 Sugar Bowl[usurped]. Black Athlete Sports Network, December 28, 2005
- ^ Zeise, Paul – Bobby Grier broke bowl's color line. The Panthers' Bobby Grier was the first African-American to play in Sugar Bowl Archived March 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, October 07, 2005
- ^ Thamel, Pete – Grier Integrated a Game and Earned the World's Respect Archived January 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. New York Times, January 1, 2006.
- ^ Jake Grantl (November 14, 2019). "Rearview Revisited: Segregation and the Sugar Bowl". Georgia Tech. Archived from the original on November 14, 2019. Retrieved November 14, 2019.
- ^ Germany, Kent B., New Orleans After the Promises: Poverty, Citizenship and the Search for the Great Society, Athens, 2007, pp. 3–5
- ^ a b Glassman, James K., "New Orleans: I have Seen the Future, and It's Houston", The Atlantic Monthly, July 1978
- ^ Kusky, Timothy M. (December 29, 2005). "Why is New Orleans Sinking?" (PDF). Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Saint Louis University. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 23, 2006. Retrieved June 17, 2006.
- ^ O'Hanlon, Larry (March 31, 2006). "New Orleans Sits Atop Giant Landslide". Discovery Channel. Archived from the original on June 14, 2006. Retrieved June 17, 2006.
- ^ Kevin Baker Archived October 5, 2009, at the Wayback Machine "The Future of New Orleans", American Heritage, April/May 2006.
- ^ Marshall, Bob (November 30, 2005). "17th Street Canal levee was doomed". The Times-Picayune. Archived from the original on September 7, 2006. Retrieved March 12, 2006.
- ^ "Deaths of evacuees push toll to 1,577". nola.com. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved March 22, 2008.
- ^ a b "After Katrina: 184 Infantry Soldiers to the Rescue" (PDF). The Spectrum, October 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 26, 2013. Retrieved December 19, 2018.
- ^ "Nagin Orders Mandatory Evacuation of New Orleans as Gustav Approaches". Fox news. August 30, 2008. Retrieved February 20, 2024.
- ^ "Mayor: Parts of New Orleans to reopen". CNN.com. September 15, 2005. Archived from the original on June 18, 2006. Retrieved May 2, 2006.
- ^ "N.O. head count gains steam" Archived July 1, 2009, at the Wayback Machine, The Times-Picayune, August 9, 2007. Retrieved August 14, 2007.
- ^ a b c "New Orleans' population estimate was low by 25,000, Census says", The Times-Picayune, January 8, 2010.
- ^ "Facts for Features: Katrina Impact | The Data Center". www.datacenterresearch.org. Archived from the original on August 30, 2023. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
- ^ "New Orleans Braces for Convention Comeback". CBS News. Archived from the original on May 20, 2008. Retrieved March 23, 2008.
- ^ "New Orleans Convention and Visitors Bureau". Archived from the original on April 3, 2008. Retrieved March 23, 2008.
- ^ Nola.com Archived June 22, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, New Orleans
- ^ Ghose, Tia (August 29, 2021). "'Extremely dangerous' Hurricane Ida makes landfall in Louisiana with 150 mph winds". LiveScience. Retrieved February 20, 2024.
- ^ "2010 Census Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. August 22, 2012. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
- ^ "New Study Maps Rate of New Orleans Sinking". NASA. May 16, 2016. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved May 16, 2016.
- ^ Campanella, R. Above-Sea-Level New Orleans Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine April 2007.
- ^ Williams, L. Higher Ground Archived August 19, 2017, at the Wayback Machine A study finds that New Orleans has plenty of real estate above sea level that is being underutilized. The Times Picayune, April 21, 2007.
- ^ Schlotzhauer, David; Lincoln, W. Scott (2016). "Using New Orleans Pumping Data to Reconcile Gauge Observations of Isolated Extreme Rainfall due to Hurricane Isaac". Journal of Hydrologic Engineering. 21 (9): 05016020. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)HE.1943-5584.0001338. ISSN 1084-0699.
- ^ Strecker, M. (July 24, 2006). "A New Look at Subsidence Issues".[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b c The New Orleans Hurricane Protection System: What Went Wrong and Why. Archived July 2, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Report by the American Society of Civil Engineers.
- ^ "New Study Maps Rate of New Orleans Sinking". May 16, 2016. Archived from the original on June 8, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
- ^ Brock, Eric J. New Orleans, Arcadia Publishing, Charleston, South Carolina (1999), pp. 108–09.
- ^ "Part 2-The Plan; Section 1-How We Live; Map-Local and National Register Historic Districts". Archived from the original on January 15, 2016.
- ^ a b c d e "NOWData – NOAA Online Weather Data". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on July 13, 2021. Retrieved May 25, 2021.
- ^ a b "WMO Climate Normals for NEW ORLEANS, LA 1961–1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on July 16, 2020. Retrieved March 27, 2014.
- ^ US Department of Commerce, NOAA. "2023 Summer Heat & Climatology". www.weather.gov. Retrieved July 5, 2024.
- ^ McCusker, John (December 11, 2008). "Sleet, snow tail off in New Orleans". nola.com. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020.
- ^ "Threaded Extremes". threadex.rcc-acis.org. Archived from the original on March 5, 2020. Retrieved September 3, 2016.
- ^ "Station: New Orleans INTL AP, LA". U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on December 4, 2021. Retrieved May 25, 2021.
- ^ "Station: New Orleans Audubon, LA". U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on October 27, 2021. Retrieved August 27, 2021.
- ^ Tidwell, Mike (2006). The Ravaging Tide: Strange Weather, Future Katrinas, and the Coming Death of America's Coastal Cities. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-3810-3. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
- ^ "Federal Emergency Management Agency". Archived from the original on July 3, 2012.
- ^ a b c See Hurricane preparedness for New Orleans#Early 20th century hurricanes
- ^ See Hurricane preparedness for New Orleans#Late 20th century hurricanes
- ^ McKinley, James C. Jr.; Urbina, Ian (September 12, 2008). "Huge Storm Slams Into Coast of Texas". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 12, 2017. Retrieved February 22, 2017.
- ^ Rita's impact, city by city. Flooding and power outages plague Texas and Louisiana. Archived November 15, 2007, at the Wayback Machine CNN, September 24, 2005.
- ^ "The Weather Channel's Special Report: Vulnerable Cities – New Orleans, Louisiana". Archived from the original on April 27, 2006. Retrieved October 26, 2006.
- ^ "New Orleans People, Pets Flee Flood (photographs)" National Geographic, August 30, 2005.
- ^ Floodwaters, tensions rise in New Orleans. Archived December 18, 2008, at the Wayback Machine CNN, August 31, 2005.
- ^ Barry, J.M. "What You Need to Know About Katrina – and Don't – Why It Makes Economic Sense to Protect and Rebuild New Orleans". Archived from the original on January 12, 2008. Retrieved December 11, 2007.
- ^ President Bush signs OCS revenue sharing bill; Statement by Governor Kathleen Babineaux Blanco. Archived November 7, 2007, at the Wayback Machine From: gov.louisiana.gov, December 20, 2006.
- ^ Walsh, B. Blanco, Nagin lobby for Louisiana aid. Archived July 1, 2009, at the Wayback Machine The Times Picayune, October 17, 2007.
- ^ "Levees Cannot Fully Eliminate Risk of Flooding to New Orleans" Archived April 28, 2009, at the Wayback Machine National Academy of Sciences, April 24, 2009
- ^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Archived from the original on June 26, 2015. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
- ^ a b "County Totals Datasets: Population Estimates". Archived from the original on April 3, 2015. Retrieved March 26, 2015.
- ^ Gibson, Campbell (June 1998). "Population Of The 100 Largest Cities And Other Urban Places In The United States: 1790 To 1990". Population Division, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Archived from the original on March 14, 2007. Retrieved May 2, 2006.
- ^ "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places of 50,000 or More, Ranked by July 1, 2018 Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2018". United States Census Bureau, Population Division. Archived from the original on February 13, 2020. Retrieved May 23, 2019.
- ^ Gilbert C. Din; John E. Harkins (1996). New Orleans Cabildo: Colonial Louisiana's First City Government, 1769—1803. LSU Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8071-2042-2. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved August 18, 2020.
- ^ "Historical Census Browser". University of Virginia Library. Archived from the original on August 11, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
- ^ "Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on September 15, 2014. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
- ^ "Census 2000 PHC-T-4. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 26, 2014. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
- ^ "State & County QuickFacts". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on July 31, 2014. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
- ^ "Population and Housing Unit Estimates". Archived from the original on June 26, 2021. Retrieved July 1, 2021.
- ^ Hollander, Justin B.; Pallagast, Karina; Schwarz, Terry; Popper, Frank J. (January 2009). "Planning Shrinking Cities". CiteSeerX. Retrieved September 22, 2024.
- ^ William H. Frey (1987). "Migration and Depopulation of the Metropolis: Regional Restructuring or Rural Renaissance". American Sociological Review. 52 (2): 240–87. doi:10.2307/2095452. JSTOR 2095452.
- ^ a b Elizabeth Fussell (2007). "Constructing New Orleans, Constructing Race: A Population History of New Orleans". The Journal of American History. 93 (3): 846–55. doi:10.2307/25095147. JSTOR 25095147.
- ^ a b Bruce Katz (August 4, 2006). "Concentrated Poverty in New Orleans and Other American Cities". Brookings.
- ^ Daphne Spain (January 1979). "Race Relations and the Residential Segregation in New Orleans: Two Centuries of Paradox". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 441 (82).
- ^ R.W. Kates; C.E. Colten; S. Laska; S.P. Leatherman (2006). "Reconstruction of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina: a research perspective". PNAS. 103 (40): 14653–60. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10314653K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605726103. PMC 1595407. PMID 17003119.
- ^ "Population estimates by parish". US Census Bureau. Archived from the original on July 9, 2009. Retrieved March 22, 2008.
- ^ "Expert: N.O. population at 273,000". wwltv.com. August 7, 2007. Archived from the original on February 26, 2008. Retrieved April 3, 2008.
- ^ "Mail survey shows N.O. population at 69 percent of Pre-Katrina". wwltv.com. September 27, 2007. Archived from the original on March 27, 2008. Retrieved April 3, 2008.
- ^ Donze, Frank (July 2, 2010). "New Orleans post-Katrina population still growing, but at slower rate". nola.com. Archived from the original on June 20, 2017. Retrieved July 8, 2010.
- ^ Ehrenfeucht, Renia; Nelson, Marla (2011). "Planning, Population Loss and Equity in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina". Planning, Practice & Research. 26 (2): 129–46. doi:10.1080/02697459.2011.560457. S2CID 153893210.
- ^ a b Nelson, Marla; Ehrenfeucht, Renioa; Laska, Shirley (2007). "Planning, Plans and People: Professional Expertise, Local Knowledge, and Governmental Action in Post-Hurricane Katrina New Orleans". Cityscape. 9 (3): 23–52.
- ^ Reilly Morse (2008). Environmental Justice through the Eye of Hurricane Katrina. Washington, D.C.: Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, Health Policy Institute.
- ^ Olshansky, Robery; Johnson, Laurie A.; Horne, Jedidiah; Nee, Brendan (2008). "Longer View: Planning for the Rebuilding of New Orleans". Journal of the American Planning Association. 74 (3): 273–87. doi:10.1080/01944360802140835. S2CID 153673624. Archived from the original on May 22, 2020. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
- ^ Reardon, Kenneth M.; Ionesu, Heroiu; Rumbach, Andrew J. (2008). "Equity Planning in Post-Hurricane Katrina New Orleans: Lessons from te Ninth Ward". Cityscape. 10 (3): 57–76.
- ^ Eaton, Leslie (June 8, 2006). "Study Sees Increase in Illegal Hispanic Workers in New Orleans". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 24, 2008. Retrieved March 31, 2008.
- ^ "Metro area U.S. unauthorized immigrant population estimates, 2016 and 2007". Pew Research Center's Hispanic Trends Project. March 11, 2019. Archived from the original on July 17, 2021. Retrieved July 17, 2021.
- ^ Robert McClendon, 'Sanctuary city' policy puts an end to NOPD's immigration enforcement Archived November 7, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, NOLA.com | The Times-Picayune (March 1, 2016).
- ^ "Orleans County". Modern Language Association. Archived from the original on August 15, 2013. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
- ^ a b "2020 Racial and Ethnic Statistics". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on December 19, 2021. Retrieved January 4, 2022.
- ^ "New Orleans (city), Louisiana". State & County QuickFacts. U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on January 2, 2016.
- ^ a b c d "Louisiana – Race and Hispanic Origin for Selected Cities and Other Places: Earliest Census to 1990". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on August 12, 2012. Retrieved April 20, 2012.
- ^ "P004: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2000: DEC Summary File 1 – Orleans Parish, Louisiana". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on September 2, 2023. Retrieved September 2, 2023.
- ^ "P2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Orleans Parish, Louisiana". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on September 2, 2023. Retrieved September 2, 2023.
- ^ "P2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Orleans Parish, Louisiana". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on September 2, 2023. Retrieved September 2, 2023.
- ^ U.S. Census Bureau. "American FactFinder – Results". factfinder.census.gov. Archived from the original on May 20, 2011.
- ^ "Latinos account for over half of the country's population growth". NBC News. August 13, 2021. Archived from the original on January 17, 2022. Retrieved February 13, 2022.
- ^ Jessica Williams. (12 December 2021). "Census 2020: Who lives in the New Orleans metro now? Data show more diverse population". nola.com website Archived December 9, 2022, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 8 December 2022.
- ^ "Hispanic population booms in Kenner and elsewhere in New Orleans area" (Archive). The Times-Picayune. June 15, 2011. Retrieved on September 7, 2015.
- ^ Moreno Gonzales, J. Katrina Brought a Wave of Hispanics. Archived January 10, 2024, at the Wayback Machine Guardian Unlimited, July 2, 2007.
- ^ Nolan, Bruce. "New Orleans now home to thousands of Brazilians" (Archive). Houston Chronicle. Sunday January 27, 2008. Retrieved on September 6, 2015.
- ^ Mercene, Floro L. (2007). Manila Men in the New World: Filipino Migration to Mexico and the Americas from the Sixteenth Century. UP Press. pp. 107–08. ISBN 978-971-542-529-2. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved August 26, 2018.
- ^ Hiltner, Stephen (May 5, 2018). "Vietnamese Forged a Community in New Orleans. Now It May Be Fading". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 17, 2021. Retrieved July 17, 2021.
- ^ "LGBT Travellers in New Orleans, USA". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on July 17, 2021. Retrieved July 17, 2021.
- ^ "New Orleans Gay History". www.neworleans.com. Archived from the original on July 17, 2021. Retrieved July 17, 2021.
- ^ "Survey data shows New Orleans in top 10 of metro areas with gay population". NOLA.com. March 21, 2015. Archived from the original on July 17, 2021. Retrieved July 17, 2021.
- ^ Leonhardt, David; Miller, Claire Cain (March 20, 2015). "The Metro Areas With the Largest, and Smallest, Gay Populations". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 8, 2017. Retrieved July 17, 2021.
- ^ "10 LGBTQ Bars to Check Out in New Orleans, the Most 'Anything Goes' City in America". Thrillist. June 19, 2019. Archived from the original on May 12, 2021. Retrieved July 17, 2021.
- ^ "New Orleans Archdiocese (Catholic-Hierarchy)". Archived from the original on February 6, 2007. Retrieved September 20, 2020.
- ^ "Parishes". Archdiocese of New Orleans. Archived from the original on December 11, 2022. Retrieved December 11, 2022.
- ^ "Maps and data files for 2020 | U.S. Religion Census | Religious Statistics & Demographics". U.S. Religion Census. Association of Religion Data Archives. Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. Retrieved December 10, 2022.
- ^ New Orleans, "now under the flag of the United States, is still very much a Caribbean city...." "The Pearl of the Antilles and the Crescent City: Historic Maps of the Caribbean in the Latin American Library Map Collections". Latin American Library, Tulane University. Archived from the original on December 8, 2006. Retrieved January 4, 2007.
- ^ New Orleans is described as "a Caribbean city, an exuberant, semi-tropical city, perhaps the most hedonistic city in the United States". R.W. Apple Jr. "Apple's America". Archived from the original (quoted on ePodunk.com) on October 13, 2007. Retrieved January 4, 2007.
- ^ New Orleans "is often called the northernmost Caribbean city". Kemp, John R. (November 30, 1997). "When the painter met the Creoles". The Boston Globe. p. G3. Archived from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2007.
- ^ "The High Priestess of the French Quarter". 64 Parishes. December 5, 2016. Archived from the original on January 25, 2020. Retrieved November 18, 2020.
- ^ "GoNOLA Find: Popp's Fountain in City Park". GoNOLA.com. July 5, 2014. Archived from the original on June 16, 2023. Retrieved February 27, 2024.
- ^ "The Jewish Community of New Orleans". Beit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project. The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. Archived from the original on July 19, 2018. Retrieved July 19, 2018.
- ^ Nolan, Bruce (August 25, 2012). "Congregation Beth Israel ends 7 years of Hurricane Katrina-induced wandering". The Times-Picayune. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 2, 2014.
- ^ Killion, Aubry (March 15, 2019). "Members of the New Orleans Islamic community on high alert". WDSU. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ "Krewe: New Orleans' hidden community". ViaNolaVie. Archived from the original on October 26, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ "New Orleans, Louisiana Religion". bestplaces.net. Archived from the original on March 21, 2019. Retrieved March 21, 2019.
- ^ "Ports of South Louisiana, New Orleans & Plaquemines Ranked #1, #4 & #11 in America | Greater New Orleans, Inc". gnoinc.org. July 11, 2018. Archived from the original on October 31, 2020. Retrieved October 28, 2020.
- ^ "A Wary New Orleans Braces for a New Tech Boom". Bloomberg.com. May 10, 2021. Archived from the original on November 29, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ "New Orleans remaking itself into tech hub: report". NOLA.com. November 22, 2018. Archived from the original on July 31, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ "Greater New Orleans, Inc. | Regional Economic Alliance". Gnoinc.org. Archived from the original on April 6, 2013. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
- ^ "INTERMARINE- Ocean Carrier – Built on Performance". Intermarine. Archived from the original on July 31, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ "Bisso Towboat". Archived from the original on July 27, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ "Northrop Grumman Gulf Coast Shipyards Return to Work". Northrop Grumman Newsroom. Archived from the original on July 31, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ "StackPath". www.expeditors.com. Archived from the original on July 31, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ "Silocaf USA LLC". www.bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on August 30, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ "Where We Roast – Folger Coffee Company | Folgers Coffee". www.folgerscoffee.com. Archived from the original on August 1, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ "The Crescent City Coffee Connection: History and Heritage Imbues Each Cup". FrenchQuarter.com. Archived from the original on July 31, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ Louisiana Quick Facts. Archived February 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. Retrieved November 12, 2007.
- ^ "Fortune 500 2011: States: Louisiana Companies - FORTUNE on CNNMoney.com". money.cnn.com. Archived from the original on July 31, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ "McMoRan Exploration shareholders approve plan to merge with Freeport-McMoran". NOLA.com. June 4, 2013. Archived from the original on December 7, 2021. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
- ^ a b "2006–07 Marketing Plan" (PDF). Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation, and Tourism. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 9, 2008. Retrieved March 22, 2008.
- ^ "World Cultural Economic Forumn". Archived from the original on March 14, 2016. Retrieved July 15, 2008.
- ^ "Overseas visitors to select U.S. cities/Hawaiian Islands 2001–2000". U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Travel and Tourism Industries. Archived from the original on September 17, 2007. Retrieved November 12, 2007.
- ^ "New Orleans Media Information | Press Releases". www.neworleans.com. Archived from the original on September 4, 2019. Retrieved December 18, 2019.
- ^ "America's Favorite Cities". Travel + Leisure. June 10, 2010. Archived from the original on July 1, 2010. Retrieved June 30, 2010.
- ^ "Travel + Leisure says New Orleans is tops for live music, cocktails and cheap eats". Archived from the original on January 17, 2016. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
- ^ "Treme film studio work begins". Archived from the original on May 5, 2008. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
- ^ "Blanco okays Broadway South tax credit program". Retrieved March 23, 2007.[dead link]
- ^ a b Huey, Steve. "Eyehategod". AllMusic. Retrieved June 22, 2008.
- ^ a b York, William. "Soilent Green". AllMusic. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved June 22, 2008.
- ^ a b Huey, Steve. "Crowbar". AllMusic. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved June 22, 2008.
- ^ a b Prato, Greg. "Down". Allmusic. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved June 22, 2008.
- ^ "New Orleans Po-Boy". www.neworleans.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
- ^ "New Orleans Street Foods, Snacks, & Sandwiches: Po' Boys, Oysters, Muffulettas, Beignets, Pralines". New York Food Journal. March 16, 2012. Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
- ^ Liebling, A. J. (1970). The Earl of Louisiana. Baton Rouge: LSU.
- ^ "Newcomers' Incentive Extension". Jewish Federation of Greater New Orleans. Archived from the original on May 24, 2008. Retrieved March 22, 2008.
- ^ Hasselle, Della (October 13, 2018). "Louisiana Joins International Organization of French-speaking Governments". NOLA.com. Archived from the original on July 26, 2020. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
- ^ "The Official website of the New Orleans Pelicans". Pelicans.com. Archived from the original on December 23, 2022. Retrieved December 24, 2022.
- ^ "The Official website of the New Orleans Saints". neworleanssaints.com. New Orleans Saints. Archived from the original on December 24, 2022. Retrieved December 24, 2022.
- ^ "The New Orleans VooDoo and the Arena Football League are returning". Archived from the original on September 18, 2010. Retrieved September 15, 2010.
- ^ "History of the New Orleans Blaze" (PDF). New Orleans Blaze. April 3, 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 1, 2008. Retrieved September 27, 2008.
- ^ Vargas, Ramon (May 4, 2007). "Big Easy Rollergirls deliver bruising derby action". New Orleans CityBusiness. Archived from the original on June 22, 2007. Retrieved September 27, 2008.
- ^ "NOLA Gold Rugby - Official Website". NOLA Gold Rugby. Archived from the original on July 16, 2022. Retrieved July 15, 2022.
- ^ USLChampionship com Staff (July 14, 2022). "Local group aims to bring USL club to New Orleans". USL Championship. Archived from the original on July 14, 2022. Retrieved July 15, 2022.
- ^ "Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections". uselectionatlas.org. Archived from the original on February 22, 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2021.
- ^ "Find a County". National Association of Counties. Archived from the original on May 31, 2011. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
- ^ "Erroll Williams Elected CityWide Tax Assessor". he Times-Picayune. Archived from the original on February 22, 2010. Retrieved July 6, 2010.
- ^ "New Orleans to hold first online tax sale". Archived from the original on December 10, 2008. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
- ^ Myers, Ben (November 29, 2021). "'Insulting and disrespectful': city officials understate debt as unpaid judgment list keeps growing". NOLA.com. Archived from the original on August 1, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
- ^ Zurik, Lee; Sauer, Dannah (July 28, 2022). "ZURIK: New Orleans' refusal to pay judgments leaves victims suffering". Fox 8 News WVUE. Archived from the original on August 1, 2022. Retrieved October 17, 2013.
- ^ Lehto, Steve (July 31, 2022). "City Refuses to Pay Judgments and Nothing Happens". YouTube.com. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
- ^ "Louisiana Law Search". Legis.la.gov. Archived from the original on October 19, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2021.
- ^ "City elections in New Orleans, Louisiana (2021)". Archived from the original on October 19, 2022. Retrieved October 19, 2022.
- ^ "Welcome to Orleans Parish Sheriff's Office | Sheriff Susan Hutson". www.opso.us. Archived from the original on October 1, 2022. Retrieved October 19, 2022.
- ^ S. Ritea and T. Young. (February 8, 2004). "Violence thrives on lack of jobs, wealth of drugs". The Times-Picayune. Archived from the original on November 17, 2015. Retrieved January 23, 2018. PDF Archived May 24, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Crime in New Orleans: analyzing crime trends and New Orleans' responses to crime, Charles Wellford, Ph.D., Brenda J. Bond, Ph.D., Sean Goodison" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 1, 2015.
- ^ a b "Murders in New Orleans were slightly fewer in 2012 than in 2011". NOLA.com. January 2013. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved January 1, 2021.
- ^ Daniels, Lee A. (January 3, 1992). "Preliminary 1991 Figures Show Drop in Homicides". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 16, 2018. Retrieved February 10, 2018.
- ^ McLaughlin, Eliott C. (March 2012). "Fed up, New Orleans looks to shake Murder City title". CNN. Archived from the original on February 9, 2018. Retrieved February 8, 2018.
- ^ William Recktenwald; Patrick T. Reardon (May 5, 1994). "Crime-Rate Drop Can't Hide Danger". chicagotribune.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
- ^ KATZ, JESSE (September 7, 1995). "Police now the usual suspects in New Orleans: Officers have been tied to killings, including serial slayings. Yet the department has helped slash the murder rate". Archived from the original on February 14, 2017. Retrieved April 10, 2017 – via LA Times.
- ^ "Business | U.S. Murder Rate Down 8 Percent In 1995, FBI Says – Third-Steepest Drop In 30-Some Years Offset By Fears Over Rising Teen Violence". community.seattletimes.nwsource.com. Archived from the original on February 19, 2018. Retrieved February 19, 2018.
- ^ a b "New Orleans murder rate on the rise again". msnbc.com. August 18, 2005. Archived from the original on July 18, 2017. Retrieved January 12, 2018.
- ^ report, E. A. TORRIERO Staff WriterStaff Writer Kathy Bushouse contributed to this (December 29, 1996). "BIG TROUBLE IN BIG EASY: VIOLENT CRIMES ARE RISING". Sun-Sentinel.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
- ^ "Large Cities with Highest Murder Rate". donsnotes.com. Archived from the original on January 8, 2019. Retrieved August 26, 2018.
- ^ Nossiter, Adam (November 10, 2005). "New Orleans Crime Swept Away, With Most of the People". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 13, 2018. Retrieved January 29, 2018.
- ^ Daley, Ken (August 21, 2014). "New Orleans murders down in first half of 2014, but summer's death toll climbing". nola.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
- ^ Brown, Ethan (November 6, 2007). "New Orleans murder rate for year will set record". The Guardian. Archived from the original on May 1, 2018. Retrieved May 1, 2018 – via www.theguardian.com.
- ^ "Murder Rates Up in Many Major U.S. Cities in 2006". Associated Press. March 25, 2015. Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
- ^ "Police chief calls New Orleans top murder rank misleading". The Times-Picayune. June 3, 2009. Archived from the original on August 8, 2009. Retrieved February 21, 2010.
- ^ "Despite drop in crime, New Orleans' murder rate continues to lead nation". The Times-Picayune. June 1, 2009. Archived from the original on February 27, 2010. Retrieved February 21, 2010.
- ^ Louisiana Offenses Known to Law Enforcement Archived October 16, 2015, at the Wayback Machine FBI. Retrieved August 10, 2012
- ^ Uniform Crime Reporting Tool Archived July 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine FBI. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
- ^ "New Orleans mayoral candidates can agree: Crime is critical issue". The Times-Picayune. January 29, 2009. Archived from the original on March 4, 2010. Retrieved February 21, 2010.
- ^ Maggi, Laura (January 1, 2012). "New Orleans homicides jump by 14 percent in 2011". The Times-Picayune. Archived from the original on April 11, 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
- ^ "San Pedro Sula, la ciudad más violenta del mundo; Juárez, la segunda" (in Spanish). Security, Justice and Peace. January 8, 2012. Archived from the original on October 28, 2012. Retrieved January 7, 2012.
- ^ Bullington, Jonathan (January 4, 2017). "New Orleans last homicide of 2016 preliminarily ruled justifiable, NOPD says." Archived August 28, 2017, at the Wayback Machine The Times-Picayune. Retrieved January 15, 2017.
- ^ "The Demographics of Murder in New Orleans: 2016". January 4, 2017. Archived from the original on April 10, 2017. Retrieved April 10, 2017.
- ^ "Chicago NOT most dangerous U.S. city, new report says". June 20, 2017. Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
- ^ "New Orleans' homicide rate is higher than Chicago". WWL. May 8, 2017. Archived from the original on March 23, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
- ^ "New Orleans sees sharp uptick in murders in 2020 | Metropolitan Crime Commission". January 7, 2021. Archived from the original on January 19, 2021. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
- ^ "New Orleans sees sharp uptick in murders in 2020". January 8, 2021. Archived from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
- ^ Schirm, Cassie (January 4, 2023). "'It has been a horrific year': New Orleans' 2022 was a violent year, what analysts say we can learn from it for 2023". WDSU. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved January 23, 2023.
- ^ "New Orleans' homicide tally climbs to highest in 26 years". Fox 8 News. December 28, 2022. Archived from the original on January 21, 2023. Retrieved February 2, 2023.
- ^ Nick Smith, Nexstar Media Wire (September 26, 2022). "New Orleans police hiring civilians to combat officer shortage". The Hill. Archived from the original on January 12, 2023. Retrieved January 23, 2023.
- ^ "Skyrocketing homicide rates in 2022 in New Orleans: Murder capital of the U.S. report says". September 20, 2022. Archived from the original on December 3, 2022. Retrieved December 3, 2022.
- ^ "2020 CENSUS - SCHOOL DISTRICT REFERENCE MAP: Orleans Parish, LA" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022. - Text list Archived July 25, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Bankston III, Carl L. (2002). "A Troubled Dream: The Promise and Failure of School Desegregation in Louisiana". Vanderbilt University. Archived from the original on February 26, 2009.
- ^ Harden, Kari Dequine (June 2, 2014). "New Orleans nearing a 'privatized' public school system". Louisiana Weekly. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 1, 2014.
As the Recovery School District (RSD) shuts the doors on its remaining handful of traditional public schools, the start of the 2014 school year will usher in the nation's first completely privatized public school district.
- ^ "Orleans Parish school performance scores continue to improve", The Times-Picayune, October 14, 2009.
- ^ "Jefferson Parish schools make progress, but still have long way to go: an editorial Archived August 4, 2020, at the Wayback Machine", The Times-Picayune, October 15, 2009.
- ^ "Vallas wants no return to old ways Archived August 4, 2020, at the Wayback Machine", The Times-Picayune, July 25, 2009.
- ^ "Howard-Tilton Memorial Library". Archived from the original on May 17, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
- ^ "Law Library of Louisiana". Louisiana Supreme Court. Archived from the original on April 27, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
- ^ "Earl K. Long Library". University of New Orleans. Archived from the original on April 25, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
- ^ "NOPL Branches". Hubbell Library. Archived from the original on July 8, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
- ^ "Louisiana Division, City Archives and Special Collections". New Orleans Public Library. Archived from the original on June 15, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
- ^ "Williams Research Center". Historic New Orleans Collection. Archived from the original on June 15, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
- ^ "Old US Mint". Louisiana State Museum. Archived from the original on May 19, 2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
- ^ Kenneth Trist Urquhart (March 21, 1959). "Seventy Years of the Louisiana Historical Association" (PDF). Alexandria, Louisiana: lahistory.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2010. Retrieved July 21, 2010.
- ^ "New Orleans News and Entertainment". Gambit Weekly. Archived from the original on September 5, 2005. Retrieved September 3, 2005.
- ^ Nielsen Reports 1.1% increase in U.S. Television Households for the 2006–2007 Season. Archived July 5, 2009, at the Wayback Machine Nielson Media Research, August 23, 2006.
- ^ "WWOZ New Orleans 90.7 FM". WWOZ New Orleans 90.7 FM. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved October 21, 2007.
- ^ "Facts about WWOZ". Archived from the original on July 4, 2009.
- ^ "Home – WTUL New Orleans 91.5FM". www.wtulneworleans.com. Archived from the original on August 16, 2008. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- ^ Thompson, Richard. "Real World New Orleans: Toothbrush-as-toilet scrubber sickens housemate, triggers police action" Archived July 24, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Nola.com; March 21, 2010
- ^ Martin, Michael. "MTV Real World Back to New Orleans Filming Ends" Archived July 6, 2010, at the Wayback Machine Michael Martin Agency; May 12, 2010
- ^ Exton, Emily (July 1, 2010). "'The Real World: New Orleans' premiere recap: The bleach definitely went to his brain". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on May 29, 2022. Retrieved May 29, 2022.
- ^ "'Bad Girls Club' launches New Orleans season". NOLA.com. Archived from the original on June 20, 2017. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
- ^ Jaffe, Eric (August 17, 2015). "A Troubling Review of Public Transit in New Orleans Since Katrina". Bloomberg.com. City Lab. Archived from the original on May 20, 2018. Retrieved May 19, 2018.
- ^ a b "The State of Transit 2017: Creating our Transit Future". Ride New Orleans.
- ^ Terrell, Ellen (November 28, 2018). "St. Charles Avenue's Streetcar | Inside Adams: Science, Technology & Business". blogs.loc.gov. Archived from the original on November 13, 2019. Retrieved November 13, 2019.
- ^ Hennick, Louis C. and Elbridge Harper Charlton (2005). Streetcars of New Orleans. Gretna, LA: Jackson Square Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-1455612598. Archived from the original on January 10, 2024. Retrieved October 19, 2020.
- ^ Powell, Allen (June 23, 2010). "New Jefferson Transit buses run on biodiesel". The Times-Picayune. Archived from the original on March 2, 2022. Retrieved March 2, 2022.
- ^ Department of Transit Administration. Archived February 20, 2012, at the Wayback Machine The Parish of Jefferson. Retrieved November 12, 2007.
- ^ Jefferson Transit Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "History of New Orleans' Ferries". Friends of the Ferry. Archived from the original on May 20, 2018. Retrieved May 19, 2018.
- ^ "Friends of the Ferry". Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 2, 2014.
- ^ a b Molly Reid (May 21, 2010). "Bicycle Second Line celebrates New Orleans' expanded bike lanes and awareness". NOLA.com. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved January 1, 2021.
- ^ Advocate, The (May 21, 2023). "Politics | News from The Advocate". The Advocate. Archived from the original on November 7, 2018. Retrieved January 1, 2021.
- ^ "Welcome Mississippi River Trail". www.mississippirivertrail.org. Archived from the original on December 8, 2018. Retrieved December 23, 2018.
- ^ "Wisner bike path opens today".
- ^ "McAlister Place". tulane.edu. Archived from the original on August 20, 2010. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
- ^ "Markbattypublisher.com". Archived from the original on February 1, 2015.
- ^ a b Farris, Meg (September 12, 2018). "BREAKING LIVE VIDEO LIVE @ 11:30 AM: Update on Canal St mass shooting from NOPD LOCAL Cab companies: City regulations will force us to close". 4WWL TV. Retrieved December 2, 2019.
- ^ Morris, Robert (March 10, 2016). "Danae Columbus: United Cab says business down 50 percent since arrival of Uber, and now Lyft". Uptown Messenger. Archived from the original on November 25, 2019. Retrieved April 21, 2016.
- ^ Thompson, Richard (January 15, 2016). "King cake maker, cab company team up on deliveries in Uber era". The Advocate. Archived from the original on April 24, 2016. Retrieved April 21, 2016.
- ^ "Means of Transportation to Work by Age". Census Reporter. Retrieved May 19, 2018.
- ^ "Car Ownership in U.S. Cities Data and Map". Governing. December 9, 2014. Retrieved May 19, 2018.
- ^ "Bicycling & Walking in the United States: 2016 Benchmarking Report". The Alliance for Biking & Walking. p. 140.
- ^ "New Orleans becomes sister city with namesake". kplctv.com. KPLC News. January 8, 2018. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
- ^ "Mayor Cantrell signs Sister City Agreement between New Orleans and Cap-Haitien". nola.gov. City of New Orleans. May 21, 2019. Retrieved January 21, 2021.
Further reading
- Adams, Thomas J., and Steve Striffler (eds.). Working in the Big Easy: The History and Politics of Labor in New Orleans. Lafayette, Louisiana: University of Louisiana at Lafayette Press, 2014.
- Berry, Jason. City of a Million Dreams: A History of New Orleans at Year 300. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2018.
- Dessens, Nathalie. Creole City: A Chronicle of Early American New Orleans. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2015.
- Ermus, Cindy (ed.). Environmental Disaster in the Gulf South: Two Centuries of Catastrophe, Risk, and Resilience. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2018.
- Fertel, Rien. Imagining the Creole City: The Rise of Literary Culture in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2014.
- Gitlin, Jay (2009). The Bourgeois Frontier: French Towns, French Traders, and American Expansion. Yale University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-300-15576-1.
- Holli, Melvin G., and Jones, Peter d'A., eds. Biographical Dictionary of American Mayors, 1820-1980 (Greenwood Press, 1981) short scholarly biographies each of the city's mayors 1820 to 1980. online; see index at p. 409 for list.
- Marler, Scott P. The Merchants' Capital: New Orleans and the Political Economy of the Nineteenth-Century South. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
- Powell, Lawrence N. The Accidental City: Improvising New Orleans. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2012.
- Simmons, LaKisha Michelle. Crescent City Girls: The Lives of Young Black Women in Segregated New Orleans. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
- Solnit, Rebecca, and Rebecca Snedeker, Unfathomable City: A New Orleans Atlas. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 2013.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage