Doxa(Ancient Greek:δόξα;from verbδοκεῖν,dokein,'to appear, to seem, to think, to accept')[1]is a common belief or popular opinion. Inclassical rhetoric,doxais contrasted withepisteme('knowledge').
Etymology
editThe termdoxais anancient Greeknoun (δόξα) related to the verbdokein(δοκεῖν), meaning 'to appear, to seem, to think, to accept'.[1]
Between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC, the term picked up an additional meaning when theSeptuagintuseddoxato translate theBiblical Hebrewword for "glory" (כבוד,kavod). This Greek translation of theHebrew scriptures,as used by theearly Church,led to frequent use of the term in theNew Testament.The word is also used in the worship services of theGreek Orthodox Church,where the glorification of God in true worship is also seen as true belief. In that context,doxareflects behavior or practice in worship, and the belief of the whole church rather than personal opinion. The unification of these multiple meanings ofdoxaemerges in the modern termsorthodoxy[2]andheterodoxy.[3][4]This semantic merging in the worddoxais also seen in theRussianwordslava(слава), which means 'glory', but is used with the meaning ofpraiseorworshipin words likepravoslavie(православие), meaning "orthodoxy" (or, literally, "true belief", "true way of worship" ) related to the verb 'славить' – "to praise" butcalquedfrom the Greek ὀρθοδοξία (orthodoxia).
In philosophy
editPlato
editIn his dialogueGorgias,Platopresents thesophistsas wordsmiths who ensnared and used the malleable doxa of the multitude to their advantage without shame.[5]In this and other writings, Plato relegateddoxaas being a belief, unrelated to reason, that resided in the unreasoning, lower-parts of the soul.[6]
This viewpoint extended into the concept ofdoxastain Plato'stheory of forms,which states that physical objects are manifestations of doxa and are thus not in their true form.[7]Plato's framing ofdoxaas the opponent ofknowledgeled to the classical opposition oferrortotruth,which has since become a major concern inWestern philosophy.(However, in theTheaetetusand in theMeno,Plato hasSocratessuggest that knowledge isorthos doxafor which one can provide alogos,thus initiating the traditionaldefinition of knowledgeas "justified true belief.") Thus, error is considered in as pure negative, which can take various forms, among them the form ofillusion.
While doxa is used as a tool for the formation ofarguments,it is also formedbyargument. The former can be understood as told byJames A. HerrickinThe History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction:[8]
The Sophists in Gorgias hold that rhetoric creates truth that is useful for the moment out of doxa, or the opinions of the people, through the process of argument and counterargument. Socrates will have no part of this sort of 'truth' which, nevertheless, is essential to a democracy.
Importantly noted,democracy,which by definition is the manifestation ofpublic opinion,is dependent upon (and therefore also constrained by) the same limits imposed upon the individuals responsible for its establishment. Due to compromised opinions within a society, as well as opinions not counted for due to inaccessibility andapathy,doxa is nothomogeneous,nor is it created agreeably. Rather, it is pliable and imperfect—the outcome of an ongoing power struggle between clashing "truths."
Aristotle
editAristotle,Plato's student, objected to Plato's theory of doxa. Aristotle perceived that doxa's value was in practicality and common usage, in contrast with Plato's philosophical purity relegating doxa to deception. Further, Aristotle held doxa as the first step in finding knowledge (episteme), as doxa had found applications in the physical world, whereby those who held it had a great number of tests done to prove it and thus reason to believe it.[9]Aristotle clarifies this by categorizing the accepted truths of the physical world that are passed down from generation to generation asendoxa.[10]Endoxais a more stable belief thandoxa,because it has been "tested" in argumentative struggles in thePolisby prior interlocutors. The termendoxais used in Aristotle'sOrganon,TopicsandRhetoric.
Aristotle conceives ofdoxaas a type ofhupolêpsis.Knowledge also falls under this category.[11]Categorizingdoxa,or opinion, with knowledge suggests thatdoxais rational.[12]
Epicurus
editThePrincipal Doctrines(Kyriai Doxai) are the main beliefs of the Epicurean school of Hellenistic philosophy, and constitute Epicurean orthodoxy. They are believed to be the authoritative conclusions arrived at by Epicurus, Metrodorus, and their close companions during the early years of the formation of the school, which were compiled into an epitome for the benefit of their disciples.
Contemporary interpretations
editIn sociology and anthropology (Bourdieu)
editPierre Bourdieu,in hisOutline of a Theory of Practice(1972), used the termdoxato denote a society's taken-for-granted, unquestioned truths.[13]In comparison,opinionis the sphere of that which may be openly contested and discussed.[14]Bourdieu believes that doxa derives fromsocialization,as socialization also deals with beliefs that derive from society; as we grow up in the environment, we tend to believe what society tells us is correct. Adding on to his previous example, Bourdieu contends that it is a socially-accepted misconception that if you do not score as high as someone else, then you are obviously not as smart as they are. Scores do not prove that one is smarter, because there are many different factors that play into what you score on a test. People may excel within a certain topic and fail at another. However, even though it is a misconception, people tend to partake in common practices to make themselves feel better. In the case of common beliefs in school, the students who feel inferior due to popular belief that they are not as smart as the students who score higher than they, may use drugs to ease the insecurities they face. Bourdieu believes that doxa is more than common belief: it also has the potential to give rise to common action.[15][16]This calls to attention that the notion ofsocial orderas naturally occurring is misperceived, disregarding its creation by political argumentation.Doxa,then, can be understood as created by argument as well as used in the formation of argument, essential for the establishment of democratic policies.
See also
editReferences
edit- ^abLiddell, Henry George,andRobert Scott.1940. "δοκέω."InA Greek-English Lexicon,edited byH. S. Jonesand R. McKenzie. Oxford.Clarendon Press.– viaPerseus Project.
- ^Harper, Douglas (November 2001)."orthodox (adj.)".Online Etymology Dictionary.Retrieved2008-07-01.
'what is regarded as true or correct [...]'
- ^Harper, Douglas (November 2001)."heterodox (adj.)".Online Etymology Dictionary.Retrieved2008-07-01.
'not in accordance with established doctrines'
- ^Ware, Kallistos(29 Apr 1993).The Orthodox Church(new ed.). New York, NY: Penguin Books. pp. 8, 266.ISBN978-0-14-014656-1.
The word 'Orthodoxy' has the double meaning of 'right belief' and 'right glory' (or 'right worship').
- ^Plato.[380 B.C.E.].Gorgias,translated byB. Jowett.– viaInternet Classics Archive.Retrieved 2013-02-11.
- ^Sorabji, Richard.1992.Essays on Aristotle's De Anima,edited byM. C. Nussbaum.Oxford University Press.
- ^Szaif, Jan (2007)."Doxa and Episteme as Modes of Acquaintance in Republic V".Les Études Platoniciennes.IV(4). Les Belles Lettres: 253–272.doi:10.4000/etudesplatoniciennes.915.
- ^Herrick, James, A. (2005).The History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction(3rd ed.). Allyn and Bacon.
{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^"Doxa".Credo Reference.Sage UK. 2005.RetrievedMarch 2,2014.
- ^Eggs, Ekkehard; McElholm, Dermot (2002)."Doxa in Poetry: A Study of Aristotle's Poetics"(PDF).Poetics Today.23(3). Duke University Press: 395–426.doi:10.1215/03335372-23-3-395.S2CID170165481.RetrievedMarch 1,2014.
- ^Moss, Jessica; Schwab, Whitney (2019)."The Birth of Belief".Journal of the History of Philosophy.57(1): 14.doi:10.1353/hph.2019.0000.ISSN1538-4586.
- ^Moss, Jessica; Schwab, Whitney (2019)."The Birth of Belief".Journal of the History of Philosophy.57(1): 26.doi:10.1353/hph.2019.0000.ISSN1538-4586.
- ^Bourdieu, Pierre.[1972] 1977.Outline of a Theory of Practice16, translated by R. Nice. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
- ^Nielsen, Finn Sivert. "Bourdieu, Pierre (Pierre-Félix) (1930-2002)."AnthroBase.
- ^Bourdieu, Pierre, andTerry Eagleton.1992. "Doxa and common life."New Left Review.pp. 111–21, 199.
- ^Vernon, Phillip E.1969.Intelligence and Cultural Environment.London:Methuen.p. 215.