Jamaica(/dʒəˈmeɪkə/jə-MAY-kə;Jamaican Patois:Jumieka[dʒʌˈmie̯ka]) is anisland countryin theCaribbean Seaand theWest Indies.At 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi), it is the third-largest island—afterCubaandHispaniola—of theGreater Antillesand theCaribbean.[9]Jamaica lies about 145 km (78 nmi) south of Cuba, 191 km (103 nmi) west of Hispaniola (the island containingHaitiand theDominican Republic), and 215 km (116 nmi) southeast of theCayman Islands(aBritish Overseas Territory).[9]
Jamaica Jumieka(Jamaican Patois) | |
|---|---|
| Motto:"Out of Many, One People" | |
| Anthem:"Jamaica, Land We Love" | |
 | |
| Capital and largest city | Kingston 17°58′17″N76°47′35″W/ 17.97139°N 76.79306°W |
| Official languages | English |
| Vernacular language | Jamaican Patois |
| Ethnic groups |
|
| Religion |
|
| Demonym(s) | Jamaican |
| Government | Unitaryparliamentary constitutional monarchy |
| Charles III | |
| Patrick Allen | |
| Andrew Holness | |
| Legislature | Parliament |
| Senate | |
| House of Representatives | |
| Independence from theUnited Kingdom | |
• Granted | 6 August 1962 |
| Area | |
• Total | 10,991 km2(4,244 sq mi) (160th) |
• Water (%) | 1.5 |
| Population | |
• 2019 estimate | 2,734,092[3](137th) |
• 2011 census | 2,697,983[4] |
• Density | 266[5]/km2(688.9/sq mi) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2023 estimate |
• Total |  $35.690 billion[6](143rd) |
• Per capita | $12,994[6](134th) |
| GDP(nominal) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | $18.761 billion[6](119th) |
• Per capita | $6,830[6](101st) |
| Gini(2021) |  40.2[7]medium inequality |
| HDI(2022) | 0.706[8] high(115th) |
| Currency | Jamaican dollar(JMD) |
| Time zone | UTC-5 |
| Drives on | left |
| Calling code | +1-876 +1-658(Overlayof 876) |
| ISO 3166 code | JM |
| Internet TLD | .jm |
The indigenousTaínopeoples of the island gradually came underSpanish ruleafter the arrival ofChristopher Columbusin 1494. Many of the indigenous people either were killed or died of diseases, after which the Spanish brought large numbers of Africans to Jamaica as slaves.[9]The island remained a possession of Spain, under the nameSantiago,until 1655, whenEngland(part of what would become theKingdom of Great Britain) conquered it and named itJamaica.It became an important part of the colonialBritish West Indies.Under Britain's colonial rule, Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with a plantation economy dependent on continued importation of African slaves and their descendants. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many freedmen chose to havesubsistence farmsrather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British began usingChineseandIndianindenturedlabourers for plantation work. Jamaicans achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962.[9]
With 2.8 million people,[10][11]Jamaica is the third most populousAnglophonecountry in theAmericas(after the United States and Canada), and the fourth most populous country in the Caribbean.Kingstonis the country's capital and largest city. MostJamaicansare ofSub-Saharan Africanancestry, with significantEuropean,East Asian(primarilyChinese),Indian,Lebanese,and mixed-race minorities.[9]Because of a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, there is a largeJamaican diaspora,particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The country has a global influence that belies its small size; it was the birthplace of theRastafarireligion,reggaemusic (and such associated genres asdub,skaanddancehall), and it is internationally prominent in sports, includingcricket,sprinting,andathletics.[12][13][14][15]Jamaica has sometimes been considered the world's least populouscultural superpower.[16][17][18][19]
Jamaica is an upper-middle-income country[15]with an economy heavily dependent on tourism; it has an average of 4.3 million tourists a year.[20]The country performs favourably in measures ofpress freedom,democratic governanceandsustainable well-being.Jamaica is a parliamentaryconstitutional monarchywith power vested in the bicameralParliament of Jamaica,consisting of an appointed Senate and a directly elected House of Representatives.[9]Andrew Holnesshas served asPrime Minister of Jamaicasince March 2016. As aCommonwealth realm,withCharles IIIasits king,the appointed representative of the Crown is theGovernor-General of Jamaica,an office held byPatrick Allensince 2009.
Etymology
Theindigenous people,the Taíno, called the islandXaymacain theirlanguage,[a]meaning the "Land of Wood and Water" or the "Land of Springs".[21]Yamayehas been suggested as an early Taino name for the island as recorded byChristopher Columbus.[22]
Jamaicans often refer to their home island as "yaad" - the Jamaican Patois word for yard, meaning home. Other colloquial names such as "Jamrock", "Jamdown" ( "Jamdung" inJamaican Patois), or briefly "Ja" are also widely used.[23][user-generated source?][24][failed verification]
History
Prehistory
There is no archaeological evidence of any human presence on Jamaica until about 500.[25]A group known as the "Redware people" after their pottery arrived circa 600,[26]followed by the Taíno circa 800, who most likely came fromSouth America.[26][27]They practised an agrarian and fishing economy, and at their height are thought to have numbered some 60,000 people, grouped into around 200 villages headed bycaciques(chiefs).[26]The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour.[28]
Though often thought to have become extinct following contact with Europeans, the Taíno in fact still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655.[28]Some fled into interior regions, merging with AfricanMarooncommunities.[29][30][31]The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any remaining evidence of the Taíno.[32]
Spanish rule (1509–1655)
Christopher Columbus was the first European to see Jamaica, claiming the island for Spain after landing there in 1494 on his second voyage to the Americas.[26]His probable landing point was Dry Harbour, calledDiscovery Bay,[33]andSt. Ann's Baywas named "Saint Gloria" by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land. He later returned in 1503; however, he was shipwrecked and he and his crew were forced to live on Jamaica for a year while waiting to be rescued.[34]
One and a half kilometres west of St. Ann's Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island,Sevilla,which was established in 1509 byJuan de Esquivelbut abandoned around 1524 because it was deemed unhealthy.[35]The capital was moved toSpanish Town,then calledSt. Jago de la Vega,around 1534.[26][36]Meanwhile, the Taínos began dying in large numbers, both from introduced diseases and from enslavement by the Spanish.[26]As a result, the Spanish began importing slaves from Africa to the island.[37]
Many slaves managed to escape, forming autonomous communities in remote and easily defended areas in the interior of Jamaica, mi xing with the remaining Taino; these communities became known asMaroons.[26]Many Jews fled the Spanish Inquisitionto live on the island.[38]They lived asconversosand were often persecuted by the Spanish rulers, and some turned topiracy against the Spanish Empire's shipping.[39]
By the early 17th century it is estimated that no more than 2,500–3,000 people lived on Jamaica.[26][40][page needed]
Early British period
The English began taking an interest in the island and, following a failed attempt to conquerSanto DomingoonHispaniola,Admiral William Pennand GeneralRobert Venablesled aninvasion of Jamaicain 1655.[42]Battles atOcho Rios in 1657and theRio Nuevo in 1658resulted in Spanish defeats; in 1660 the Maroon community under the leadership ofJuan de Bolasswitched sides from the Spanish, and began supporting the English. With their help, the Spanish defeat was secured.[43]In 1661 English civil government was formed and Roundhead soldiers turned their attention to governance and agricultural responsibilities.[44]
When the English captured Jamaica, most Spanish colonists fled, with the exception of Spanish Jews, who chose to remain. Spanish slave holders freed their slaves before leaving.[43]Many slaves dispersed into the mountains, joining the already establishedmarooncommunities.[45]During the centuries of slavery,Jamaican Maroonsestablished free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, where they maintained their freedom and independence for generations, under the leadership of Maroon leaders such asJuan de Serras.[46]
Meanwhile, the Spanish made several attempts to re-capture the island, prompting the British to support pirates attacking Spanish ships in the Caribbean; as a result piracy became rampant on Jamaica, with the city ofPort Royalbecoming notorious for its lawlessness. Spain later recognised English possession of the island with theTreaty of Madrid (1670).[47]After that, the English authorities sought to rein in the worst excesses of the pirates.[26]
In 1660, the population of Jamaica was about 4,500 white and 1,500 black.[48]By the early 1670s, as the English developed sugar cane plantations worked by large numbers of slaves, black Africans formed a majority of the population.[49]TheIrish in Jamaicaalso formed a large part of the island's early population, making up two-thirds of the white population on the island in the late 17th century, twice that of the English population. They were brought in as indentured labourers and soldiers after the conquest of 1655. The majority of Irish were transported by force as political prisoners of war from Ireland as a result of the ongoingWars of the Three Kingdoms.[50]Migration of large numbers of Irish to the island continued into the 18th century.[51]
A limited form of local government was introduced with the creation of theHouse of Assembly of Jamaicain 1664; however, it represented only a tiny number of rich plantation owners.[52]In 1692, the colony was rocked by anearthquakethat resulted in several thousand deaths and the almost complete destruction of Port Royal.[53]
18th–19th centuries
During the 1700s the economy boomed, based largely on sugar and other crops for export such ascoffee,cottonandindigo.All these crops were worked by black slaves, who lived short and often brutal lives with no rights, being the property of a small planter-class.[26]In the 18th century, slaves ran away and joined the Maroons in increasing numbers, and resulted in TheFirst Maroon War(1728 – 1739/40), which ended in stalemate. The British government sued for peace, and signed treaties with the Leeward Maroons led byCudjoeandAccompongin 1739, and the Windward Maroons led byQuaoandQueen Nannyin 1740.[54]
A large slave rebellion, known asTacky's War,broke out in 1760 but was defeated by the British and their Maroon allies.[55]After thesecond conflictin 1795–96, many Maroons from the Maroon town ofCudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town)were expelled toNova Scotiaand, later,Sierra Leone.[26]
By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica's dependence on slave labour and a plantation economy had resulted in black people outnumberingwhite peopleby a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Although the British had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled in from Spanish colonies and directly from Africa.[citation needed]While planning the abolition of slavery, the British Parliament passed laws to improve conditions for slaves. They banned the use of whips in the field and flogging of women; informed planters that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, and required a free day during each week when slaves could sell their produce,[56]prohibiting Sunday markets to enable slaves to attend church.[citation needed]The House of Assembly in Jamaica resented and resisted the new laws. Members, with membership then restricted to European-descended Jamaicans, claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament's interference in island affairs. Slave owners feared possible revolts if conditions were lightened.
The Britishabolished the slave tradein 1807, but not the institution itself.[57]In 1831 a huge slave rebellion, known as theBaptist War,broke out, led by the Baptist preacherSamuel Sharpe.The rebellion resulted in hundreds of deaths and the destruction of many plantations, and led to ferocious reprisals by the plantocracy class.[58]As a result of rebellions such as these, as well as the efforts of abolitionists, Britain outlawed slavery in its empire in 1834, with fullemancipationfrom chattel slavery declared in 1838.[26]The population in 1834 was 371,070, of whom 15,000 were white, 5,000 free black; 40,000 "coloured" orfree people of colour(mixed race); and 311,070 were slaves.[48]The resulting labour shortage prompted the British to begin to "import"indentured servantsto supplement the labour pool, as many freedmen resisted working on the plantations.[26]Workers recruited from India began arriving in 1845, Chinese workers in 1854.[59]Many Jamaicans are descendants of South Asian and Chinese people.[60][61] Over the next 20 years, several epidemics ofcholera,scarlet fever,andsmallpoxhit the island, killing almost 60,000 people (about 10 per day).[citation needed]Nevertheless, in 1871 the census recorded a population of 506,154 people, 246,573 of whom were males, and 259,581 females. Their races were recorded as 13,101 white, 100,346 coloured (known as the Browning Class), and 392,707 black.[62]There was an economic slump in this period, with many Jamaicans living in poverty. Dissatisfaction with this, and continued racial discrimination and marginalisation of the black majority, led to the outbreak of theMorant Bay rebellionin 1865, led byPaul Bogle,which was put down by GovernorJohn Eyrewith such brutality that he was recalled from his position.[26]His successor,John Peter Grant,enacted a series of social, financial and political reforms while aiming to uphold firm British rule over the island, which became a Crown Colony in 1866.[26]In 1872 the capital was transferred from Spanish Town to Kingston.[26]
Early 20th century
In 1907, Jamaica was struck byan earthquakewhich, together with the subsequent fire, resulted in considerable destruction in Kingston and caused the deaths of between 800 and 1,000 people.[63][26]
Unemployment and poverty remained a problem for many Jamaicans. Various movements seeking political change arose as a result, most notably theUniversal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities Leaguefounded byMarcus Garveyin 1917. As well as seeking greater political rights and an improvement for the condition of workers, Garvey was also a prominentPan-Africanistand proponent of theBack-to-Africa movement.[64]He was also one of the chief inspirations behind Rastafari, a religion founded in Jamaica in the 1930s that combined Christianity with anAfrocentrictheology focused on the figure ofHaile Selassie,Emperor ofEthiopia.Despite occasional persecution, Rastafari grew to become an established faith on the island, later spreading abroad.
TheGreat Depressionof the 1930s hit Jamaica hard. As part of theBritish West Indian labour unrest of 1934–39,Jamaica saw numerous strikes, culminating in a strike in 1938 that turned into a riot.[65][26][66] As a result, the British government instituteda commissionto look into the causes of the disturbances; their report recommended political and economic reforms in Britain's Caribbean colonies.[26][67]A new House of Representatives was established in 1944, elected by universal adult suffrage.[26]During this period Jamaica's two-party system emerged, with the creation of theJamaican Labour Party(JLP) underAlexander Bustamanteand thePeople's National Party(PNP) underNorman Manley.[26]
Jamaica slowly gained increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. In 1958 it became a province in theFederation of the West Indies,a federation of several ofBritain's Caribbean colonies.[26]Membership of the Federation proved to be divisive, however, and areferendumon the issue saw a slight majority voting to leave.[26]After leaving the Federation, Jamaica attained fullindependenceon 6 August 1962.[26]The new state retained, however, its membership in theCommonwealth of Nations(with the British monarch as head of state) and adopted aWestminster-style parliamentary system.Bustamante, at the age of 78, became the country's first prime minister.[68][69]
Post-independence era
Strong economic growth, averaging approximately 6% per year, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative JLP governments; these were led by successive Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante,Donald Sangster(who died of natural causes within two months of taking office) andHugh Shearer.[26]The growth was fuelled by high levels of private investment inbauxite/alumina,tourism,the manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. In the1967 Jamaican general election,the JLP were victorious again, winning 33 out of 53 seats, with the PNP taking 20 seats.[70]
In terms of foreign policy Jamaica became a member of theNon-Aligned Movement,seeking to retain strong ties with Britain and the United States whilst also developing links with Communist states such as Cuba.[26]
The optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality among many Afro-Jamaicans, and a concern that the benefits of growth were not being shared by the urban poor, many of whom ended up living in crime-ridden shanty towns in Kingston.[26]This led to the voterselecting the PNPunderMichael Manleyin 1972. The PNP won 37 seats to the JLP's 16.[70]
Manley's government enacted various social reforms, such as a higherminimum wage,land reform, legislation for women's equality, greater housing construction and an increase in educational provision.[71][26]Internationally he improved ties with the Communist bloc and vigorously opposed theapartheidregime inSouth Africa.[26]
In 1976, the PNP won another landslide, winning 47 seats to the JLP's 13. The turnout was a very high 85 percent.[72]However, the economy faltered in this period due to a combination of internal and external factors (such as the oil shocks).[26]The rivalry between the JLP and PNP became intense, andpolitical and gang-related violencegrew significantly in this period.[26]
By 1980, Jamaica's gross national product had declined to some 25% below its 1972 level.[citation needed]Seeking change, Jamaicans voted the JLPback inin 1980 underEdward Seaga,the JLP winning 51 seats to the PNP's nine seats.[70][26]Firmly anti-Communist, Seaga cut ties with Cuba and sent troops to support theUS invasion of Grenadain 1983.[26]The economic deterioration, however, continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors. The largest and third-largest alumina producers,AlpartandAlcoa,closed; and there was a significant reduction in production by the second-largest producer,Alcan.[citation needed]Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry. There was also a decline in tourism, which was important to the economy.[citation needed]Owing to rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, the government soughtInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) financing, which was dependent on implementing various austerity measures.[26]These resulted in strikes in 1985 and a decline in support for the Seaga government, exacerbated by criticism of the government's response to the devastation caused byHurricane Gilbertin 1988.[26][73]Having now de-emphasised socialism and adopting a more centrist position, Michael Manley and the PNP werere-elected in 1989,winning 45 seats to the JLP's 15.[74][26]
The PNP went on to win a string of elections, under Prime Ministers Michael Manley (1989–1992),P. J. Patterson(1992–2005) andPortia Simpson-Miller(2005–2007). In the1993 Jamaican general election,Patterson led the PNP to victory, winning 52 seats to the JLP's eight seats. Patterson also won the1997 Jamaican general election,by another landslide margin of 50 seats to the JLP's 10 seats.[72]Patterson's third consecutive victory came in the2002 Jamaican general election,when the PNP retained power, but with a reduced seat majority of 34 seats to 26. Patterson stepped down on 26 February 2006, and was replaced byPortia Simpson-Miller,Jamaica's first female Prime Minister. The turnout slowly declined during this period of time, from 67.4% in 1993 to 59.1% in 2002.[74]
During this period various economic reforms were introduced, such as deregulating the finance sector and floating the Jamaican dollar, as well as greater investment in infrastructure, whilst also retaining a strong social safety net.[26]Political violence, so prevalent in the previous two decades, declined significantly.[26][75]
In2007the PNP was defeated by the JLP by a narrow margin of 32 seats to 28, with a turnout of 61.46%.[76]This election ended 18 years of PNP rule, andBruce Goldingbecame the new prime minister.[77]Golding's tenure (2007–2010) was dominated by the effects of theglobal recession,as well as the fallout froman attemptby Jamaican police and military to arrest drug lordChristopher Cokein 2010 which erupted in violence, resulting in over 70 deaths.[26][78]As a result of this incident Golding resigned and was replaced by Andrew Holness in 2011.
Independence, however widely celebrated in Jamaica, has been questioned in the early 21st century. In 2011, a survey showed that approximately 60% of Jamaicans believe that the country would have been better off had it remained a British colony, with only 17% believing it would have been worse off, citing as problems years of social and fiscal mismanagement in the country.[79][80]Holness and the JLP were defeated in the2011 Jamaican general election,which saw Portia Simpson-Miller and the PNP return to power. The number of seats had been increased to 63, and the PNP swept to power with a landslide 42 seats to the JLP's 21. The voter turnout was 53.17%.[81]
Holness's JLP won the2016general election narrowly, defeating Simpson-Miller's PNP, on 25 February. The PNP won 31 seats to the JLP's 32. As a result, Simpson-Miller became Opposition Leader for a second time. The voter turnout dipped below 50% for the first time, registering just 48.37%.[82]
In the2020 general election,Andrew Holness made history for the JLP by accomplishing a second consecutive win for the Jamaica Labour Party, winning 49 seats to 14 won by the PNP, led this time byPeter Phillips.The last time a consecutive win occurred for the JLP was in 1980. However, the turnout at this election was just 37%, probably affected by the coronavirus pandemic.[83]
Government and politics
Jamaica is aparliamentary democracyandconstitutional monarchy.[9][84]The head of state is theKing of Jamaica(currentlyKing Charles III),[85]represented locally by theGovernor-General of Jamaica.[86][9][84]The governor-general is nominated by the Prime Minister of Jamaica and the entire Cabinet and then formally appointed by the monarch. All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the governor-general on the advice of the prime minister. The monarch and the governor-general serve largely ceremonial roles, apart from theirreserve powersfor use in certain constitutional crisis situations. The position of the monarch has been a matter ofcontinuing debatein Jamaica for many years; currently both major political parties are committed to transitioning to a republic with a president.[87][88]
Jamaica's currentconstitutionwas drafted in 1962 by a bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature. It came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962, which was passed by theParliament of the United Kingdom,which gave Jamaica independence.[84]
TheParliament of Jamaicaisbicameral,consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House). Members of the House (known as Members of Parliament orMPs) are directly elected, and the member of the House of Representatives who, in the governor-general's best judgement, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointed by the governor-general to be the prime minister. Senators are nominated jointly by the prime minister and the parliamentaryLeader of the Oppositionand are then appointed by the governor-general.[84]
TheJudiciary of Jamaicaoperates on acommon lawsystem derived fromEnglish lawandCommonwealth of Nationsprecedents.[84]The court of final appeal is theJudicial Committee of the Privy Council,though during the 2000s Parliament attempted to replace it with theCaribbean Court of Justice.[citation needed]
Political parties and elections
Jamaica has traditionally had atwo-party system,with power often alternating between thePeople's National Party(PNP) andJamaica Labour Party(JLP).[84]The party with current administrative and legislative power is the Jamaica Labour Party, after its 2020 victory. There are also several minor parties who have yet to gain a seat in parliament; the largest of these is theNational Democratic Movement(NDM).
Military
The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is the small but professional military force of Jamaica.[9]The JDF is based on the British military model with similar organisation, training, weapons and traditions. Once chosen, officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending on the arm of service. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at Up Park Camp or JDF Training Depot, Newcastle, both in St. Andrew. As with the British model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for speciality training in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom.[citation needed]
The JDF is directly descended from theBritish Army'sWest India Regiment,which was formed during the colonial era.[89]The West India Regiment was used extensively throughout theBritish Empirein policing the empire from 1795 to 1926. Other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in World War II. The West Indies Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of theWest Indies Federation,after dissolution of the Federation the JDF was established.[90]
The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprises aninfantry Regimentand Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleet and a supporting Engineering Unit.[91]The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd (National Reserve) battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flight units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve). The Coast Guard is divided between seagoing crews and support crews who conduct maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-related operations.[92]
The role of the support battalion is to provide support to boost numbers in combat and issue competency training in order to allow for the readiness of the force.[93]The 1st Engineer Regiment was formed due to an increased demand for military engineers and their role is to provide engineering services whenever and wherever they are needed.[94]The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF Commander, Command Staff as well as Intelligence, Judge Advocate office, Administrative and Procurement sections.[95]
In recent years the JDF has been called on to assist the nation's police, theJamaica Constabulary Force(JCF), in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of the highest murder rates in the world. JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has been vocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, an Opposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF and JCF. This has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens.[citation needed]In 2017, Jamaica signed the UNtreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[96]
Jamaica is the 91st most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[97]
Administrative divisions
Jamaica is divided into 14parishes,which are grouped into three historiccountiesthat have no administrative relevance.[84]
In the context oflocal governmentthe parishes are designated "Local Authorities". These local authorities are further styled as "Municipal Corporations", which are either city municipalities or town municipalities.[98]Any new city municipality must have a population of at least 50,000, and a town municipality a number set by the Minister of Local Government.[98]There are currently no town municipalities.
The local governments of the parishes of Kingston and St. Andrews are consolidated as the city municipality of Kingston & St. Andrew Municipal Corporation. The newest city municipality is the Municipality of Portmore, created 2003. While it is geographically located within the parish of St. Catherine, it is governed independently.
| Cornwall County | Capital | km2 | Middlesex County | Capital | km2 | Surrey County | Capital | km2 | |||
| 1 | Hanover | Lucea | 450 | 6 | Clarendon | May Pen | 1,196 | 11 | Kingston | Kingston | 25 |
| 2 | Saint Elizabeth | Black River | 1,212 | 7 | Manchester | Mandeville | 830 | 12 | Portland | Port Antonio | 814 |
| 3 | Saint James | Montego Bay | 595 | 8 | Saint Ann | St. Ann's Bay | 1,213 | 13 | Saint Andrew | Half Way Tree | 453 |
| 4 | Trelawny | Falmouth | 875 | 9 | Saint Catherine | Spanish Town | 1,192 | 14 | Saint Thomas | Morant Bay | 743 |
| 5 | Westmoreland | Savanna-la-Mar | 807 | 10 | Saint Mary | Port Maria | 611 | ||||
Geography and environment
Jamaica is the third-largest island in the Caribbean.[99]It lies between latitudes17°and19°N,and longitudes76°and79°W.Mountains dominate the interior: the Don Figuerero, Santa Cruz, and May Day mountains in the west, theDry Harbour Mountainsin the centre, and theJohn Crow MountainsandBlue Mountainsin the east, the latter containingBlue Mountain Peak,Jamaica's tallest mountain at 2,256 m.[9][84]They are surrounded by a narrow coastal plain.[100][9]Jamaica has two cities, the first beingKingston,the capital city and centre of business, located on the south coast and the second beingMontego Bay,one of the best known cities in the Caribbean for tourism, located on the north coast.Kingston Harbouris the seventh-largest natural harbour in the world,[101]which contributed to the city being designated as the capital in 1872. Other towns of note includePortmore,Spanish Town,Savanna la Mar,Mandevilleand the resort towns ofOcho Ríos,Port AntonioandNegril.[102]
Tourist attractions includeDunn's River Fallsin St. Ann, YS Falls in St. Elizabeth, the Blue Lagoon inPortland,a dormant volcano's crater,[103]andPort Royal,site of a major earthquake in 1692 that helped form the island'sPalisadoestombolo.[104]
Among the variety of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems are dry and wet limestone forests, rainforest, riparian woodland, wetlands, caves, rivers, seagrass beds and coral reefs. The authorities have recognised the tremendous significance and potential of the environment and have designated some of the more "fertile" areas as "protected". Among the island's protected areas are theCockpit Country,Hellshire Hills,and Litchfield forest reserves. In 1992, Jamaica's first marine park, covering nearly 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi), was established inMontego Bay.Portland Bight Protected Areawas designated in 1999.[105]The following yearBlue and John Crow Mountains National Parkwas created, covering roughly 300 square miles (780 km2) of a wilderness area which supports thousands of tree and fern species and rare animals.
There are several small islands off Jamaica's coast, most notably those inPortland Bightsuch asPigeon Island,Salt Island,Dolphin Island,Long Island,Great Goat IslandandLittle Goat Island,and alsoLime Caylocated further east. Much further out – some 50–80 km off the south coast – lie the very smallMorant CaysandPedro Cays.
Climate
The climate in Jamaica is tropical, with hot and humid weather, although higher inland regions are more temperate.[106][84]Some regions on the south coast, such as the Liguanea Plain and the Pedro Plains, are relatively dryrain-shadowareas.[107]
Jamaica lies within theMain Development Regionfor Atlantictropical cycloneactivity, and because of this, the island sometimes suffers significant storm damage.[108][84]HurricanesCharlieandGilberthit Jamaica directly in 1951 and 1988, respectively, causing major damage and many deaths. In the 2000s (decade), hurricanesIvan,Dean,andGustavalso brought severe weather to the island.
Flora and fauna
Jamaica's climate is tropical, supporting diverse ecosystems with a wealth of plants and animals. Its plant life has changed considerably over the centuries; when the Spanish arrived in 1494, except for small agricultural clearings, the country was deeply forested. The European settlers cut down the great timber trees for building and ships' supplies, and cleared the plains, savannas, and mountain slopes for intense agricultural cultivation.[84]Many new plants were introduced including sugarcane, bananas, and citrus trees.[84]
Jamaica is home to about 3,000 species ofnative flowering plants(of which over 1,000 areendemicand 200 are species oforchid), thousands of species of non-flowering flora, and about 20botanical gardens,some of which are several hundred years old.[109][110]Areas of heavy rainfall also contain stands of bamboo, ferns, ebony, mahogany, and rosewood. Cactus and similar dry-area plants are found along the south and southwest coastal area. Parts of the west and southwest consist of large grasslands, with scattered stands of trees. Jamaica is home to three terrestrialecoregions,theJamaican moist forests,Jamaican dry forests,andGreater Antilles mangroves.It had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 5.01/10, ranking it 110th globally out of 172 countries.[111]
Jamaica's fauna, typical of the Caribbean, includes highly diversified wildlife with many endemic species. As with other oceanic islands, land mammals are mostly several species ofbatsof which at least three endemic species are found only in Cockpit Country, one of which is at-risk. Other species of bat include thefig-eatingandhairy-tailed bats.The only non-bat native mammal extant in Jamaica is theJamaican hutia,locally known as the coney.[84]Introduced mammals such aswild boarand thesmall Asian mongooseare also common. Jamaica is also home to about 50 species of reptiles,[112]the largest of which is theAmerican crocodile;however, it is only present within the Black River and a few other areas. Lizards such asanoles,iguanasand snakes such as racers and theJamaican boa(the largest snake on the island), are common in areas such as the Cockpit Country. None of Jamaica's eight species of native snakes is venomous.[113]
Jamaica is home to about 289 species of birds of which 27 are endemic including the endangeredblack-Billed parrotsand theJamaican blackbird,both of which are only found in Cockpit Country. It is also the indigenous home to four species ofhummingbirds(three of which are found nowhere else in the world): theblack-billed streamertail,theJamaican mango,theVervain hummingbird,andred-billed streamertails.The red-billed streamertail, known locally as the "doctor bird", is Jamaica's National Symbol.[114][84]Other notable species include theJamaican todyand theGreater flamingo,[115]
One species of freshwater turtle is native to Jamaica, theJamaican slider.It is found only on Jamaica and on a few islands inthe Bahamas.In addition, many types of frogs are common on the island, especiallytreefrogs.
Jamaican waters contain considerable resources of fresh and saltwater fish.[116]The chief varieties of saltwater fish arekingfish,jack,mackerel,whiting,bonito,andtuna.Fish that occasionally enter freshwater and estuarine environments includesnook,jewfish,mangrove snapper,andmullets.Fish that spend the majority of their lives in Jamaica's fresh waters include many species oflivebearers,killifish,freshwatergobies,the mountain mullet, and theAmerican eel.Tilapiahave been introduced from Africa for aquaculture, and are very common. Also visible in the waters surrounding Jamaica are dolphins,parrotfish,and the endangeredmanatee.[117]
Insects and other invertebrates are abundant, including the world's largest centipede, theAmazonian giant centipede.Jamaica is the home to about 150 species of butterflies and moths, including 35 indigenous species and 22 subspecies. It is also the native home to theJamaican swallowtail,the western hemisphere's largest butterfly.[118]
Aquatic life
Coral reef ecosystems are important because they provide people with a source of livelihood, food, recreation, and medicinal compounds and protect the land on which they live.[119]Jamaica relies on the ocean and its ecosystem for its development. However, the marine life in Jamaica is also being affected. There could be many factors that contribute to marine life not having the best health. Jamaica's geological origin, topographical features and seasonal high rainfall make it susceptible to a range of natural hazards that can affect the coastal and oceanic environments. These include storm surge, slope failures (landslides), earthquakes, floods and hurricanes.[120]Coral reefs in the Negril Marine Park (NMP), Jamaica, have been increasingly impacted bynutrient pollutionand macroalgal blooms following decades of intensive development as a major tourist destination.[121]
Another one of those factors could include tourism: being that Jamaica is a very touristy place, the island draws numerous people travelling here from all over the world. The Jamaican tourism industry accounts for 32% of total employment and 36% of the country's GDP and is largely based on the sun, sea and sand, the last two of these attributes being dependent on healthy coral reef ecosystems.[119]Because of Jamaica's tourism, they have developed a study to see if the tourist would be willing to help financially to manage their marine ecosystem because Jamaica alone is unable to. The ocean connects all the countries all over the world, however, everyone and everything is affecting the flow and life in the ocean. Jamaica is a very touristy place specifically because of their beaches. If their oceans are not functioning at their best then the well-being of Jamaica and the people who live there will start to deteriorate. According to the OECD, oceans contribute $1.5 trillion annually in value-added to the overall economy.[122]A developing country on an island will get the majority of their revenue from their ocean.
Pollution
Pollution comes from run-off, sewage systems, and garbage. However, this typically all ends up in the ocean after there is rain or floods. Everything that ends up in the water changes the quality and balance of the ocean. Poor coastal water quality has adversely affected fisheries, tourism and mariculture, as well as undermining biological sustainability of the living resources of ocean and coastal habitats.[120]Jamaica imports and exports many goods through their waters. Some of the imports that go into Jamaica include petroleum and petroleum products. Issues include accidents at sea; risk of spills through local and international transport of petroleum and petroleum products.[120]Oil spills can disrupt the marine life with chemicals that are not normally found in the ocean. Other forms of pollution also occur in Jamaica. Solid waste disposal mechanisms in Jamaica are currently inadequate.[120]The solid waste gets into the water through rainfall forces. Solid waste is also harmful to wildlife, particularly birds, fish and turtles that feed at the surface of the water and mistake floating debris for food.[120]For example, plastic can be caught around birds' and turtles' necks, making it difficult to eat and breath as they begin to grow, causing the plastic to get tighter around their necks. Pieces of plastic, metal, and glass can be mistaken for the food fish eat. Each Jamaican generates 1 kg (2 lbs) of waste per day; only 70% of this is collected by National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA)—the remaining 30% is either burnt or disposed of in gullies/waterways.[123]
Environmental policies
There are policies that are being put into place to help preserve the ocean and the life below water. The goal of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is to improve the quality of life of human communities who depend on coastal resources while maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems.[120]Developing an underdeveloped country can impact the oceans ecosystem because of all the construction that would be done to develop the country. Over-building, driven by powerful market forces as well as poverty among some sectors of the population, and destructive exploitation contribute to the decline of ocean and coastal resources.[120]Developing practices that will contribute to the lives of the people but also to the life of the ocean and its ecosystem. Some of these practices include: Develop sustainable fisheries practices, ensure sustainable mariculture techniques and practices, sustainable management of shipping, and promotesustainable tourismpractices.[120]
Demographics
Ethnic origins
Breakdown of the Responses of the2011 official censusby the University of the West Indies.[1]
| Ethnic origin | Percentage | Approx. Population |
|---|---|---|
| African descent | 76.3 | 2,047,668 |
| Afro-European | 15.1 | 405,240 |
| East Indian and Afro-East Indian | 3.4 | 91,246 |
| Caucasian | 3.2 | 85,878 |
| Chinese | 1.2 | 32,224 |
| Other | 0.8 | 21,470 |
| Total | 100.0% | 2,683,707 |
Jamaica's diverse ethnic roots are reflected in the national motto"Out of Many One People".That Motto ofOut of Many One Peopleis disputed by many on the island - because Jamaica is overwhelmingly a single race and they think it was made so because the founding fathers[writers of the country's constitution] of Jamaica were made up of men who were mostly White or Members of the 'Browning or Brown Man Class' - which misrepresented the views of the country's majority Black population.[124][125][126]
Most of the population of 2,812,000 (July 2018 est.)[9]are of African or partially African descent, with many being able to trace their origins to the West African countries of present-dayGhanaandNigeria.[84][127]Other major ancestral areas areEurope,[60]South Asia,andEast Asia.[citation needed]It is uncommon for Jamaicans to identify themselves by race as is prominent in other countries such as the United States, with most Jamaicans seeing Jamaican nationality as an identity in and of itself, identifying as simply being "Jamaican" regardless of ethnicity.[128][129]A study found that the average admixture on the island was 78.3% Sub-Saharan African, 16.0%European,and 5.7%East Asian.[130]
A more precise study conducted by the local University of the West Indies - Jamaica's population is more accurately 76.3% African descent or Black, 15.1% Afro-European (or locally called the Brown Man or Browning Class), 3.4% East Indian and Afro-East Indian, 3.2% Caucasian, 1.2% Chinese and 0.8% Other.[1]
TheJamaican Maroonsof Accompong and other settlements are the descendants of African slaves who fled the plantations for the interior where they set up their own autonomous communities.[131][132][133]Many Maroons continue to have their own traditions and speak their own language, known locally asKromanti.[134]
Asians form the third-largest group (after the Browning Class – i.e. descendants of the mulattos during slavery and other interracial mixtures subsequent to emancipation) and include Indo-Jamaicans and Chinese Jamaicans.[135]Most are descended from indentured workers brought by the British colonial government to fill labour shortages following the abolition of slavery in 1838. Along with their Indian counterparts,Chinese Jamaicanshave also played an integral part in Jamaica's community and history.[citation needed]
There are about 20,000 Jamaicans who haveLebaneseandSyrianancestry.[136]Most were Christian immigrants who fled theOttomanoccupation of Lebanon in the early 19th century. Eventually their descendants became very successful politicians and businessmen.[citation needed]
The first wave of English immigrants arrived to the island 1655 after conquering the Spanish, and they have historically been the dominant group. The first Irish immigrants came to Jamaica in the 1600s as war prisoners and later, indentured labour. The Scots have also made a significant impact on the island. According to theScotland Herald newspaper,Jamaica has more people using the Campbell surnames than the population of Scotland itself, and the highest percentage of Scottish surnames outside of Scotland. Scottish surnames account to about 60% of the surnames in the Jamaican telephone directories.[citation needed]The first Jamaican inhabitants from Scotland were exiled "rebels". They were later followed by ambitious businessmen who spent time between their great country estates in Scotland and the island. As a result, many of the slave-owning plantations on the island were owned by Scottish men, leading to a large number of mixed-race Jamaicans with Scottish ancestry. High immigration from Scotland continued until well after independence.[citation needed]
There is also a significant Jamaican population of Portuguese descent that is predominantly ofSephardic Jewish heritage.[137][138][139][140]The first Jews arrived as explorers from Spain in the 15th century after being forced to choose between expulsion orconversion to Christianity.A small number of them became slave-owners or pirates.[141]Judaism eventually became very influential in Jamaica and can be seen today with many Jewish cemeteries around the country. Duringthe HolocaustJamaica became a refuge for Jews fleeing persecution in Europe.[142]
By 2015 immigration had increased, coming mainly from China, Haiti, Cuba, Colombia, and Latin America; 20,000 Latin Americans lived in Jamaica.[143]In 2016, Prime Minister Andrew Holness suggested making Spanish Jamaica's second official language.[144]About 7,000 Americans live in Jamaica.[citation needed]
Languages
Jamaica is regarded as abilingualcountry, with two major languages in use by the population.[145][135]The official language is(Jamaican) English,which is "used in all domains of public life", including the government, the legal system, the media, and education. However, the primary spoken language is anEnglish-based creolecalledJamaican Patois(or Patwa). The two exist in a dialect continuum, with speakers using a different register of speech depending on context and whom they are speaking to. "Pure" Patois, though sometimes seen as merely a particularly aberrant dialect of English, is essentially mutually unintelligible with standard English and is best thought of as a separate language.[84]A 2007 survey by the Jamaican Language Unit found that 17.1 percent of the population weremonolingualin Jamaican Standard English (JSE), 36.5 percent were monolingual in Patois, and 46.4 percent were bilingual, although earlier surveys had pointed to a greater degree of bilinguality (up to 90 percent).[146]The Jamaican education system had only in about 2015 begun to offer formal instruction in Patois, while retaining JSE as the "official language of instruction".[147]
Additionally, some Jamaicans use one or more ofJamaican Sign Language(JSL),American Sign Language(ASL) or the declining indigenousJamaican Country Sign Language(Konchri Sain).[148]Both JSL and ASL are rapidly replacing Konchri Sain for a variety of reasons.[148]
Emigration
Many Jamaicans haveemigratedto other countries, especially to the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. In the case of the United States, about 20,000 Jamaicans per year are granted permanent residence.[149]There has also been emigration of Jamaicans to other Caribbeans countries such as Cuba,[150]Puerto Rico, Guyana, and The Bahamas. It was estimated in 2004 that up to 2.5 million Jamaicans and Jamaican descendants lived abroad.[151]
About 800,000Jamaicans live in the United Kingdom,making them by far the country's largestAfrican-Caribbean group.Large-scale migration from Jamaica to the UK occurred primarily in the 1950s and 1960s when the country was still under British rule. There are Jamaican communities in most large UK cities.[152]Concentrations ofexpatriateJamaicans are quite considerable in numerous cities in the United States, includingNew York City,Buffalo,theMiamimetro area,Atlanta,Chicago,Orlando,Tampa,Washington, D.C.,Philadelphia,Hartford,ProvidenceandLos Angeles.[153]In Canada, the Jamaican population is centred inToronto,[154]with smaller communities in cities such asHamilton,Montreal,Winnipeg,VancouverandOttawa.[155]Jamaican Canadians comprise about 30% of the entireBlack Canadian population.[156][157] A notable though much smaller group of emigrants areJamaicans in Ethiopia.These are mostly Rastafarians, in whose theological worldview Africa is the promised land, or "Zion", or more specifically Ethiopia, due to reverence in which former Ethiopian EmperorHaile Selassieis held.[158]Most live in the small town ofShashamaneabout 150 miles (240 km) south of the capitalAddis Ababa.[159]
Crime
When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, the murder rate was 3.9 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the lowest in the world.[160]By 2009, the rate was 62 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest in the world.[161]Gang violence became a serious problem, with organised crime being centred aroundJamaican possesor "Yardies".Jamaica has had one of the highest murder rates in the world for many years, according toUNestimates.[162][163]Some areas of Jamaica, particularly poor areas inKingston,Montego Bayand elsewhere experience high levels of crime and violence.[164]
However, there were 1,683 reported murders in 2009 and 1,447 in 2010.[165]After 2011 the murder rate continued to fall, following the downward trend in 2010, after a strategic programme was launched.[166]In 2012, the Ministry of National Security reported a 30 percent decrease in murders.[167]Nevertheless, in 2017 murders rose by 22% over the previous year.[168]
Many Jamaicans are hostile towardsLGBTandintersexpeople,[169][170][171]and mob attacks against gay people have been reported.[172][173][174]Numerous high-profile dancehall andraggaartists have produced songs featuring explicitly homophobic lyrics.[175]This has prompted the formations of LGBT rights organisations such asStop Murder Music.[176]Male homosexuality isillegaland punishable by imprisonment.[177][178]
Major cities
| Rank | Name | Parish | Pop. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Kingston |
1 | Kingston | Kingston | 661,862 |  Montego Bay | ||||
| 2 | Portmore | Saint Catherine | 182,153 | ||||||
| 3 | Spanish Town | Saint Catherine | 147,152 | ||||||
| 4 | Montego Bay | Saint James | 110,115 | ||||||
| 5 | May Pen | Clarendon | 61,548 | ||||||
| 6 | Mandeville | Manchester | 49,695 | ||||||
| 7 | Old Harbour | Saint Catherine | 28,912 | ||||||
| 8 | Savanna-la-Mar | Westmoreland | 22,633 | ||||||
| 9 | Ocho Rios | Saint Ann | 16,671 | ||||||
| 10 | Linstead | Saint Catherine | 15,231 | ||||||
Religion
Christianityis the largest religion practised in Jamaica.[84][9]About 70% areProtestants;Roman Catholicsare just 2% of the population.[9]According to the 2001 census, the country's largest Protestant denominations are theChurch of God(24%),Seventh-day Adventist Church(11%),Pentecostal(10%),Baptist(7%),Anglican(4%),United Church(2%),Methodist(2%),Moravian(1%) andPlymouth Brethren(1%).[14]Bedwardismis a form of Christianity native to the island, sometimes viewed as a separate faith.[179][180]The Christian faith gained acceptance as British Christian abolitionists and Baptist missionaries joined educated former slaves in the struggle against slavery.[181]
The Rastafari movement has 29,026 adherents, according to the 2011 census, with 25,325 Rastafarian males and 3,701 Rastafarian females.[14]The faith originated in Jamaica in the 1930s and though rooted in Christianity it is heavily Afrocentric in its focus, revering figures such as the Jamaican black nationalistMarcus GarveyandHaile Selassie,the former Emperor of Ethiopia.[182][84]Rastafari has since spread across the globe, especially to areas with large black or African diasporas.[183][184]
Various faiths and traditional religious practices derived from Africa are practised on the island, notablyKumina,Convince,MyalandObeah.[185][186][187]
Other religions in Jamaica includeJehovah's Witnesses(2% population), theBahá'í faith,which counts perhaps 8,000 adherents[188]and 21Local Spiritual Assemblies,[189]Mormonism,[190]Buddhism,andHinduism.[191][192]The HinduDiwalifestival is celebrated yearly among theIndo-Jamaicancommunity.[193][60]
There is also a small population of about 200Jews,who describe themselves as Liberal-Conservative.[194]The first Jews in Jamaica trace their roots back to early 15th-century Spain and Portugal.[195]Kahal Kadosh Shaare Shalom,also known as the United Congregation of Israelites, is a historic synagogue located in the city ofKingston.Originally built in 1912, it is the official and only Jewish place of worship left on the island. The once abundant Jewish population has voluntarily converted to Christianity over time.[citation needed]Shaare Shalom is one of the few synagogues in the world that contains sand covered floors and is a popular tourist destination.[196][197]
Other small groups includeMuslims,who claim 5,000 adherents.[14]The Muslim holidays ofAshura(known locally as Hussay orHosay) andEidhave been celebrated throughout the island for hundreds of years. In the past, every plantation in each parish celebrated Hosay. Today it has been called an Indian carnival and is perhaps most well known in Clarendon where it is celebrated each August. People of all religions attend the event, showing mutual respect.[198][60]
Education
The emancipation of the slaves heralded the establishment of an education system for the masses. Prior to emancipation there were few schools for educating locals and many sent their children off to England to access quality education.[citation needed]After emancipation the West Indian Commission granted a sum of money to establish Elementary Schools, now known asAll Age Schools.Most of these schools were established by the churches.[199]This was the genesis of the modern Jamaican school system.
Presently the following categories of schools exist:
- Early childhood– Basic, infant and privately operated pre-school. Age cohort: 2 – 5 years.
- Primary– Publicly and privately owned (privately owned being called preparatory schools). Ages 3 – 12 years.
- Secondary– Publicly and privately owned. Ages 10 – 19 years. The high schools in Jamaica may be either single-sex or co-educational institutions, and many schools follow the traditionalEnglish grammar school modelused throughout the British West Indies.
- Tertiary– Community colleges; teachers' colleges, with the Mico Teachers' College (now The MICO University College) being the oldest, founded in 1836; the Shortwood Teachers' College (which was once an all-female teacher training institution); vocational training centres, colleges and universities, publicly and privately owned. There are five local universities: theUniversity of the West Indies(Mona Campus); theUniversity of Technology, Jamaica,formerly The College of Art Science and Technology (CAST); theNorthern Caribbean University,formerly West Indies College; theUniversity of the Commonwealth Caribbean,formerly the University College of The Caribbean; and theInternational University of the Caribbean.
Additionally, there are many community and teacher training colleges.
Education is free from the early childhood to secondary levels. There are also opportunities for those who cannot afford further education in the vocational arena, through the Human Employment and Resource Training-National Training Agency (HEART Trust-NTA) programme,[200]which is opened to all working age national population[201]and through an extensive scholarship network for the various universities.
Economy
Jamaica is amixed economywith both state enterprises and private sector businesses. Major sectors of the Jamaican economy includeagriculture,mining,manufacturing,tourism,petroleum refining,financialandinsuranceservices.[84]Tourism and mining are the leading earners offoreign exchange.Half the Jamaican economy relies on services, with half of its income coming from services such as tourism. An estimated 4.3 million foreign tourists visit Jamaica every year.[20]According to theWorld Bank,Jamaica is an upper-middle income country that, like its Caribbean neighbours, is vulnerable to theeffects of climate change,flooding, and hurricanes.[15]In 2018, Jamaica represented theCARICOM Caribbean Communityat theG20and theG7annual meetings.[202]In 2019 Jamaica reported its lowest unemployment rate in 50 years.[203]
Supported by multilateral financial institutions, Jamaica has, since the early 1980s, sought to implement structural reforms aimed at fostering private sector activity and increasing the role of market forces in resource allocation[204][205][206]Since 1991, the government has followed a programme of economic liberalisation and stabilisation by removing exchange controls,[207][208]floating the exchange rate,[209][210]cuttingtariffs,[211]stabilising theJamaican dollar,reducinginflation[212]and removing restrictions onforeign investment.[210][213]Emphasis has been placed on maintaining strict fiscal discipline, greater openness to trade and financial flows, market liberalisation and reduction in the size of government. During this period, a large share of the economy was returned to private sector ownership throughdivestmentand privatisation programmes.[204][205][206]The free-trade zones at Kingston, Montego Bay and Spanish Town allow duty-free importation, tax-free profits, and free repatriation of export earnings.[214]
Jamaica's economy grew strongly after the years of independence,[214]but then stagnated in the 1980s, due to the heavy falls in price of bauxite and fluctuations in the price of agriculture.[214][84]The financial sector was troubled in 1994, with many banks and insurance companies suffering heavy losses and liquidity problems.[84][214]According to theCommonwealthSecretariat, "The government set up the Financial Sector Adjustment Company (Finsac) in January 1997 to assist these banks and companies, providing funds in return for equity, and acquired substantial holdings in banks and insurance companies and related companies..." but it only exasperated the problem, and brought the country into large external debt.[214]From 2001, once it had restored these banks and companies to financial health, Finsac divested them. "[214]TheGovernment of Jamaicaremains committed to lowering inflation, with a long-term objective of bringing it in line with that of its major trading partners.[212]
In 1996 and 1997 there was a decrease in GDP largely due to significant problems in the financial sector and, in 1997, a severe island-wide drought (the worst in 70 years) and hurricane that drastically reduced agricultural production.[215]In 1997 and 1998, nominal GDP was approximately a high of about 8 percent of GDP and then lowered to 4½ percent of GDP in 1999 and 2000.[216]The economy in 1997 was marked by low levels ofimportgrowth, high levels of private capital inflows and relative stability in theforeign exchange market.[217]
Recent economic performance shows the Jamaican economy is recovering.Agriculturalproduction, an important engine of growth increased to 5.5% in 2001 compared to the corresponding period in 2000, signalling the first positive growth rate in the sector since January 1997.[218]In 2018, Jamaica reported a 7.9% increase incorn,6.1% increase inplantains,10.4% increase inbananas,2.2% increase inpineapples,13.3% increase indasheen,24.9% increase incoconuts,and a 10.6% increase in wholemilkproduction.[219]Bauxite and alumina production increased 5.5% from January to December 1998, compared to the corresponding period in 1997. January's bauxite production recorded a 7.1% increase relative to January 1998 and continued expansion of alumina production through 2009 is planned by Alcoa.[220]Jamaica is the fifth-largest exporter of bauxite in the world, after Australia, China, Brazil and Guinea. The country also exportslimestone,of which it holds large deposits. The government is currently implementing plans to increase its extraction.[221]
A Canadian company, Carube Copper Corp, has found and confirmed, "...the existence of at least seven significant Cu/Au porphyry systems (in St. Catherine)." They have estimated that, "The porphyry distribution found at Bellas Gate is similar to that found in the Northparkes mining district of New South Wales, Australia (which was) sold to China in 2013 for US$820 million." Carube noted that Jamaica's geology, "... is similar to that of Chile, Argentina and the Dominican Republic – all productive mining jurisdictions." Mining on the sites began in 2017.[222]
Tourism, which is the largest foreign exchange earner, showed improvement as well. In 1999 the total visitor arrivals was 2 million, an increase of 100,000 from the previous year.[223]Since 2017, Jamaica's tourism has risen exponentially, rising to 4.3 million average tourists per year. Jamaica's largest tourist markets are from North America, South America, and Europe. In 2017, Jamaica recorded a 91.3% increase in stopover visitors from Southern and Western Europe (and a 41% increase in stopover arrivals from January to September 2017 over the same period from the previous year) with Germany, Portugal and Spain registering the highest percentage gains.[224]In 2018, Jamaica won several World Travel Awards in Portugal winning the "Chairman's Award for Global Tourism Innovation", "Best Tourist Board in the Caribbean" "Best Honeymoon Destination", "Best Culinary Destination", "World's Leading Beach Destination" and "World's Leading Cruise Destination".[225][226]Two months later, the Travvy Tourism Awards held in New York City, awarded Jamaica's Tourism Minister Edmund Bartlett, with the inaugural Chairman's Award for, "Global Tourism Innovation for the Development of the Global Tourism Resilience and Crisis Management Centre (GTRCM)". Bartlett has also won the Pacific Travel Writer's Association's award in Germany for the, "2018 Best Tourism Minister of the Year".[225][226][227]
Petrojam, Jamaica's national and only petroleum refinery, is co-owned by theGovernment of Venezuela.Petrojam, "..operates a 35,000 barrel per day hydro-skimming refinery, to produce Automotive Diesel Oil; Heavy Fuel Oil; Kerosene/Jet Fuel, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), Asphalt and Gasoline." Customers include the Power industry, Aircraft refuellers, and Local Marketing companies.[228]On 20 February 2019, the Jamaican Government voted to retake ownership of Venezuela's 49% share.[229]
Jamaica's agricultural exports aresugar,bananas,cocoa,[230]coconut,molasses[231]oranges,limes,grapefruit,[232]rum,yams,allspice(of which it is the world's largest and "most exceptional quality" exporter),[233]andBlue Mountain Coffeewhich is considered a world renowned gourmet brand.[26]
Jamaica has a wide variety of industrial and commercial activities. Theaviationindustry is able to perform most routine aircraft maintenance, except for heavy structural repairs. There is a considerable amount of technical support for transport and agricultural aviation. Jamaica has a considerable amount ofindustrial engineering,light manufacturing,includingmetal fabrication,metal roofing, and furnituremanufacturing.Food andbeverageprocessing,glasswaremanufacturing,softwareanddata processing,printingandpublishing,insuranceunderwriting,musicand recording, and advancededucationactivities can be found in the larger urban areas. The Jamaicanconstruction industryis entirely self-sufficient, with professional technical standards and guidance.[234]
Since the first quarter of 2006, the economy of Jamaica has undergone a period of staunch growth. With inflation for the 2006 calendar year down to 6.0% and unemployment down to 8.9%, the nominal GDP grew by an unprecedented 2.9%.[235]An investment programme in island transportation and utility infrastructure and gains in the tourism, mining, and service sectors all contributed this figure. All projections for 2007 show an even higher potential for economic growth with all estimates over 3.0% and hampered only by urban crime and public policies.[citation needed]Jamaica was ranked 78th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2023.[236][237]
In 2006, Jamaica became part of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy(CSME)as one of the pioneering members.[238]
The global economic downturn had a significant impact on the Jamaican economy for the years 2007 to 2009, resulting in negative economic growth. The government implemented a new Debt Management Initiative, the Jamaica Debt Exchange (JDX) on 14 January 2010. The initiative would see holders of Government of Jamaica (GOJ) bonds returning the high interest earning instruments for bonds with lower yields and longer maturities. The offer was taken up by over 95% of local financial institutions and was deemed a success by the government.[239]
Owing to the success of the JDX program, the Bruce Golding-led government was successful in entering into a borrowing arrangement with the IMF on 4 February 2010 for the amount of US$1.27b. The loan agreement is for a period of three years.[240]
In April 2014, the Governments of Jamaica and China signed the preliminary agreements for the first phase of the Jamaican Logistics Hub (JLH) – the initiative that aims to position Kingston as the fourth node in the global logistics chain, joining Rotterdam, Dubai and Singapore, and serving the Americas.[241]The Project, when completed, is expected to provide many jobs for Jamaicans, Economic Zones for multinational companies[242]and much needed economic growth to alleviate the country's heavydebt-to-GDP ratio.Strict adherence to the IMF's refinancing programme and preparations for the JLH has favourably affected Jamaica's credit rating and outlook from the three biggest rating agencies. In 2018, both Moody's and Standard and Poor Credit ratings upgraded Jamaica's ratings to both "stable and positive" respectively.[243][244]
Science and technology
Main articles:Science and technology in JamaicaandList of Jamaican inventions and discoveries
The Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) sector is guided by the National Commission on Science and Technology (NCST) and the Scientific Research Council (SRC). Both are under the direction of the Ministry of Science, Energy, and Technology.
Since the 1990s, the government has set an agenda to push the development of science and technology in Jamaica. Despite some successes, such as the growth of thenutraceuticalindustry, it has been difficult to translate the results into domestic technologies, products and services - largely because of national budgetary constraints. However, with Jamaica's improved fiscal space, coming out of its recentIMFprogramme, the government has pledged to increase expenditure on research and development.[245][246]
Jamaicans have made some noteworthy scientific and medical contributions. Amongst these include the discovery ofkwashiorkor,the pioneer of treatments forpediatricsickle cell anemiaand the invention of variousspacecraftsupport systems.
Infrastructure
Transport
Thetransportinfrastructure in Jamaica consists ofroadways,railwaysand air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island's internal transport system.[84]
Roadways
The Jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres (13,000 mi) of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres (9,300 mi) is paved.[247]TheJamaican Governmenthas, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system offreeways,the first such access-controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres (21 mi) of freeway.[citation needed]
Railways
Railways in Jamaica no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 272 kilometres (169 mi) of railway found in Jamaica, only 57 kilometres (35 mi) remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite.[247]On 13 April 2011, a limited passenger service was resumed between May Pen, Spanish Town and Linstead.[248]
Air transport
There are three international airports in Jamaica with modernterminals,longrunways,and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the largejet aircraftused in modern andair travel:Norman Manley International AirportinKingston;Ian Fleming International AirportinBoscobel,Saint Mary Parish;and the island's largest and busiest airport,Sir Donald Sangster International Airportin theresortcity ofMontego Bay.Manley and Sangster International airports are home to the country's national airline,Air Jamaica.In addition there are local commuter airports atTinson Pen (Kingston),Port Antonio,andNegril,which cater to internal flights only. Many other small, rural centres are served by private airstrips on sugar estates or bauxite mines.[84]
Ports, shipping and lighthouses
Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in theshipping laneto thePanama Canaland relative proximity to large markets in North America andemerging marketsin Latin America, Jamaica receives much traffic ofshipping containers.Thecontainer terminalat the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as that which is projected in coming years.[249]Montego Freeport inMontego Bayalso handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products.
There are several other ports positioned around the island, including Port Esquivel inSt. Catherine(WINDALCO), Rocky Point inClarendon,Port Kaiser inSt. Elizabeth,Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay, Reynolds Pier inOcho Rios,and Boundbrook Port inPort Antonio.
To aid the navigation of shipping, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses.[250]They are maintained by the <Port Authority of Jamaica,[251]an agency of the Ministry of Transport and Works.[252][250]
Energy
Jamaica depends on petroleum imports to satisfy its national energy needs.[247]Many test sites have been explored for oil, but no commercially viable quantities have been found.[253]The most convenient sources of imported oil and motor fuels (diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel) are fromMexicoandVenezuela.
Jamaica's electrical power is produced by diesel (bunker oil) generators located inOld Harbour.This facility has been further equipped with liquid natural gas capability and storage. Other smaller power stations (most owned by the Jamaica Public Service Company,[254]the island's electricity provider) support the island's electrical grid including the Hunts Bay Power Station, the Bogue Power StationSaint James,the Rockfort Power StationSaint Andrewand small hydroelectric plants on the White River, Rio Bueno, Morant River, Black River (Maggotty) and Roaring River.[255]A wind farm, owned by the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, was established at Wigton,Manchester.[256]
Jamaica has successfully operated aSLOWPOKE-2 nuclear reactorof 20 kW capacity since the early 1980s, but there are no plans to expand nuclear power at present.[257]
Jamaica imports approximately 80,000 barrels (13,000 m3) of oil energy products per day,[253]including asphalt and lubrication products. Just 20% of imported fuels are used for road transportation, the rest being used by the bauxite industry, electricity generation, and aviation. 30,000 barrels/day of crude imports are processed into various motor fuels and asphalt by the Petrojam Refinery in Kingston.[258]
Jamaica produces enormous quantities ofdrinking alcohol(at least 5% water content), most of which appears to be consumed as beverages, and none used as motor fuel. Facilities exist to refine hydrous ethanol feedstock intoanhydrous ethanol(0% water content), but as of 2007, the process appeared to be uneconomic and the production plant was idle.[259]The facility has since been purchased by West Indies Petroleum Ltd. and repurposed for petroleum distillates.
Communication
Jamaica has a fullydigital telephone communication systemwith a mobile penetration of over 95%.[260]
The country's two mobile operators –FLOW Jamaica(formerly LIME, bMobile and Cable and Wireless Jamaica) andDigicel Jamaicahave spent millions in network upgrades and expansion. The newest operator, Digicel was granted a licence in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent FLOW (then Cable and Wireless Jamaica) monopoly. Digicel opted for the more widely usedGSMwireless system, while a past operator, Oceanic (which became Claro Jamaica and later merged with Digicel Jamaica in 2011) opted for theCDMAstandard. FLOW (formerly "LIME" – pre-Columbus Communicationsmerger) which had begun withTDMAstandard, subsequently upgraded to GSM in 2002, decommissioned TDMA in 2006 and only utilised that standard until 2009 when LIME launched its 3G network.[261]Both operators currently provide islandwide coverage with HSPA+ (3G) technology. Currently, onlyDigiceloffers LTE to its customers[262]whereas FLOW Jamaica has committed to launching LTE in the cities of Kingston and Montego Bay, places where Digicel's LTE network is currently only found in, in short order.
A new entrant to the Jamaican communications market,Flow Jamaica,laid a newsubmarine cableconnecting Jamaica to the United States. This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica to the rest of the world to four. Cable and Wireless Communications (parent company of LIME) acquired the company in late 2014 and replaced their brand LIME with FLOW.[263]FLOW Jamaicacurrently has the most broadband and cable subscribers on the island and also has 1 million mobile subscribers,[264]second to Digicel (which had, at its peak, over 2 million mobile subscriptions on its network).
Digicel entered the broadband market in 2010 by offering WiMAX broadband,[265]capable of up to 6 Mbit/s per subscriber. To further their broadband share post-LIME/FLOW merger in 2014, the company introduced a new broadband service called Digicel Play,[266]which is Jamaica's secondFTTHoffering (after LIME's deployment in selected communities in 2011[267]). It is currently only available in the parishes of Kingston, Portmore and St. Andrew. It offers speeds of up to 200 Mbit/s down, 100 Mbit/s up via a pure fibre optic network. Digicel's competitor,FLOW Jamaica,has a network consisting ofADSL,Coaxial and Fibre to the Home (inherited from LIME) and only offers speeds up to 100 Mbit/s. FLOW has committed to expanding its Fibre offering to more areas in order to combat Digicel's entrance into the market.
It was announced that the Office and Utilities Regulations (OUR), Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining (MSTEM) and the Spectrum Management Authority (SMA) have given approval for another mobile operator licence in January 2016.[268]The identity of this entrant was ascertained on 20 May 2016, when the Jamaican Government named the new carrier as Symbiote Investments Limited operating under the nameCaricel.[269]The company will focus on 4G LTE data offerings and will first go live in the Kingston Metropolitan Area and will expand to the rest of Jamaica thereafter.[citation needed]
Culture
Music
Jamaican culture has a strong global presence. The musical genresreggae,ska,mento,rocksteady,dub,and, more recently,dancehallandraggaall originated in the island's vibrant, popular urban recording industry.[270]These have themselves gone on to influence numerous other genres, such aspunk rock(through reggae and ska),dub poetry,New Wave,two-tone,lovers rock,reggaeton,jungle,drum and bass,dubstep,grimeand Americanrapmusic. Some rappers, such asThe Notorious B.I.G.,Busta Rhymes,andHeavy D,are of Jamaican descent.
Bob Marleyis probably the best known Jamaican musician; with his bandthe Wailershe had a string of hits in 1960s–70s, popularising reggae internationally and going on to sell millions of records.[271][272]Many other internationally known artists were born in Jamaica, includingToots Hibbert,Millie Small,Lee "Scratch" Perry,Gregory Isaacs,Half Pint,Protoje,Peter Tosh,Bunny Wailer,Big Youth,Jimmy Cliff,Dennis Brown,Desmond Dekker,Beres Hammond,Beenie Man,Shaggy,Grace Jones,Shabba Ranks,Super Cat,Buju Banton,Sean Paul,I Wayne,Bounty Killerand many others. Bands that came from Jamaica includeBlack Uhuru,Third World Band,Inner Circle,Chalice Reggae Band,Culture,Fab Five andMorgan Heritage.
Literature
The journalist and authorH. G. de Lisserused his native country as the setting for his many novels.[273]Born inFalmouth, Jamaica,de Lisser worked as a reporter for theJamaica Timesat a young age and in 1920 began publishing the magazinePlanters' Punch.The White Witch of Rosehallis one of his better-known novels. He was named Honorary President of the Jamaican Press Association; he worked throughout his professional career to promote the Jamaican sugar industry.
Roger Mais,a journalist, poet, and playwright wrote many short stories, plays, and novels, includingThe Hills Were Joyful Together(1953),Brother Man(1954), andBlack Lightning(1955).[274]
Ian Fleming,who had a home in Jamaica where he spent considerable time, repeatedly used the island as a setting in hisJames Bondnovels, includingLive and Let Die,Doctor No,"For Your Eyes Only",The Man with the Golden Gun,andOctopussy and The Living Daylights.[275]
Marlon James(1970), novelist has published three novels:John Crow's Devil(2005),The Book of Night Women(2009) andA Brief History of Seven Killings(2014), winner of the 2015Man Booker Prize.[276]
Film
Jamaica has a history in the film industry dating from the early 1960s. A look at delinquent youth in Jamaica is presented in the 1970s musical crime filmThe Harder They Come,starringJimmy Cliffas a frustrated (andpsychopathic) reggae musician who descends into a murderous crime spree.[277]Other notable Jamaican films includeCountryman,Rockers,Dancehall Queen,One Love,Shottas,Out the Gate,Third World CopandKingston Paradise.Jamaica is also often used as a filming location, such as the James Bond filmDr. No(1962),Papillon(1973) starringSteve McQueen,Cocktail(1988) starringTom Cruise,and the 1993 Disney comedyCool Runnings,which is loosely based on the true story of Jamaica's first bobsled team trying to make it in the Winter Olympics.
Cuisine
The island is famous for itsJamaican jerk spice,curriesandrice and peaswhich is integral to Jamaican cuisine. Jamaica is also home toRed Stripebeer andJamaican Blue Mountain Coffee.
National symbols
(From theJamaica Information Service)[278]
- National bird:red-billed streamertail(also called doctor bird) (ahummingbird,Trochilus polytmus)
- National flower –lignum vitae(Guiacum officinale)
- National tree:blue mahoe(Hibiscus elatus)
- National fruit:ackee(Blighia sapida)
- National motto: "Out of Many, One People."
Sport
Sport is an integral part of national life in Jamaica and the island's athletes tend to perform to a standard well above what might ordinarily be expected of such a small country.[12]While the most popular local sport iscricket,on the international stage Jamaicans have tended to do particularly well attrack and field athletics.[12][279]
The country was one of the venues of2007 Cricket World Cupand theWest Indies cricket teamis one of 12ICCfull member teams that participate in internationalTest cricket.[280]TheJamaica national cricket teamcompetes regionally, and also provides players for the West Indies team.Sabina Parkis the only Test venue in the island, but theGreenfield Stadiumis also used for cricket.[281][282]
Since independence, Jamaica has consistently produced world class athletes in track and field.[12]Over the past six decades Jamaica has produced dozens of world class sprinters including Olympic and World ChampionUsain Bolt,world record holder in the 100m for men at 9.58s, and 200m for men at 19.19s. Other noteworthy Jamaican sprinters includeArthur Wint,the first Jamaican Olympic gold medalist;Donald Quarrie,Elaine Thompsondouble Olympic champion from Rio 2016 in the 100m and 200m, Olympic Champion and former 200m world record holder;Roy Anthony Bridge,part of the International Olympic Committee;Merlene Ottey;Delloreen Ennis-London;Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce,the former World and two time Olympic 100m Champion;Kerron Stewart;Aleen Bailey;Juliet Cuthbert;three-time Olympic gold medalist;Veronica Campbell-Brown;Sherone Simpson;Brigitte Foster-Hylton;Yohan Blake;Herb McKenley;George Rhoden,Olympic gold medalist;Deon Hemmings,Olympic gold medalist; as well asAsafa Powell,former 100m world record holder and two-time 100m Olympic finalist and gold medal winner in the men's 2008 Olympic4 × 100 m.American Olympic winnerSanya Richards-Rosswas also born in Jamaica.
Association footballandhorse-racingare other popular sports in Jamaica. Thenational football teamqualified for the 1998FIFA World Cup.Horse racing was Jamaica's first sport. Today, horse racing provides jobs for about 20,000 people including horse breeders, groomers, and trainers. Also, several Jamaicans are known internationally for their success in horse racing including Richard DePass, who once held the Guinness Book of World Records for the most wins in a day, Canadian awards winner George HoSang, and American award winners Charlie Hussey, Andrew Ramgeet, and Barrington Harvey.[283]
Race car driving is also a popular sport in Jamaica with several car racing tracks and racing associations across the country.[284]
TheJamaica national bobsled teamwas once a serious contender in theWinter Olympics,beating many well-established teams. Chess and basketball are widely played in Jamaica and are supported by the Jamaica Chess Federation (JCF) and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF), respectively.Netballis also very popular on the island, with theJamaica national netball teamcalled The Sunshine Girls consistently ranking in the top five in the world.[285]
Rugby leaguehas been played in Jamaica since 2006.[286] TheJamaica national rugby league teamis made up of players who play in Jamaica and fromUKbased professional and semi professional clubs (notably in theSuper LeagueandChampionship). In November 2018 for the first time ever, the Jamaican rugby league team qualified for theRugby League World Cupafter defeating theUSA&Canada.Jamaica will play in the2021 Rugby League World Cupin England.[287]
According toESPN,the highest paid Jamaican professional athlete in 2011 wasJustin Masterson,starting pitcher for the baseball teamCleveland Indiansin the United States.[288]
See also
Notes
- ^As represented inOld Spanish orthography,meaning it began with a "sh"sound
References
- ^abc"Jamaica | the University of the West Indies".
- ^"The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency".Cia.gov.Archivedfrom the original on 24 January 2021.Retrieved25 September2017.
- ^"Population Statistics".statinja.gov.jm.Statistical Institute of Jamaica. Archived fromthe originalon 6 March 2023.Retrieved22 June2023.
- ^"Population Usually Resident in Jamaica, by Parish: 2011".Statistical Institute of Jamaica.Archivedfrom the original on 26 February 2020.Retrieved28 December2019.
- ^"Data Query – Population density (persons per square km), as of 1 July".United Nations/DESA/Population Division. Archived fromthe originalon 19 September 2016.Retrieved18 April2018.
- ^abcd"World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Jamaica)".IMF.org.International Monetary Fund.10 October 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 23 October 2023.Retrieved16 October2023.
- ^"World Bank Open Data".
- ^"Human Development Report 2023/2024"(PDF).United Nations Development Programme.13 March 2024.Archived(PDF)from the original on 13 March 2024.Retrieved13 March2024.
- ^abcdefghijklmn"CIA World Factbook – Jamaica".Archivedfrom the original on 11 January 2021.Retrieved29 July2019.
- ^"World Population Prospects 2022".United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,Population Division.Retrieved17 July2022.
- ^"World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100"(XSLX)( "Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)" ).United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs,Population Division.Retrieved17 July2022.
- ^abcd"Athletics in Jamaica".My island Jamaica. Archived fromthe originalon 18 August 2010.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Reggae."Encyclopedia of Popular Music,4th ed. Ed. Colin Larkin.Oxford Music Online.Oxford University Press.Web. 16 February 2016.
- ^abcd"Jamaica".State.gov. 14 September 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2020.Retrieved4 July2009.
- ^abc"Jamaica (country)".World Bank.Archivedfrom the original on 22 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^Horan, Tom (5 August 2012)."How Jamaica conquered the world".The Guardian.Retrieved3 February2023.
- ^Smith, Noah (27 October 2021)."What makes a cultural superpower?".noahpinion.substack.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2022.Retrieved3 February2023.
- ^Davis, Garwin (20 February 2016)."Jamaica A Global Cultural Power – Hanna – Jamaica Information Service".jis.gov.jm.Archivedfrom the original on 3 February 2023.Retrieved3 February2023.
- ^"Jamaica".Strong Sense of Place.2023.Archivedfrom the original on 27 March 2023.Retrieved27 March2023.
- ^ab"Record 4.3 Million Tourist Arrivals in 2017".Jamaica Information Service(Government of Jamaica).Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^"Taíno Dictionary"(in Spanish). The United Confederation of Taíno People. Archived fromthe originalon 16 October 2007.Retrieved18 October2007.
- ^Atkinson, Lesley-Gail (2006).The Earliest Inhabitants: The Dynamics of the Jamaican Taíno.University of the West Indies Press. p. 1.ISBN978-976-640-149-8.Archivedfrom the original on 20 May 2021.Retrieved1 March2021.
- ^"Yaad".Wiwords.Retrieved9 August2024.
- ^"CIA World Factbook – Jamaica".Archivedfrom the original on 11 January 2021.Retrieved29 July2019.
- ^Keegan, William F.;Hofman, Corinne L.(2017).The Caribbean before Columbus(ebook ed.). New York. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 10.ISBN9780190647353.
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalaman"Jamaica"Archived20 April 2019 at theWayback Machine,Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^Atkinson, Lesley-Gail. "The Earliest Inhabitants: The Dynamics of the Jamaican Taíno."
- ^ab"The Taino of Jamaica (Jamaica)".Jamaicans. 1 April 2001. Archived fromthe originalon 16 April 2009.Retrieved4 July2009.
- ^Fuller, Harcourt; Torres, Jada Benn (2 January 2018). "Investigating the" Taíno "ancestry of the Jamaican Maroons: a new genetic (DNA), historical, and multidisciplinary analysis and case study of the Accompong Town Maroons".Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies.43(1): 47–78.doi:10.1080/08263663.2018.1426227.ISSN0826-3663.S2CID166204004.
- ^Madrilejo, Nicole; Lombard, Holden; Torres, Jada Benn (13 November 2014). "Origins of marronage: Mitochondrial lineages of Jamaica's Accompong Town Maroons".American Journal of Human Biology.27(3): 432–437.doi:10.1002/ajhb.22656.ISSN1042-0533.PMID25392952.S2CID30255510.
- ^"'I am not extinct'—Jamaican Taino proudly declares ancestry ".jamaica-gleaner.5 July 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 6 February 2019.Retrieved15 February2019.
- ^"Jamaican National Heritage Trust".28 September 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 28 September 2007.Retrieved26 June2010.
- ^Pickering, Keith A."A Christopher Columbus Timeline".Archived fromthe originalon 21 April 2006.Retrieved18 April2018.
- ^Samuel Eliot Morison,Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus,1942, pp. 653–54.Samuel Eliot Morison,Christopher Columbus, Mariner,1955, pp. 184–92.
- ^"History of Jamaica".Jamaica National Heritage Trust. Archived fromthe originalon 26 September 2010.Retrieved30 September2010.
- ^"Spanish Town".Jamaica National Heritage Trust. Archived fromthe originalon 25 September 2010.Retrieved30 September2010.
- ^"Jamaican History I".Discover Jamaica. Archived fromthe originalon 5 August 2013.Retrieved23 August2013.
- ^Arbell, M. (2000).The Portuguese Jews of Jamaica.Canoe Press.ISBN9789768125699.
- ^ Kritzler, Edward,The Jewish Pirates of the Caribbean,Anchor, 2009, p. 15,ISBN0767919521
- ^Parker, Matthew (2011).The Sugar Barons.
- ^"Henry Morgan: The Pirate Who Invaded Panama in 1671"Archived12 June 2008 at theWayback Machine,Historynet.
- ^*Parker, Matthew (2011).The Sugar Barons.
- ^ab"Jamaica's English History".Jamaica National Heritage Trust.Archivedfrom the original on 17 March 2016.Retrieved3 March2016.
- ^Bennett, J. Harry (1964)."Cary Helyar, Merchant and Planter of Seventeenth-Century Jamaica".The William and Mary Quarterly.21(1): 53–76.doi:10.2307/1923356.ISSN0043-5597.JSTOR1923356.
- ^Benitez, Suzette."The Maroons".Archived fromthe originalon 23 August 2010.Retrieved30 September2010.
- ^Mavis Campbell,The Maroons of Jamaica 1655–1796: a History of Resistance, Collaboration & Betrayal(Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey, 1988), pp. 14–25.
- ^C. V. Black,History of Jamaica(London: Collins, 1975), p. 54.
- ^abDonovan, J. (1910). Jamaica.Archived29 October 2009 at theWayback MachineCatholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company
- ^Trevor Burnard, "A failed settler society: marriage and demographic failure in early Jamaica",Journal of Social History,Fall, 1994.
- ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 14 October 2016.Retrieved19 August2016.
{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^"Rodgers, Nini, 'The Irish in the Caribbean 1641–1837: An Overview'".Irlandeses.org.Archivedfrom the original on 19 November 2017.Retrieved25 September2017.
- ^Cundall, Frank.(1915)Historic Jamaica.London: Institute of Jamaica. p. 15.
- ^USGS (21 October 2009)."Historic Earthquakes: Jamaica 1692 June 07 UTC".Archived fromthe originalon 8 April 2012.Retrieved6 December2009.
- ^Bev Carey,The Maroon Story: The Authentic and Original History of the Maroons in the History of Jamaica 1490–1880(Kingston, Jamaica: Agouti Press, 1997), pp. 315–355.
- ^"Jamaican Culture".Jamaicans. 20 June 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 16 October 2015.Retrieved16 April2015.
- ^History of the Catholic Church in Jamaica,ISBN978-0-829-40544-6,p. 68.
- ^The Sugar Revolutions and SlaveryArchived22 June 2011 at theWayback Machine,U.S. Library of Congress.
- ^Révauger, Cécile(October 2008).The Abolition of Slavery – The British Debate 1787–1840.Presse Universitaire de France. pp. 107–108.ISBN978-2-13-057110-0.
- ^"Embassy of Jamaica, Washington, DC".embassyofjamaica.org.Archived fromthe originalon 20 June 2008.Retrieved27 May2017.
- ^abcdTortello, Rebecca (3 November 2003)."Out of Many Cultures The People Who Came The Arrival of the Indians".Jamaica Gleaner.Archivedfrom the original on 1 July 2017.
- ^Hemlock, Doreen (17 April 2005)."Out of Many, One People: Chinese-Jamaicans Treasure Their Roots and Their Communities".The Sun-Sentinel.Archived fromthe originalon 9 November 2017.Retrieved27 May2017.
- ^Handbook of Jamaica.Google Books: Jamaica Government. 1908. p.37.
- ^J. F. WilsonEarthquakes and Volcanoes: Hot SpringsArchived15 December 2019 at theWayback Machine,pg. 70, BiblioLife (2008),ISBN0-554-56496-3
- ^"Historian situates 'back-to-Africa' movements in broad context".1 March 2006.Stanford.edu. March 2006.Archivedfrom the original on 29 July 2012.Retrieved24 August2013.
- ^Hamilton, Janice.Jamaica in Pictures,p. 30. Twenty-First Century Books (2005),ISBN0-8225-2394-9
- ^Post, Ken (1978).Arise Ye Starvelings: The Jamaican Rebellion of 1938 and its Aftermath.The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff.ISBN9024721407.
- ^Fraser, Cary (1996)."The Twilight of Colonial Rule in the British West Indies: Nationalist Assertion vs. Imperial Hubris in the 1930s".Journal of Caribbean History.30(1/2): 2.[permanent dead link]
- ^"Jamaica: Self-government".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 29 December 2012.Retrieved24 August2013.
- ^"The West Indies Federation".2011.CARICOM. Archived fromthe originalon 29 September 2013.Retrieved24 August2013.
- ^abcDieter Nohlen (2005),Elections in the Americas: A data handbook,Volume I, p. 430.
- ^Communications, Peter Scott Chrysalis."Trade Unionist".Archivedfrom the original on 28 April 2018.Retrieved11 February2019.
- ^abDieter Nohlen (2005)Elections in the Americas: A data handbook,Volume I, p. 430.
- ^"Showdown in Jamaica".The New York Times.27 November 1988.Archivedfrom the original on 19 September 2016.Retrieved19 September2016.
- ^abNohlen, D(2005)Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I,p. 430,ISBN978-0-19-928357-6.
- ^Franklyn, Delano (ed.): 2002.The Challenges of Change: P. J. Patterson Budget Presentations 1992–2002.Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle Publishers.
- ^"Jamaican general election results 3 September 2007".Caribbean Elections: Jamaican Election Centre. Archived fromthe originalon 5 December 2020.Retrieved24 December2020.
- ^Pollster's diary: virtual motion picture of campaign 2007Archived2008-06-22 at theWayback Machine,Jamaica Gleaner,9 September 2007.
- ^"OAS body raises concerns over Jamaica as death toll rises".CNN.27 May 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 30 May 2010.Retrieved27 May2010.
- ^"Give Us The Queen!".The Gleaner.28 June 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 9 February 2012.Retrieved13 February2017.
- ^Ghosh, Palash (29 June 2011)."Most Jamaicans Would Prefer To Remain British".International Business Times.Archivedfrom the original on 14 February 2017.Retrieved13 February2017.
- ^"Jamaican general election results 29 December 2011".Caribbean Elections: Jamaican Election Centre. Archived fromthe originalon 8 December 2020.Retrieved24 December2020.
- ^"Jamaican general election results 25 February 2016".Caribbean Elections: Jamaican Election Centre. Archived fromthe originalon 31 July 2020.Retrieved24 December2020.
- ^JLP Trounces PNP 49 To 14 SeatsArchived5 September 2020 at theWayback MachineThe Gleaner, 3 September 2020
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvw"Encyclopedia Britannica – Jamaica".Archivedfrom the original on 30 September 2019.Retrieved29 July2019.
- ^"Queen and Jamaica".The British Monarchy. Archived fromthe originalon 20 September 2012.
- ^"The Monarchy Today: Queen and Commonwealth".Archived fromthe originalon 7 June 2007.Retrieved25 June2007.
- ^Rob Crilly,"Jamaica unveils plan to ditch Queen as head of state"Archived29 July 2019 at theWayback Machine,The Telegraph,16 April 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
- ^"Editorial: The Monarchy And Beyond"Archived29 July 2019 at theWayback Machine,The Jamaica Gleaner,12 September 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
- ^"Jamaica Defense Force History".Jamaica Defense Force. Archived fromthe originalon 25 October 2010.Retrieved10 October2010.
- ^"Origins | JDF.org The Official Website of The Jamaica Defence Force".Archivedfrom the original on 21 September 2021.Retrieved21 September2021.
- ^"Jamaica Defense Force General Information".Jamaica Defense Force. Archived fromthe originalon 25 October 2010.Retrieved10 October2010.
- ^"JDF Coast Guard Roles".Jamaica Defense Force. Archived fromthe originalon 11 May 2011.Retrieved10 October2010.
- ^"The Combat Support Battalion (Cbt Sp Bn)".Jamaica Defense Force. Archived fromthe originalon 8 October 2010.Retrieved10 October2010.
- ^"1st Engineering Regiment History".Jamaica Defense Force. Archived fromthe originalon 11 May 2011.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Headquarters Jamaica Defence Force (HQ JDF)".Jamaica Defense Force. Archived fromthe originalon 25 November 2010.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Chapter XXVI: Disarmament – No. 9 Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons".United Nations Treaty Collection. 7 July 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2019.Retrieved16 August2019.
- ^"2024 Global Peace Index"(PDF).
- ^ab"Local Government Act, 2015"(PDF).localauthorities.gov.jm.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 13 September 2016.Retrieved17 January2018.
- ^"County Background – Jamaica"(PDF).Pan American Health Organization. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 30 November 2016.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Geography of Jamaica".Jamaica Gleaner. Archived fromthe originalon 18 May 2018.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Jamaican Cities".My Island Jamaica. Archived fromthe originalon 17 September 2010.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Blue Lagoon".PortlandMunicipal Corporation.13 January 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 17 June 2022.Retrieved13 January2023.
- ^"Kingston tourist destinations".23 March 2023.Archivedfrom the original on 6 December 2023.Retrieved12 April2023.
- ^"CSI Activities (Portland Bight, Jamaica)".Unesco.org.Archivedfrom the original on 9 March 2013.Retrieved20 October2012.
- ^"Jamaica Climate and Weather".Word Travels. Archived fromthe originalon 27 June 2010.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Climate of Jamaica".Jamaica Gleaner. Archived fromthe originalon 29 April 2018.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Construction and Building in Jamaica".Projects Abroad. Archived fromthe originalon 5 December 2010.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Jamaica's Botantical Gardens Worth More Than Gold".Jamaica Gleaner.Jamaica Gleaner Newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 30 January 2019.Retrieved23 January2019.
- ^Aiken, Wilson, Vogel, Garraway PhD, Karl, Byron, Peter, Eric (21 January 2007)."LETTER OF THE DAY: Biologists speak on Cockpit mining".University of the West Indies.University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica.Archivedfrom the original on 12 July 2010.Retrieved23 January2019.
{{cite news}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^Grantham, H. S.; Duncan, A.; Evans, T. D.; Jones, K. R.; Beyer, H. L.; Schuster, R.; Walston, J.; Ray, J. C.; Robinson, J. G.; Callow, M.; Clements, T.; Costa, H. M.; DeGemmis, A.; Elsen, P. R.; Ervin, J.; Franco, P.; Goldman, E.; Goetz, S.; Hansen, A.; Hofsvang, E.; Jantz, P.; Jupiter, S.; Kang, A.; Langhammer, P.; Laurance, W. F.; Lieberman, S.; Linkie, M.; Malhi, Y.; Maxwell, S.; Mendez, M.; Mittermeier, R.; Murray, N. J.; Possingham, H.; Radachowsky, J.; Saatchi, S.; Samper, C.; Silverman, J.; Shapiro, A.; Strassburg, B.; Stevens, T.; Stokes, E.; Taylor, R.; Tear, T.; Tizard, R.; Venter, O.; Visconti, P.; Wang, S.; Watson, J. E. M. (2020)."Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity - Supplementary Material".Nature Communications.11(1): 5978.Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G.doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3.ISSN2041-1723.PMC7723057.PMID33293507.
- ^"THE REPTILE DATABASE".reptile-database.org.Archivedfrom the original on 2 November 2015.Retrieved7 April2020.
- ^"Amphibians and reptiles found in Cockpit Country jamaica".Cockpitcountry. Archived fromthe originalon 10 January 2012.Retrieved31 October2011.
- ^"The Doctor Bird – Jamaica Information Service".jis.gov.jm.Archivedfrom the original on 21 March 2018.Retrieved8 March2018.
- ^"High Andean Flamingos (Jamaica)".Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Germany).Archivedfrom the original on 3 February 2019.Retrieved2 February2019.
- ^"All fishes reported from Jamaica".fishbase.org.Archivedfrom the original on 9 September 2013.Retrieved14 October2011.
- ^Nuwer, Rachel."Sea Cows Used To Walk on Land in Africa And Jamaica".Smithsonian Magazine.Archivedfrom the original on 2 April 2020.Retrieved7 April2020.
- ^"Beautiful Butterflies – Jamaican Swallowtails Among Those on Display at IOJ".Jamaica Gleaner.Jamaica Gleaner Newspaper. 29 June 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 24 January 2019.Retrieved23 January2019.
- ^abEdwards, Peter E.T. (March 2009)."Sustainable financing for ocean and coastal management in Jamaica: The potential for revenues from tourist user fees"(PDF).Marine Policy.33(2): 376–385.Bibcode:2009MarPo..33..376E.doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2008.08.005.S2CID14123041.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 22 September 2017.Retrieved24 September2019.
- ^abcdefgh"Toward Developing a National Policy on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management"(PDF).nepa.gov.jm.June 2000.Archived(PDF)from the original on 25 December 2018.Retrieved16 December2018.
- ^Lapointe, B. E.; Thacker, K.; Hanson, C.; Getten, L. (July 2011)."Sewage pollution in Negril, Jamaica: Effects on nutrition and ecology of coral reef macroalgae".Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology.29(4): 775.Bibcode:2011ChJOL..29..775L.doi:10.1007/s00343-011-0506-8.S2CID84875443.Archivedfrom the original on 20 May 2021.Retrieved16 December2018.
- ^"Oceans, Fisheries and Coastal Economies".World Bank.Archivedfrom the original on 25 December 2018.Retrieved16 December2018.
- ^"MARINE DEBRIS: JAMAICA'S RESPONSE"(PDF).un.org.6–10 June 2005.Archived(PDF)from the original on 7 January 2020.Retrieved16 December2018.
- ^Thame, Maziki (2021)."Jamaica, Covid-19 and Black freedom".Cultural Dynamics.33(3): 220–232.doi:10.1177/09213740211014331.
- ^"Out of many, one people: Motto or myth? - Jamaica Observer".2 August 2015.
- ^"Maziki Thame | Race and legitimacy in Jamaican politics".26 May 2024.
- ^Richardson, David; Tibbles, Anthony; Schwarz, Suzanne (2007).Liverpool and Transatlantic Slavery.Liverpool University Press. p. 141.ISBN978-1-84631-066-9.
- ^Graham, George (30 July 2007)."Out of Many One People, We Are A Race Apart".Jamaicans.Archivedfrom the original on 16 June 2018.Retrieved7 April2020.
- ^Benjamin, Glen (17 May 2016)."5 Reasons Many Jamaicans Don't Understand Racism".jamaicans.Archived fromthe originalon 4 March 2018.
- ^Simms, Tanya M.; Rodríguez, Carol E.; Rodríguez, Rosa; Herrera, René J. (May 2010)."The genetic structure of populations from Haiti and Jamaica reflect divergent demographic histories".Am J Phys Anthropol.142(1): 49–66.doi:10.1002/ajpa.21194.PMID19918989.Archivedfrom the original on 20 May 2021.Retrieved18 May2015.
- ^Michael Sivapragasam,After the Treaties: A Social, Economic and Demographic History of Maroon Society in Jamaica, 1739–1842Archived20 May 2021 at theWayback Machine,PhD Dissertation, African-Caribbean Institute of Jamaica library (Southampton: Southampton University, 2018), pp. 23–24.
- ^E. Kofi Agorsah, "Archaeology of Maroon Settlements in Jamaica",Maroon Heritage: Archaeological, Ethnographic and Historical Perspectives,ed. E. Kofi Agorsah (Kingston: University of the West Indies Canoe Press, 1994), pp. 180–81.
- ^Craton, Michael.Testing the Chains.Cornell University Press, 1982, p. 70.
- ^Bilby, Kenneth (1983)."How the" older heads "talk: A Jamaican Maroon spirit possession language and its relationship to the creoles of Suriname and Sierra Leone".New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids.57(1/2): 37–88.doi:10.1163/13822373-90002097.
- ^abThe World FactbookArchived24 January 2021 at theWayback MachineCIA (The World Factbook): Jamaica
- ^"Jamaica Gleaner: Pieces of the Past:The Arrival of the Lebanese".old.jamaica-gleaner.Archivedfrom the original on 18 September 2019.Retrieved7 April2020.
- ^"Portuguese In Jamaica | Why and When Did They Arrive?".My-Island-Jamaica.Archivedfrom the original on 14 May 2023.Retrieved14 May2023.
- ^Mirvis, Stanley (2020).The Jews of Eighteenth-Century Jamaica: A Testamentary History of a Diaspora in Transition.Yale University Press.doi:10.2307/j.ctv10sm932.ISBN978-0-300-23881-5.JSTORj.ctv10sm932.S2CID219044870.Archivedfrom the original on 14 May 2023.Retrieved14 May2023.
- ^Community (13 October 2020)."Jews in Jamaica".The Jewish Museum London.Archivedfrom the original on 14 May 2023.Retrieved14 May2023.
- ^"PORTUGALITY in Jamaica".portugality.yolasite.Archivedfrom the original on 1 December 2022.Retrieved14 May2023.
- ^Urken, Ross Kenneth (7 July 2016)."The Forgotten Jewish Pirates of Jamaica".Smithsonian Magazine.Archivedfrom the original on 29 January 2019.Retrieved28 January2019.
- ^Newman, Joanna (2019).Nearly the new world: the British West Indies and the flight from Nazism, 1933-1945.New York: Berghahn. p. 14.ISBN978-1-78920-334-9.OCLC1117311744.
- ^"Jamaica *Rastafari * ToZion.org *".tozion.org.28 July 2015. Archived fromthe originalon 15 January 2018.
- ^"Jamaica Observer Limited".Jamaica Observer.Archivedfrom the original on 4 March 2018.Retrieved5 August2019.
- ^Ronald C. Morren and Diane M. Morren (2007).Are the goals and objectives of Jamaica's Bilingual Education Project being met? "Archived16 May 2017 at theWayback Machine–SIL International(working paper). Retrieved 31 August 2015.
- ^Jettka, Daniel (2010)."English in Jamaica: The Coexistence of Standard Jamaican English and the English-based Jamaican Creole"(PDF).Hamburg Centre for Language Corpora.Hamburg University.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 15 November 2015.Retrieved31 August2015.
- ^Claude Robinson (30 March 2014)."English lessons for Jamaica"Archived10 October 2015 at theWayback Machine–Jamaica Observer.Retrieved 31 August 2015.
- ^abKonchri SainatEthnologue(25th ed., 2022)
- ^"United States immigration statistics".Dhs.gov. 23 June 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 4 December 2008.Retrieved4 July2009.
- ^Jamaicans to Cuba.Encarta.msn. Archived fromthe originalon 29 October 2009.Retrieved4 July2009.
- ^Linking the Jamaican Diaspora.Jamaica Observer. 20 June 2004.
- ^"Jamaica: Mapping exercise"(PDF).London:International Organization for Migration.July 2007. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 11 May 2011.Retrieved27 May2010.
- ^Jones, Terry-Ann.Jamaican Immigrants in the United States and Canada: Race, Transnationalism, and Social Capital.New York, NY: LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC, 2008. 2–3; 160–3. Print.
- ^"Census Profile, 2016 Census – Toronto (CMA)".Statistics Canada.Archivedfrom the original on 13 August 2018.Retrieved13 August2018.
- ^"Census Profile, 2016 Census".8 February 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2020.Retrieved21 June2020.
- ^Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories—20% sample dataArchived18 August 2016 at theWayback Machine,Statistics Canada (2006). Retrieved on 11 August 2008.
- ^Visible minority groups, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories—20% sample dataArchived14 November 2017 at theWayback Machine,Statistics Canada (2006). Retrieved on 19 March 2011.
- ^Pink, Patrina (18 June 2010)."Jamaican Rastas Bring Cultural Diversity To 'Promised Land'".Jamaica Gleaner.Archivedfrom the original on 30 July 2019.Retrieved11 March2013.
- ^Bhalla, Nita (5 November 2001)."The town that Rastafarians built".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 30 July 2019.Retrieved11 March2013.
- ^"Crime and crisis in Jamaica".focal.ca.Archivedfrom the original on 30 July 2019.Retrieved28 June2019.
- ^"Crime and crisis in Jamaica".Focal.ca.Archivedfrom the original on 21 April 2016.Retrieved25 September2017.
- ^"Nationmaster Crime Stats".Nationmaster. Archived fromthe originalon 29 September 2008.Retrieved4 July2009.
- ^"Crime, violence and development: trends, costs, and policy options in the Caribbean"(PDF).United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. p. 37.Archived(PDF)from the original on 28 February 2008.Retrieved26 December2007.
- ^"Jamaica Travel Advice: Safety and Security".Foreign Travel Advice.Government of the United Kingdom.Archivedfrom the original on 14 June 2014.Retrieved25 June2014.
- ^"Crime Statistics".Jamaica Constabulary Force.12 October 2020.Archivedfrom the original on 25 April 2023.Retrieved25 April2023.
- ^"Prime Minister Golding Speaks on Crime Reduction".The Gleaner.9 June 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 4 January 2017.Retrieved16 December2017.
- ^Pachico, Elyssa (2012-3-30). "Jamaica Murder Rate Dropped 30% in 2012". InSightCrime: Organized Crime in the Americas. Retrieved 2012-12-1.
- ^"Jamaica's Murder Tally Over 1,500 This Year".rjrnewsonline.Archivedfrom the original on 15 December 2017.Retrieved15 December2017.
- ^Padgett, Tim (12 April 2006)."The Most Homophobic Place on Earth?".Time.Archived fromthe originalon 19 June 2006.Retrieved26 April2006.
- ^"2012 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Jamaica"(PDF).Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State. pp. 20–22.Archived(PDF)from the original on 26 March 2017.Retrieved25 May2019.
- ^"Jamaica Travel Advice: Local Laws and Customs".Foreign Travel Advice.Government of the United Kingdom.Archivedfrom the original on 14 June 2014.Retrieved25 June2014.
- ^Lacey, Marc (24 February 2008)."Attacks Show Easygoing Jamaica Is Dire Place for Gays".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 16 April 2009.Retrieved19 March2009.
- ^"Jamaica: Shield Gays from Mob Attacks".Human Rights Watch. 31 January 2008.Archivedfrom the original on 12 March 2009.Retrieved19 March2009.
- ^"Document – Jamaica: Amnesty International condemns homophobic violence"(Press release). Amnesty International. 15 April 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 12 January 2019.Retrieved19 March2009.
- ^"Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Jamaica, United Nations Human Rights Committee, CCPR/C/JAM/CO/3, paragraph 8, pages 2-3, 17 November 2011"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 November 2013.Retrieved11 November2013.
- ^"Jamaica's Anti-Gay 'Murder Music' Carries Violent MessageArchived7 July 2015 at theWayback Machine"by Leah Nelson, The Intelligence Report, The Southern Poverty Law Center. 27 February 2011
- ^"State Sponsored Homophobia 2016: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition"(PDF).International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association.17 May 2016.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2 September 2017.Retrieved10 April2018.
- ^"71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal".Newsweek.4 April 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 11 December 2019.Retrieved16 August2019.
- ^Stan Simpson and David Person (2003).Home away from Home: Africans in Americas, Volume 1, Ch 19: Land of Maroons(PDF).Institute for Advanced Journalism Studies. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 July 2009.Retrieved27 January2008.
- ^"Bedward's Tomb".jnht.Archivedfrom the original on 30 November 2019.Retrieved7 April2020.
- ^Elam, Rachael."Jamaican Christian Missions:Their Influence in the Jamaican Slave Rebellion of 1831–32 and the End of Slavery"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 March 2009.Retrieved6 April2010.
- ^Savishinsky, Neil J. "Transnational popular culture and the global spread of the Jamaican Rastafarian movement." NWIG: New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 68.3/4 (1994): 259–281.
- ^Stephen D. Glazier,Encyclopedia of African and African-American Religions,2001, p. 263.
- ^Murrell, Nathaniel Samuel (25 January 2010).Afro-Caribbean Religions: An Introduction to Their Historical, Cultural, and Sacred Traditions.Temple University Press.ISBN9781439901755.Archivedfrom the original on 15 April 2021.Retrieved1 November2020.
- ^Stewart, Dianne M. (7 July 2005).Three Eyes for the Journey: African Dimensions of the Jamaican Religious Experience.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780198039082.Archivedfrom the original on 6 February 2020.Retrieved30 July2019.
- ^Taylor, Patrick; Case, Frederick (2013).The Encyclopedia of Caribbean Religions: Volume 1: A – L; Volume 2: M – Z.University of Illinois Press.ISBN9780252094330.Archivedfrom the original on 15 April 2021.Retrieved1 November2020.
- ^Paul Easterling, "The Ifa' Diaspora: The Art of Syncretism, Part 5 – Obeah and Myal" in[1]Archived30 July 2019 at theWayback Machine(Afrometrics.org, 2017).
- ^"Map Source: worldmap.org".2007. Archived fromthe originalon 3 March 2016.
- ^Bahá'í International Community(11 August 2006)."Jamaicans celebrate 4th National Baha'i Day".Bahá'í World News Service.Archivedfrom the original on 6 November 2018.Retrieved4 December2008.
- ^"Jamaica – LDS Statistics and Church Facts | Total Church Membership".Mormonnewsroom.org.Archivedfrom the original on 28 June 2019.Retrieved6 August2012.
- ^"Jamaica Gleaner: Pieces of the Past: Out of Many Cultures: Roads and Resistance: RELIGIOUS ICONS part 2".old.jamaica-gleaner.Archivedfrom the original on 15 August 2019.Retrieved16 October2018.
- ^"Faith in Jamaica | Learn More About What We Believe".visitjamaica.Archivedfrom the original on 13 May 2019.Retrieved16 October2018.
- ^religiousintelligence.co.ukArchived21 February 2009 at theWayback Machine,religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.eduArchived21 February 2009 at theWayback Machine
- ^Haruth Communications; Harry Leichter."Jamaican Jews".Haruth.Archivedfrom the original on 11 November 2009.Retrieved4 July2009.
- ^Dawes, Mark (10 June 2003)."Jews hold firm Life goes on in Old Synagogue".The Gleaner.Archived fromthe originalon 10 May 2011.Retrieved11 March2010.
- ^Kaplan, Dana Evan (10 August 2012)."A Synagogue Drawn in the Sand".Haaretz.Archivedfrom the original on 19 June 2018.Retrieved7 April2020– via Haaretz.
- ^"Why Sand Covers the Floor of One of the Western Hemisphere's Oldest Synagogues".Smithsonian Magazine.Archivedfrom the original on 16 April 2019.Retrieved7 April2020.
- ^"Hosay Festival, Westmoreland, Jamaica".caribbeanmuslims.14 February 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 4 March 2018.Retrieved3 March2018.
- ^"Moravian Church Contribution to Education in Jamaica".Archived fromthe originalon 23 November 2007.Retrieved22 December2007.
- ^"Transforming the Jamaican Education System".Archived fromthe originalon 20 May 2008.Retrieved22 December2007.
- ^"Vocational Education in Jamaica".UNESCO-UNEVOC. August 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 28 May 2014.Retrieved26 May2014.
- ^"Ja/Caricom and the G20 Summit".Jamaica Gleaner newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 22 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^"Lowest Unemployment in 50 Years".Jamaica Information Service(Government of Jamaica).Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^ab"GOJ Divestment and Projects Programme to Generate Billions in Investment Opportunities for Jamaican Capital".Government of Jamaica Ministry of Finance and Public Services.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^ab"Holness says divestment of state assets good thing for Jamaica".Jamaica Observer newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^ab"DBJ Bats For Small Investors in Wigton Divestment".Jamaica Gleaner newspaper. 14 November 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"Jamaica – Foreign Exchange Controls".export.gov.Government of the United States.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"No Legal Restrictions of Foreign Currency Quotes".Jamaica Observer.Jamaica Observer Newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"Trade Reference Centre – Jamaica – Caribbean Trade Reference Centre".Trade Reference Centre – Jamaica – Caribbean Trade Reference Centre.Archivedfrom the original on 28 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^ab"2011 Investment Climate Statement — Jamaica".U.S. Department of State.Archivedfrom the original on 8 February 2023.Retrieved21 May2019.
- ^"Jamaica – Import Tariffs".export.gov.Government of the United States.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^ab"Jamaica Turns to Reggae Videos to Promote Inflation Target".Bloomberg.Archivedfrom the original on 22 February 2019.Retrieved22 February2019.
- ^"Jamaica – 1-Openness to & Restriction on Foreign Investment".U.S. Department of State.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^abcdef"Jamaica (Economy)".Official Commonwealth Website (UK).Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"Jamaica".Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Archivedfrom the original on 17 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"Jamaica Letter of Intent July 19, 2000".International Monetary Fund.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"Jamaica: October 1998".World Trade Organization.Archivedfrom the original on 22 February 2019.Retrieved22 February2019.
- ^"Jamaica".Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"Growth in Agriculture Subsectors".Government of Jamaica (Jamaica Information Service).Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^No gas from Trinidad, Venezuela by 2009 – Jamaica ObserverArchived17 February 2008 at theWayback Machine at jamaicaobserver
- ^"Limestone research finds richest deposits in St Elizabeth, Portland and Trelawny".Jamaica Observer newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^Collinder, Avia."Carube Copper Corp to begin exploring for gold and copper at Bellas Gate in April".Jamaica Observer newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^McDavid, Hamilton (2003). "An Input-Output Analysis of the Jamaican Hospitality and Tourism Sector".Social and Economic Studies: Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, University of the West Indies.52(1): 161–184.JSTOR27865318.
- ^"Jamaica sees European tourism boom".Jamaica Observer.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^ab"Jamaica sweeps World Travel Awards".Jamaica Observer newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^ab"Jamaica Scores Big With Travvy Tourism Awards".Jamaica Ministry of Tourism.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"Bartlett is World's Tourism Minister of the Year".Jamaica Observer newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"PetroJam (About Us)".PetroJam (Government of Jamaica).Archivedfrom the original on 6 April 2016.Retrieved20 April2016.
- ^"House Approves Bill to Retake Ownership of Petrojam Shares".Jamaica Information Service(Government of Jamaica).Archivedfrom the original on 22 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^"Jamaican cocoa could be sweet again".Jamaica Observer newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^"Jamaica Economy".Britannica Encyclopedia.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^Collinder, Avia (18 August 2017)."Shortage Creates Price Surge for Fresh Citrus".Jamaica Gleaner newspaper.Archivedfrom the original on 21 February 2019.Retrieved21 February2019.
- ^Zhang, L.; Lokeshwar, B.L. (2012)."Medicinal Properties of the Jamaican Pepper Plant Pimenta dioica and Allspice".Current Drug Targets.13(14): 1900–1906.doi:10.2174/138945012804545641.PMC3891794.PMID23140298.
- ^"History of Aviation in Jamaica: Part I".Jamaica-gleaner. Archived fromthe originalon 17 July 2009.Retrieved4 July2009.
- ^Statistical Institute of JamaicaArchived17 April 2018 at theWayback Machineat statinja
- ^WIPO (2022).Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition.World Intellectual Property Organization.doi:10.34667/tind.46596.ISBN978-92-805-3432-0.Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2023.Retrieved29 October2023.
- ^"Global Innovation Index".INSEAD Knowledge.28 October 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 2 September 2021.Retrieved2 September2021.
- ^"Statement – Prime Minister Dr Keith Rowley on CSME".CARICOM.[permanent dead link]
- ^"Jamaica Debt Exchange".IMF.Archivedfrom the original on 22 February 2019.Retrieved22 February2019.
- ^"Jamaica Gleaner News – IMF says yes – US$1.27b loan for Jamaica approved – US$950m fund for financial sector".Jamaica-gleaner. 5 February 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 2 October 2011.Retrieved31 October2011.
- ^"Jamaica signs deal for China-built cargo shipping hub".Reuters.April 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 16 October 2015.Retrieved1 July2017.
- ^"Proposed Caymanas Economic Zone To Be One of 16".Jamaica Information Service.Archivedfrom the original on 23 November 2019.Retrieved12 April2014.
- ^"Moody's Investor Services Upgrades Jamaica Sovereign Rating and Revises Outlook from Positive to Stable".Government of Jamaica (Ministry of Finance and Public Services).Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"Rating agency gives positive outlook for Jamaica".Jamaica Observer.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2019.Retrieved23 February2019.
- ^"IMF Lending Case Study: Jamaica".IMF.May 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 22 October 2021.Retrieved22 October2021.
- ^"Joel Allen | Enabling innovation critical for Jamaica's socio-economic development".jamaica-gleaner.12 March 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 9 October 2021.Retrieved22 October2021.
- ^abcThe CIA World Factbook – JamaicaArchived24 January 2021 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 2015-09-16.
- ^"Train coaches roll into Old Capital for test run".jamaica-gleaner.13 April 2011.Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2024.Retrieved2 February2024.
- ^The Jamaica ObserverArchived26 September 2007 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 27 June 2007.
- ^abAnnual Transport Statistics Report: Jamaica in Figures 2003-2004Archived2013-03-15 at theWayback Machine,Ministry of Transport and Works, July 2005.
- ^"Port Authority of Jamaica".Archivedfrom the original on 19 October 2011.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Ministry of Transport and Works".Archivedfrom the original on 22 July 2011.Retrieved30 July2019.
- ^ab"Petroleum Corp of Jamaica, Petroleum Industry Statistics".Archived fromthe originalon 3 February 2001.Retrieved21 July2007.
- ^"Jamaica Public Service Company".Archived fromthe originalon 7 January 2011.Retrieved1 January2011.
- ^"JPS – JPS' Power Plants".Archived fromthe originalon 2 December 2010.Retrieved1 January2011.
- ^"Wigton Wind Farm Company".Archived fromthe originalon 17 April 2008.Retrieved25 March2008.
- ^List of nuclear reactors#Jamaica
- ^"Corporate Fact Sheet | Petrojam Limited".Petrojam. Archived fromthe originalon 15 April 2016.Retrieved25 September2017.
- ^"Petroleum Corp of Jamaica, Petrojam Ethanol".Archived fromthe originalon 17 July 2007.Retrieved21 July2007.
- ^Doing eBusiness in JamaicaArchived28 September 2011 at theWayback Machine,The Economist Intelligence Unit.
- ^"LIME 3G launch in 2009"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 25 June 2016.Retrieved23 May2016.
- ^TeleGeography."Digicel Jamaica launches LTE".Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2016.Retrieved14 June2016.
- ^"Cable & Wireless Communications – New Flow Brand Unveiled in Jamaica".cwc.Archived fromthe originalon 25 June 2016.Retrieved23 May2016.
- ^"Flow celebrates hitting one million customers".Jamaica Observer.Archivedfrom the original on 24 May 2016.Retrieved23 May2016.
- ^TeleGeography."Digicel launches WiMAX to non-business users".telegeography.Archivedfrom the original on 6 March 2016.Retrieved23 May2016.
- ^"Home".digicelgroup.Archivedfrom the original on 21 May 2016.Retrieved23 May2016.
- ^TeleGeography."Lime Jamaica launches 100Mbps FTTH service".Archivedfrom the original on 24 June 2016.Retrieved23 May2016.
- ^TeleGeography."Jamaican government approves third mobile player".Archivedfrom the original on 24 June 2016.Retrieved23 May2016.
- ^"Caricel – first Jamaican company to get mobile spectrum licence".Jamaica Observer.Archivedfrom the original on 23 May 2016.Retrieved23 May2016.
- ^Dave Thompson (2002)Reggae and Caribbean Music.Backbeat Books. p. 261.ISBN0879306556.
- ^"7 Fascinating Facts About Bob Marley".Archivedfrom the original on 10 October 2017.Retrieved10 October2017.
- ^Toynbee, Jason (8 May 2013).Bob Marley: Herald of a Postcolonial World.John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1969–.ISBN978-0-7456-5737-0.Archivedfrom the original on 12 October 2013.Retrieved23 August2013.
- ^Michael Hughes, "De Lisser, Herbert G.",A Companion to West Indian Literature,Collins, 1979, pp. 40–42.
- ^Hawthorne, Evelyn J. "The Writer and the Nationalist Model",Roger Mais and the Decolonization of Caribbean Culture,NY: Peter Lang, 1989, p. 7.
- ^"Ian Fleming International Airport opened in Jamaica!".News & Press.Ian Fleming Publications.17 January 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 22 July 2012.Retrieved14 December2011.
- ^James, Marlon (10 March 2015)."From Jamaica to Minnesota to Myself".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 31 July 2019.Retrieved27 June2018.
- ^Kenner, Rob (2009) "Trevor Rhone, a Writer of 'The Harder They Come,' Dies at 69Archived30 July 2019 at theWayback Machine",The New York Times,21 September 2009, retrieved 11 November 2012
- ^"National Symbols of Jamaica".Jis.gov.jm. 6 August 1962. Archived fromthe originalon 19 June 2006.Retrieved26 June2010.
- ^"Jamaican Sports An Overview".My Island Jamaica. Archived fromthe originalon 29 November 2010.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Test and ODI cricket playing nations".Cricinfo.Archivedfrom the original on 8 November 2010.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Cricket Ground Information".Windies Online. Archived fromthe originalon 11 May 2011.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^"Greenfield Stadium".Surf India.Archivedfrom the original on 3 August 2009.Retrieved11 October2010.
- ^Tortello, Rebecca."Jamaican Horse racing History: The sport of kings".Jamaica Gleaner.Jamaica.Archivedfrom the original on 7 February 2019.Retrieved22 January2019.
- ^Graham, Neville."New Cars To Light Up Dover".Jamaica Gleaner.Jamaica.Archivedfrom the original on 24 January 2019.Retrieved22 January2019.
- ^IFNA."Current World Rankings".Archived fromthe originalon 3 December 2016.Retrieved3 November2013.
- ^"Jamaica Rugby league History".Archivedfrom the original on 2 October 2019.Retrieved7 April2020.
- ^"Rugby League World Cup: Jamaica reach tournament for first time".BBC Sport.17 November 2018.Archivedfrom the original on 19 November 2018.Retrieved19 November2018.
- ^"Best-paid athletes from 200 countries".ESPN.4 May 2012.Archivedfrom the original on 4 May 2012.Retrieved4 May2012.
Further reading
- Ahmed, Faiz (2008).The Development Path Taken by Jamaica: A brief account of the islands natural-history, economic policies, and social conditions(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 October 2012.Retrieved2 April2012.(pp. 45–83)
- Arbell, Mordehay (2000).The Portuguese Jews of Jamaica.Canoe Press.ISBN978-976-8125-69-9.
- Ammar, N. "From Whence they came".Jamaica Journal.
- Bahadur, Gaiutra.Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture.The University of Chicago (2014),ISBN978-0-226-21138-1
- Bernstein, Antje (2006)."English in Jamaica: The Coexistence of Standard Jamaican English and the English-based Jamaican Creole".English Language and Literature Studies.seminar paper.Archivedfrom the original on 24 September 2015.Retrieved31 August2015.
- Chapman, Valentine Jackson (1961).The marine algae of Jamaica: Myxophyceae and Chlorophyceae.
- Chapman, Valentine Jackson (1963).The marine Algae of Jamaica: Part II: Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.
- Hall, D. "Bounties European Immigration with Special Reference of the German Settlement at Seaford Town, Parts 1 and 2".Jamaica Journal,8, (4), 48–54 and 9 (1), 2–9.
- Issa, Suzanne (1994).Mr Jamaica, Abe Issa: a pictorial biography.S. Issa.ISBN978-976-8091-69-7.
- Jacobs, H. P. (2003). Germany in Jamaica. Indian heritage in Jamaica.Jamaica Journal,10, (2,3,4), 10–19,
- Mullally, R. (2003). "'One Love' The Black Irish of Jamaica ".Jamaica Journal.42:104–116.
- Parboosingh, I.S. "An Indo-Jamaica beginning".Jamaica Journal.18(3): 2–10, 12.
- Senior, Olive (2003).Encyclopedia of Jamaican Heritage.Twin Guinep Publishers.ISBN978-976-8007-14-8.
- Sherlock, Philip Manderson; Bennett, Hazel (1998).The Story of the Jamaican People.Ian Randle Publishers.ISBN978-1-55876-145-2.
- Thomson, Ian (2009).The Dead Yard: Tales of Modern Jamaica.Nation Books.ISBN978-0-571-22761-7.
- Williams, Joseph John (1932).Whence the "Black Irish" of Jamaica?.L. MacVeagh, Dial Press, Inc.
- The Gleaner.Seaford Town Advertising Feature. 14 August 2003,D7Archived18 August 2019 at theWayback Machine-D8Archived18 August 2019 at theWayback Machine.
External links
Definitionsfrom Wiktionary
Mediafrom Commons
Newsfrom Wikinews
Quotationsfrom Wikiquote
Textsfrom Wikisource
Textbooksfrom Wikibooks
Resourcesfrom Wikiversity
Travel informationfrom Wikivoyage
Datafrom Wikidata
- Governmental details
- Government of Jamaica(archived 20 February 2009)
- JamaicaArchived21 June 2021 at theWayback Machineat the Royal Family website
- Official website of the Jamaica Information ServiceArchived25 February 2011 at theWayback Machine
- The Cabinet Office of the Government of JamaicaArchived29 April 2011 at theWayback Machine
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members(archived 10 December 2008)
- General information
- JamaicaArchived11 January 2021 at theWayback Machine.The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.
- JamaicafromUCB Libraries GovPubs(archived 7 June 2008)
- Jamaicafrom the BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of Jamaica
Geographic data related toJamaicaatOpenStreetMap- National Library of JamaicaArchived13 December 2013 at theWayback Machinematerials in theDigital Library of the CaribbeanArchived31 December 2011 at theWayback Machine
- JAMAICA VIRTUAL TOUR IN HD – many locations around the island(archived 22 January 2010)
- Key Development Forecasts for JamaicaArchived2 July 2012 at theWayback MachinefromInternational Futures
