Wikipedia

Geomorphology

For the scientific journal, seeGeomorphology (journal).

Geomorphology(fromAncient Greek:γῆ,gê,'earth';μορφή,morphḗ,'form'; andλόγος,lógos,'study')[2]is the scientific study of the origin and evolution oftopographicandbathymetricfeatures generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or nearEarth's surface.Geomorphologists seek to understand whylandscapeslook the way they do, to understandlandformandterrainhistory and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments andnumerical modeling.Geomorphologists work within disciplines such asphysical geography,geology,geodesy,engineering geology,archaeology,climatology,andgeotechnical engineering.This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

Badlandsincised intoshaleat the foot of the North Caineville Plateau, Utah, within the pass carved by theFremont Riverand known as the Blue Gate.G. K. Gilbertstudied the landscapes of this area in great detail, forming the observational foundation for many of his studies on geomorphology.[1]
Surface of Earth, showing higher elevations in red

Overview

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Wavesandwater chemistrylead to structural failure in exposed rocks.

Earth's surface is modified by a combination of surface processes that shape landscapes, and geologic processes that causetectonic upliftandsubsidence,and shape thecoastal geography.Surface processes comprise the action of water, wind, ice,wildfire,and life on the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that formsoilsand alter material properties, the stability and rate of change oftopographyunder the force ofgravity,and other factors, such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly mediated byclimate.Geologic processes include the uplift ofmountain ranges,the growth ofvolcanoes,isostaticchanges in land surface elevation (sometimes in response to surface processes), and the formation of deepsedimentary basinswhere the surface of the Earth drops and is filled with materialerodedfrom other parts of the landscape. The Earth's surface and its topography therefore are an intersection ofclimatic,hydrologic,andbiologicaction with geologic processes, or alternatively stated, the intersection of the Earth'slithospherewith itshydrosphere,atmosphere,andbiosphere.

The broad-scale topographies of the Earth illustrate this intersection of surface and subsurface action. Mountain belts areuplifteddue to geologic processes.Denudationof these high uplifted regions producessedimentthat is transported anddepositedelsewhere within the landscape or off the coast.[3]On progressively smaller scales, similar ideas apply, where individual landforms evolve in response to the balance of additive processes (uplift and deposition) and subtractive processes (subsidenceanderosion). Often, these processes directly affect each other: ice sheets, water, and sediment are all loads that change topography throughflexural isostasy.Topography can modify the local climate, for example throughorographic precipitation,which in turn modifies the topography by changing the hydrologic regime in which it evolves. Many geomorphologists are particularly interested in the potential forfeedbacksbetween climate andtectonics,mediated by geomorphic processes.[4]

In addition to these broad-scale questions, geomorphologists address issues that are more specific or more local. Glacial geomorphologists investigate glacial deposits such asmoraines,eskers,and proglaciallakes,as well asglacial erosionalfeatures, to build chronologies of both smallglaciersand largeice sheetsand understand their motions and effects upon the landscape.Fluvialgeomorphologists focus onrivers,how theytransport sediment,migrate across the landscape,cut into bedrock,respond to environmental and tectonic changes, and interact with humans. Soils geomorphologists investigate soil profiles and chemistry to learn about the history of a particular landscape and understand how climate, biota, and rock interact. Other geomorphologists study howhillslopesform and change. Still others investigate the relationships betweenecologyand geomorphology. Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the Earth and its modification, it is a broad field with many facets.

Geomorphologists use a wide range of techniques in their work. These may include fieldwork and field data collection, the interpretation of remotely sensed data, geochemical analyses, and the numerical modelling of the physics of landscapes. Geomorphologists may rely ongeochronology,using dating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface.[5][6]Terrain measurement techniques are vital to quantitatively describe the form of the Earth's surface, and includedifferential GPS,remotely senseddigital terrain modelsandlaser scanning,to quantify, study, and to generate illustrations and maps.[7]

Practical applications of geomorphology includehazardassessment (such aslandslideprediction andmitigation), river control andstream restoration,and coastal protection.

Planetary geomorphology studies landforms on other terrestrial planets such as Mars. Indications of effects ofwind,fluvial,glacial,mass wasting,meteor impact,tectonicsandvolcanicprocesses are studied.[8]This effort not only helps better understand the geologic and atmospheric history of those planets but also extends geomorphological study of the Earth. Planetary geomorphologists often useEarth analoguesto aid in their study of surfaces of other planets.[9]

History

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"Cono de Arita" at the dry lakeSalar de Arizaroon theAtacama Plateau,in northwesternArgentina.The cone itself is a volcanic edifice, representing complex interaction of intrusive igneous rocks with the surrounding salt.[10]
Lake "Veľké Hincovo pleso" inHigh Tatras,Slovakia.The lake occupies an "overdeepening"carved by flowing ice that once occupied this glacial valley.

Other than some notable exceptions in antiquity, geomorphology is a relatively young science, growing along with interest in other aspects of theearth sciencesin the mid-19th century. This section provides a very brief outline of some of the major figures and events in its development.

Ancient geomorphology

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The study of landforms and the evolution of the Earth's surface can be dated back to scholars ofClassical Greece.In the 5th century BC,Greek historianHerodotusargued from observations of soils that theNile deltawas actively growing into theMediterranean Sea,and estimated its age.[11][12]In the 4th century BC,Greek philosopherAristotlespeculatedthat due tosediment transportinto the sea, eventually those seas would fill while the land lowered. He claimed that this would mean that land and water would eventually swap places, whereupon the process would begin again in an endless cycle.[11][13]TheEncyclopedia of the Brethren of Puritypublished inArabicatBasraduring the 10th century also discussed the cyclical changing positions of land and sea with rocks breaking down and being washed into the sea, their sediment eventually rising to form new continents.[13]The medievalPersianMuslimscholarAbū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī(973–1048), after observing rock formations at the mouths of rivers, hypothesized that theIndian Oceanonce covered all ofIndia.[14]In hisDe Natura Fossiliumof 1546, GermanmetallurgistandmineralogistGeorgius Agricola(1494–1555) wrote about erosion and naturalweathering.[15]

Another early theory of geomorphology was devised bySong dynastyChinesescientist and statesmanShen Kuo(1031–1095). This was based onhis observationofmarinefossilshells in ageological stratumof a mountain hundreds of miles from thePacific Ocean.Noticingbivalveshells running in a horizontal span along the cut section of a cliffside, he theorized that the cliff was once the pre-historic location of a seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles over the centuries. He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed bysoil erosionof the mountains and by deposition ofsilt,after observing strange natural erosions of theTaihang Mountainsand theYandang MountainnearWenzhou.[16][17][18]Furthermore, he promoted the theory of gradualclimate changeover centuries of time once ancientpetrifiedbambooswere found to be preserved underground in the dry, northern climate zone ofYanzhou,which is now modern dayYan'an,Shaanxiprovince.[17][19][20]PreviousChinese authorsalso presented ideas about changing landforms.Scholar-officialDu Yu(222–285) of theWestern Jin dynastypredicted that two monumental stelae recording his achievements, one buried at the foot of a mountain and the other erected at the top, would eventually change their relative positions over time as would hills and valleys.[13]Daoist alchemistGe Hong(284–364) created a fictional dialogue where theimmortal Maguexplained that the territory of theEast China Seawas once a land filled withmulberry trees.[21]

Early modern geomorphology

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The term geomorphology seems to have been first used byLaumannin an 1858 work written in German. Keith Tinkler has suggested that the word came into general use in English, German and French afterJohn Wesley PowellandW. J. McGeeused it during the International Geological Conference of 1891.[22]John Edward Marrin his The Scientific Study of Scenery[23]considered his book as, 'an Introductory Treatise on Geomorphology, a subject which has sprung from the union of Geology and Geography'.

An early popular geomorphic model was thegeographical cycleorcycle of erosionmodel of broad-scale landscape evolution developed byWilliam Morris Davisbetween 1884 and 1899.[11]It was an elaboration of theuniformitarianismtheory that had first been proposed byJames Hutton(1726–1797).[24]With regard tovalleyforms, for example, uniformitarianism posited a sequence in which a river runs through a flat terrain, gradually carving an increasingly deep valley, until theside valleyseventually erode, flattening the terrain again, though at a lower elevation. It was thought thattectonic upliftcould then start the cycle over. In the decades following Davis's development of this idea, many of those studying geomorphology sought to fit their findings into this framework, known today as "Davisian".[24]Davis's ideas are of historical importance, but have been largely superseded today, mainly due to their lack of predictive power and qualitative nature.[24]

In the 1920s,Walther Penckdeveloped an alternative model to Davis's.[24]Penck thought that landform evolution was better described as an alternation between ongoing processes of uplift and denudation, as opposed to Davis's model of a single uplift followed by decay.[25]He also emphasised that in many landscapes slope evolution occurs by backwearing of rocks, not by Davisian-style surface lowering, and his science tended to emphasise surface process over understanding in detail the surface history of a given locality. Penck was German, and during his lifetime his ideas were at times rejected vigorously by the English-speaking geomorphology community.[24]His early death, Davis' dislike for his work, and his at-times-confusing writing style likely all contributed to this rejection.[26]

Both Davis and Penck were trying to place the study of the evolution of the Earth's surface on a more generalized, globally relevant footing than it had been previously. In the early 19th century, authors – especially in Europe – had tended to attribute the form of landscapes to localclimate,and in particular to the specific effects ofglaciationandperiglacialprocesses. In contrast, both Davis and Penck were seeking to emphasize the importance of evolution of landscapes through time and the generality of the Earth's surface processes across different landscapes under different conditions.

During the early 1900s, the study of regional-scale geomorphology was termed "physiography".[27]Physiography later was considered to be a contraction of "physical "and" geography",and therefore synonymous withphysical geography,and the concept became embroiled in controversy surrounding the appropriate concerns of that discipline. Some geomorphologists held to a geological basis for physiography and emphasized a concept ofphysiographic regionswhile a conflicting trend among geographers was to equate physiography with "pure morphology", separated from its geological heritage.[citation needed]In the period following World War II, the emergence of process, climatic, and quantitative studies led to a preference by many earth scientists for the term "geomorphology" in order to suggest an analytical approach to landscapes rather than a descriptive one.[28]

Climatic geomorphology

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Further information:Climatic geomorphology

During the age ofNew Imperialismin the late 19th century European explorers and scientists traveled across the globe bringing descriptions of landscapes and landforms. As geographical knowledge increased over time these observations were systematized in a search for regional patterns. Climate emerged thus as prime factor for explaining landform distribution at a grand scale. The rise of climatic geomorphology was foreshadowed by the work ofWladimir Köppen,Vasily DokuchaevandAndreas Schimper.William Morris Davis,the leading geomorphologist of his time, recognized the role of climate by complementing his "normal" temperate climatecycle of erosionwith arid and glacial ones.[29][30]Nevertheless, interest in climatic geomorphology was also a reactionagainstDavisian geomorphologythat was by the mid-20th century considered both un-innovative and dubious.[30][31]Early climatic geomorphology developed primarily incontinental Europewhile in the English-speaking world the tendency was not explicit until L.C. Peltier's 1950 publication on aperiglacialcycle of erosion.[29]

Climatic geomorphology was criticized in a 1969review articleby process geomorphologistD.R. Stoddart.[30][32]The criticism by Stoddart proved "devastating" sparking a decline in the popularity of climatic geomorphology in the late 20th century.[30][32]Stoddart criticized climatic geomorphology for applying supposedly "trivial" methodologies in establishing landform differences between morphoclimatic zones, being linked toDavisian geomorphologyand by allegedly neglecting the fact that physical laws governing processes are the same across the globe.[32]In addition some conceptions of climatic geomorphology, like that which holds that chemical weathering is more rapid in tropical climates than in cold climates proved to not be straightforwardly true.[30]

Quantitative and process geomorphology

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Part of theGreat Escarpmentin theDrakensberg,southern Africa. This landscape, with its high altitudeplateaubeing incised into by the steep slopes of the escarpment, was cited by Davis as a classic example of hiscycle of erosion.[33]

Geomorphology was started to be put on a solid quantitative footing in the middle of the 20th century. Following the early work ofGrove Karl Gilbertaround the turn of the 20th century,[11][24][25]a group of mainly American natural scientists,geologistsandhydraulic engineersincludingWilliam Walden Rubey,Ralph Alger Bagnold,Hans Albert Einstein,Frank Ahnert,John Hack,Luna Leopold,A. Shields,Thomas Maddock,Arthur Strahler,Stanley Schumm,andRonald Shrevebegan to research the form of landscape elements such asriversandhillslopesby taking systematic, direct, quantitative measurements of aspects of them and investigating thescalingof these measurements.[11][24][25][34]These methods began to allow prediction of the past and future behavior of landscapes from present observations, and were later to develop into the modern trend of a highly quantitative approach to geomorphic problems. Many groundbreaking and widely cited early geomorphology studies appeared in theBulletin of the Geological Society of America,[35]and received only few citations prior to 2000 (they are examples of"sleeping beauties")[36]when a marked increase in quantitative geomorphology research occurred.[37]

Quantitative geomorphology can involvefluid dynamicsandsolid mechanics,geomorphometry,laboratory studies, field measurements, theoretical work, and fulllandscape evolution modeling.These approaches are used to understandweatheringandthe formation of soils,sediment transport,landscape change, and the interactions between climate, tectonics, erosion, and deposition.[38][39]

In SwedenFilip Hjulström's doctoral thesis, "The River Fyris" (1935), contained one of the first quantitative studies of geomorphological processes ever published. His students followed in the same vein, making quantitative studies of mass transport (Anders Rapp), fluvial transport (Åke Sundborg), delta deposition (Valter Axelsson), and coastal processes (John O. Norrman). This developed into "theUppsalaSchool ofPhysical Geography".[40]

Contemporary geomorphology

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Today, the field of geomorphology encompasses a very wide range of different approaches and interests.[11]Modern researchers aim to draw out quantitative "laws" that govern Earth surface processes, but equally, recognize the uniqueness of each landscape and environment in which these processes operate. Particularly important realizations in contemporary geomorphology include:

1) that not all landscapes can be considered as either "stable" or "perturbed", where this perturbed state is a temporary displacement away from some ideal target form. Instead, dynamic changes of the landscape are now seen as an essential part of their nature.[38][41]
2) that many geomorphic systems are best understood in terms of thestochasticityof the processes occurring in them, that is, the probability distributions of event magnitudes and return times.[42][43]This in turn has indicated the importance ofchaotic determinismto landscapes, and that landscape properties are best consideredstatistically.[44]The same processes in the same landscapes do not always lead to the same end results.

According toKarna Lidmar-Bergström,regional geographyis since the 1990s no longer accepted by mainstream scholarship as a basis for geomorphological studies.[45]

Albeit having its importance diminished,climatic geomorphologycontinues to exist as field of study producing relevant research. More recently concerns overglobal warminghave led to a renewed interest in the field.[30]

Despite considerable criticism, thecycle of erosionmodel has remained part of the science of geomorphology.[46]The model or theory has never been proved wrong,[46]but neither has it been proven.[47]The inherent difficulties of the model have instead made geomorphological research to advance along other lines.[46]In contrast to its disputed status in geomorphology, the cycle of erosion model is a common approach used to establishdenudation chronologies,and is thus an important concept in the science ofhistorical geology.[48]While acknowledging its shortcomings, modern geomorphologistsAndrew GoudieandKarna Lidmar-Bergströmhave praised it for its elegance and pedagogical value respectively.[49][50]

Processes

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Gorgecut by theIndus Riverinto bedrock,Nanga Parbatregion, Pakistan. This is the deepest river canyon in the world. Nanga Parbat itself, the world's 9th highest mountain, is seen in the background.

Geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into (1) the production ofregolithbyweatheringanderosion, (2) thetransportof that material, and (3) its eventualdeposition.Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features includewind,waves,chemical dissolution,mass wasting,groundwatermovement,surface waterflow,glacial action,tectonism,andvolcanism.Other more exotic geomorphic processes might includeperiglacial(freeze-thaw) processes, salt-mediated action, changes to the seabed caused by marine currents, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact.

Aeolian processes

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Wind-eroded alcove nearMoab, Utah

Aeolian processespertain to the activity of thewindsand more specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface of theEarth.Winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparsevegetationand a large supply of fine, unconsolidatedsediments.Although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such asdeserts.[51]

Biological processes

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Beaver dams,as this one inTierra del Fuego,constitute a specific form of zoogeomorphology, a type of biogeomorphology.

The interaction of living organisms with landforms, orbiogeomorphologic processes,can be of many different forms, and is probably of profound importance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. Biology can influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging frombiogeochemicalprocesses controllingchemical weathering,to the influence of mechanical processes likeburrowingandtree throwon soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. Terrestrial landscapes in which the role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such asMars.[52]

Fluvial processes

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Seifandbarchandunes in theHellespontusregion on the surface ofMars.Dunes are mobile landforms formed by the transport of large volumes of sand by wind.
Main article:Fluvial
See also:Hack's lawandSediment transport

Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also ofsediment.The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either asbed load,suspended loadordissolved load.The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river'sdischarge.[53]Rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and forming new sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the surrounding hillslopes. In this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large-scale landscape evolution in nonglacial environments.[54][55]Rivers are key links in the connectivity of different landscape elements.

As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is adrainage system.These systems take on four general patterns: dendritic, radial, rectangular, and trellis. Dendritic happens to be the most common, occurring when the underlying stratum is stable (without faulting). Drainage systems have four primary components:drainage basin,alluvial valley, delta plain, and receiving basin. Some geomorphic examples of fluvial landforms arealluvial fans,oxbow lakes,andfluvial terraces.

Glacial processes

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Features of a glacial landscape

Glaciers,while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. The gradual movement oficedown a valley causesabrasionandpluckingof the underlyingrock.Abrasion produces fine sediment, termedglacial flour.The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed amoraine.Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.[56]

The way glacial processes interact with other landscape elements, particularly hillslope and fluvial processes, is an important aspect ofPlio-Pleistocenelandscape evolution and its sedimentary record in many high mountain environments. Environments that have been relatively recently glaciated but are no longer may still show elevated landscape change rates compared to those that have never been glaciated. Nonglacial geomorphic processes which nevertheless have been conditioned by past glaciation are termedparaglacialprocesses. This concept contrasts withperiglacialprocesses, which are directly driven by formation or melting of ice or frost.[57]

Hillslope processes

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Talus coneson the north shore ofIsfjorden,Svalbard,Norway. Talus cones are accumulations of coarse hillslope debris at the foot of the slopes producing the material.
TheFerguson Slideis an activelandslidein theMerced River canyononCalifornia State Highway 140,a primary access road toYosemite National Park.

Soil,regolith,androckmove downslope under the force ofgravityviacreep,slides,flows, topples, and falls. Suchmass wastingoccurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed onEarth,Mars,Venus,TitanandIapetus.

Ongoing hillslope processes can change the topology of the hillslope surface, which in turn can change the rates of those processes. Hillslopes that steepen up to certain critical thresholds are capable of shedding extremely large volumes of material very quickly, making hillslope processes an extremely important element of landscapes in tectonically active areas.[58]

On the Earth, biological processes such asburrowingortree throwmay play important roles in setting the rates of some hillslope processes.[59]

Igneous processes

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Bothvolcanic(eruptive) andplutonic(intrusive) igneous processes can have important impacts on geomorphology. The action of volcanoes tends to rejuvenize landscapes, covering the old land surface withlavaandtephra,releasingpyroclasticmaterial and forcing rivers through new paths. The cones built by eruptions also build substantial new topography, which can be acted upon by other surface processes. Plutonic rocks intruding then solidifying at depth can cause both uplift or subsidence of the surface, depending on whether the new material is denser or less dense than the rock it displaces.

Tectonic processes

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See also:Erosion and tectonics

Tectoniceffects on geomorphology can range from scales of millions of years to minutes or less. The effects of tectonics on landscape are heavily dependent on the nature of the underlyingbedrockfabric that more or less controls what kind of local morphology tectonics can shape.Earthquakescan, in terms of minutes, submerge large areas of land forming new wetlands.Isostatic reboundcan account for significant changes over hundreds to thousands of years, and allows erosion of a mountain belt to promote further erosion as mass is removed from the chain and the belt uplifts. Long-term plate tectonic dynamics give rise toorogenic belts,large mountain chains with typical lifetimes of many tens of millions of years, which form focal points for high rates of fluvial and hillslope processes and thus long-term sediment production.

Features of deepermantledynamics such asplumesanddelaminationof the lower lithosphere have also been hypothesised to play important roles in the long term (> million year), large scale (thousands of km) evolution of the Earth's topography (seedynamic topography). Both can promote surface uplift through isostasy as hotter, less dense, mantle rocks displace cooler, denser, mantle rocks at depth in the Earth.[60][61]

Marine processes

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Marine processes are those associated with the action of waves, marine currents and seepage of fluids through the seafloor.Mass wastingand submarinelandslidingare also important processes for some aspects of marine geomorphology.[62]Because ocean basins are the ultimate sinks for a large fraction of terrestrial sediments, depositional processes and their related forms (e.g., sediment fans,deltas) are particularly important as elements of marine geomorphology.

Overlap with other fields

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There is a considerable overlap between geomorphology and other fields. Deposition of material is extremely important insedimentology.Weatheringis the chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surface agents, and is typically studied bysoil scientistsand environmentalchemists,but is an essential component of geomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place.Civilandenvironmentalengineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related tocanals,slope stability(andnatural hazards),water quality,coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, andstream restoration.Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short period of time, making them extremely important entities in the high latitudes and meaning that they set the conditions in the headwaters of mountain-born streams;glaciologytherefore is important in geomorphology.

See also

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References

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