Wikipedia

Laos

This article is about the country. For other uses, seeLaos (disambiguation)andLao (disambiguation).

Laos,[d]officially theLao People's Democratic Republic(LPDR),[e]is the onlylandlocked countryinSoutheast Asia.At the heart of theIndochinese Peninsula,Laos is bordered byMyanmarandChinato the northwest,Vietnamto the east,Cambodiato the southeast, andThailandto the west and southwest.[12]Itscapitaland largest city isVientiane.

Lao People's Democratic Republic
  • ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ(Lao)
  • Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao
Motto:ສັນຕິພາບ ເອກະລາດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ເອກະພາບ ວັດທະນະຖາວອນ
Santiphap, Ekalat, Paxathipatai, Ekaphap, Vatthanathavon
"Peace, Independence, Democracy, Unity and Prosperity"
Anthem:ເພງຊາດລາວ
Pheng Xat Lao
"Hymn of the Lao People"
Location of Laos (green)

inASEAN(dark grey) – [Legend]

Capital
and largest city
Vientiane
17°58′N102°36′E/ 17.967°N 102.600°E/17.967; 102.600
Official languagesLao
Spoken languages
Ethnic groups
(2015[2])
Religion
Demonym(s)
GovernmentUnitaryMarxist–Leninistone-partysocialist republic
Thongloun Sisoulith
Bounthong Chitmany
Pany Yathotou
Sonexay Siphandone
Saysomphone Phomvihane
LegislatureNational Assembly
Formation
1353–1707
1707–1778
• Vassals ofSiam
1778–1893
1893–1953
1945–1949
11 May 1947
22 October 1953
2 December 1975
14 August 1991
Area
• Total
236,800 km2(91,400 sq mi)[5](82nd)
• Water (%)
2
Population
• 2022 estimate
7,749,595[5](103rd)
• Density
26.7/km2(69.2/sq mi)
GDP(PPP)2023 estimate
• Total
Increase$74.205 billion[6](106th)
• Per capita
Increase$9,787[6](125th)
GDP(nominal)2023 estimate
• Total
Decrease$14.244 billion[6](145th)
• Per capita
Decrease$1,878[6](152nd)
Gini(2012)36.4[7]
medium inequality
HDI(2022)Increase0.620[8]
medium(139th)
CurrencyKip(₭) (LAK)
Time zoneUTC+7(ICT)
Drives onright
Calling code+856
ISO 3166 codeLA
Internet TLD.la

Laos traces its historic and cultural identity toLan Xang,which existed from the 13th century to the 18th century as one of the largest kingdoms inSoutheast Asia.[13]Because of its central geographical location in Southeast Asia, the kingdom became a hub for overland trade and became wealthy economically and culturally.[13]After a period of internal conflict, Lan Xang broke into theKingdom of Luang Phrabang,theKingdom of Vientianeand theKingdom of Champasak.In 1893, the three kingdoms were united under aFrench protectorate.

Laos wasoccupied by JapanduringWorld War IIand briefly regained independence in 1945 as aJapanese puppet statebut was re-colonised byFrance,until it won autonomy in 1949. It gained independence in 1953 as theKingdom of Laos,with aconstitutional monarchyunderSisavang Vong.Acivil warbegan in 1959, which saw the communistPathet Lao,supported byNorth Vietnamand theSoviet Union,fight against theRoyal Lao Armed Forces,supported by theUnited States.After theVietnam Warended in 1975, theLao People's Revolutionary Partyestablished a one-partysocialist republicespousingMarxism-Leninism,ending the civil war and monarchy, and beginning a period of alignment with the Soviet Union until thedissolution of the Soviet Unionin 1991.

The politically and culturally dominantLao peoplemake up 53.2% of the population, mostly in the lowlands.Mon-Khmergroups, theHmong,and other indigenous hill tribes live in the foothills and mountains.

Laos's strategies for development are based ongenerating electricityfrom rivers and selling the power to its neighbours, namely Thailand, China and Vietnam, as well as its initiative to become a "land-linked" nation, as evidenced by theconstruction of four new railwaysconnecting Laos and neighbours.[14][15]Laos has been referred to as one of Southeast Asia and Pacific'sfastest growing economiesby theWorld Bankwith annual GDP growth averaging 7.4% since 2009,[16][17]despite being classified as aleast developed countryby theUnited Nations.Laos is a member of theAsia-Pacific Trade Agreement,theASEAN,East Asia Summit,La Francophonie,and theWorld Trade Organization.[18]

Non-governmental organisationshave routinely characterised the country'shuman rights recordas poor, citing repeated abuses such as torture, restrictions on civil liberties and persecution of minorities.[19]

Etymology

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The wordLaoswas coined by theFrench,who united the three Lao kingdoms inFrench Indochinain 1893. The name of the country is spelled the same as the plural of the dominant and most common ethnic group, theLao people.[20]In English, the "s" in the name of the country is pronounced, and not silent.[20][21][22][23][24]In theLao language,the country's name isMuang Lao(ເມືອງລາວ) orPathet Lao(ປະເທດລາວ), both of which literally mean 'Lao Country'.[25]

History

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Main article:History of Laos

Prehistory and early history

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Pha That LuanginVientianeis the national symbol of Laos.

An ancient human skull was recovered in 2009 from theTam Pa Ling Cavein theAnnamite Mountainsin northern Laos; the skull is at least 46,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia.[26]Stone artifacts includingHoabinhiantypes have been found at sites dating to the LatePleistocenein northern Laos.[27]Archaeological evidence suggests an agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC.[28]Burial jars and other kinds of sepulchers suggest a complex society in which bronze objects appeared around 1500 BC, and iron tools were known from 700 BC. The proto-historic period is characterised by contact with Chinese and Indian civilisations. According to linguistic and other historical evidence,Tai-speakingtribes migrated southwestward to the modern territories of Laos and Thailand fromGuangxisometime between the 8th and 10th centuries.[29]

Lan Xang

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Main article:Lan Xang

Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang ('million elephants'), which was founded in the 13th century by a Lao prince,Fa Ngum,[30]: 223 whose father had his family exiled from theKhmer Empire.Fa Ngum, with 10,000Khmertroops, conquered many Lao principalities in theMekongriver basin, culminating in the capture ofVientiane.Ngum was descended from a long line of Lao kings that traced back to Khoun Boulom.[31]He madeTheravada Buddhismthe state religion, and Lan Xang prospered. His ministers, unable to tolerate his ruthlessness, forced him into exile to the present-day Thai province ofNanin 1373,[32]where he died. Fa Ngum's eldest son, Oun Heuan, ascended to the throne under the nameSamsenethaiand reigned for 43 years. Lan Xang became an important trade centre during Samsenthai's reign, but after his death in 1421 it collapsed into warring factions for nearly a century.[33]

In 1520,Photisarathcame to the throne and moved the capital fromLuang Prabangto Vientiane to avoid a Burmese invasion.Setthathirathbecame king in 1548, after his father was killed, and ordered the construction of what became the symbol of Laos,That Luang.Settathirath disappeared in the mountains on his way back from a military expedition intoCambodia,and Lan Xang fell into more than seventy years of instability, involving both Burmese invasion and civil war.[34]

In 1637, whenSourigna Vongsaascended the throne, Lan Xang further expanded its frontiers. His reign is often regarded as Laos's golden age. When he died without an heir, the kingdom split into three principalities. Between 1763 and 1769, Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexedLuang Prabang,whileChampasakeventually came under Siamesesuzerainty.[35]

Chao Anouvongwas installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese. He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature and improved relations with Luang Phrabang. Under Vietnamese pressure,he rebelled against the Siamese in 1826.The rebellion failed, and Vientiane was ransacked.[36]Anouvong was taken toBangkokas a prisoner, where he died.[37]

In a time period where the acquisition of humans was a priority over the ownership of land, the warfare of pre-modern Southeast Asia revolved around the seizing of people and resources from its enemies. A Siamese military campaign in Laos in 1876 was described by a British observer as having been "transformed intoslave-hunting raidson a large scale ".[38]

French Laos (1893–1953)

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Main articles:French protectorate of LaosandFirst Indochina War
Local Lao soldiers in the French Colonial guard,c. 1900

In the late 19th century, Luang Prabang was ransacked by the ChineseBlack Flag Army.[39]France rescued KingOun Khamand added Luang Phrabang to the protectorate ofFrench Indochina.Shortly after, theKingdom of Champasakand the territory of Vientiane were added to the protectorate. KingSisavangvongof Luang Phrabang became ruler of a unified Laos, and Vientiane once again became the capital.[40]Laos never held any importance for France[41]other than as a buffer state between Thailand and the more economically importantAnnamandTonkin.

Laos producedtin,rubber, and coffee, but never accounted for more than one percent of French Indochina's exports. By 1940, around 600 French citizens lived in Laos.[42]Under French rule, the Vietnamese were encouraged to migrate to Laos, which was seen by the French colonists as a rational solution to a labour shortage within the confines of an Indochina-wide colonial space.[43]By 1943, the Vietnamese population stood at nearly 40,000, forming the majority in the largest cities of Laos and enjoying the right to elect its own leaders.[44]As a result, 53% of the population of Vientiane, 85% ofThakhek,and 62% ofPaksewere Vietnamese, with only the exception ofLuang Prabangwhere the population was predominantly Lao.[44]As late as 1945, the French drew up an ambitious plan to move a massive number of Vietnamese to three key areas, i.e., the Vientiane Plain,Savannakhet region,and theBolaven Plateau,which was only derailed by the Japanese invasion of Indochina.[44]Otherwise, according toMartin Stuart-Fox,the Lao might well have lost control over their own country.[44]

DuringWorld War II in Laos,Vichy France,Thailand,Imperial JapanandFree Franceoccupied Laos.[45]On 9 March 1945, a nationalist group declared Laos once more independent, withLuang Prabangas its capital, but on 7 April 1945 two battalions of Japanese troops occupied the city.[46]The Japanese attempted to forceSisavang Vong(the king of Luang Phrabang) to declare Laotian independence, but on 8 April he instead simply declared an end to Laos's status as a French protectorate. The king then secretly sent PrinceKindavongto represent Laos to theAllied forcesandPrince Sisavangas representative to the Japanese.[46]When Japan surrendered, some Lao nationalists (including PrincePhetsarath) declared Laotian independence, but by early 1946, French troops had reoccupied the country and conferred limited autonomy on Laos.[47]

During theFirst Indochina War,theIndochinese Communist Partyformed thePathet Laoindependence organisation. The Pathet Lao began a war against the French colonial forces with the aid of the Vietnamese independence organisation, theViet Minh.In 1950, the French were forced to give Laos semi-autonomy as an "associated state" within theFrench Union.France remained in de facto control until 22 October 1953, when Laos gained full independence as aconstitutional monarchy.[48][47]

Independence and communist rule (1953–present)

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Main articles:History of Laos since 1945andLaotian Civil War
FrenchGeneral SalanandPrince Sisavang Vatthanain Luang Prabang, 4 May 1953

The First Indochina War took place across French Indochina and eventually led to French defeat and the signing of a peace accord for Laos at theGeneva Conference of 1954.In 1960, amidst a series of rebellions in theKingdom of Laos,fighting broke out between theRoyal Lao Army(RLA) and the communistNorth VietnameseandSoviet Union-backed Pathet Lao guerillas. A second Provisional Government of National Unity formed by PrinceSouvanna Phoumain 1962 was unsuccessful, and the situation steadily deteriorated into large scalecivil warbetween the Royal Laotian government and the Pathet Lao. The Pathet Lao were backed militarily by thePeople's Army of Vietnam(PAVN) and theViet Cong.[48][47]

Ruins ofMuang Khoun,former capital ofXiangkhouang province,destroyed by theAmerican bombing of Laosin the late 1960s

Laos was a key part of theVietnam Warsince parts of Laos wereinvaded and occupiedbyNorth Vietnamsince 1958 for use as a supply route for its war againstSouth Vietnam.In response, the United States initiated a bombing campaign against the PAVN positions, supported regular and irregular anti-communist forces in Laos, and supportedincursions into Laosby theArmy of the Republic of Vietnam.[48][47]

In 1968, the PAVN launched a multi-division attack to help the Pathet Lao fight the RLA. The attack resulted in the RLA largely demobilising, leaving the conflict to irregular ethnicHmongforces of the "Secret Army" backed by the United States and Thailand, and led by GeneralVang Pao.[citation needed]

Massive aerial bombardments against the PAVN/Pathet Laoforces were carried out by theUnited Statesto prevent the collapse of theKingdom of Laoscentral government, and to deny the use of theHo Chi Minh Trailto attack US forces inSouth Vietnam.[48]Between 1964 and 1973, the US dropped two million tons of bombs on Laos, nearly equal to the 2.1 million tons of bombs the US dropped on Europe and Asia during all of World War II, making Laos the most heavily bombed country in history relative to the size of its population;The New York Timesnotes this was "nearly a ton for every person in Laos".[49]

Some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout the country, rendering vast swaths of land impossible to cultivate. Currentlyunexploded ordnance(UXO), includingcluster munitionsand mines, kill or maim approximately 50 Laotians every year.[50]Due to the particularly heavy impact of cluster bombs during this war, Laos was a strong advocate of theConvention on Cluster Munitionsto ban the weapons and was host to the First Meeting of States Parties to the convention in November 2010.[51]

Pathet Laosoldiers inVientiane,1973

In 1975, thePathet Laooverthrew the royalist government, forcing KingSavang Vatthanato abdicate on 2 December 1975. He later died under suspicious circumstances in are-education camp.Between 20,000 and 62,000 Laotians died during the civil war.[48][52]The royalists set up agovernment in exilein the United States.[citation needed][53]

On 2 December 1975, after taking control of the country, the Pathet Lao government underKaysone Phomvihanerenamed the country as theLao People's Democratic Republicand signed agreements giving Vietnam the right to station armed forces and to appoint advisers to assist in overseeing the country. The close ties between Laos andVietnamwere formalised via a treaty signed in 1977, which has since provided direction for Lao foreign policy, and provides the basis for Vietnamese involvement at all levels of Lao political and economic life.[48][54]Laos was requested in 1979 byVietnamto end relations with thePeople's Republic of China,leading to isolation in trade byChina,theUnited States,and other countries.[55]In 1979, there were 50,000 PAVN troops stationed in Laos and as many as 6,000 civilian Vietnamese officials including 1,000 directly attached to the ministries inVientiane.[56][57]

TheconflictbetweenHmongrebels and Laoscontinued in key areasof Laos, including in Saysaboune Closed Military Zone, Xaisamboune Closed Military Zone near Vientiane Province andXiangkhouang Province.From 1975 to 1996, theUnited Statesresettled some250,000 Lao refugeesfrom Thailand, including 130,000 Hmong.[58]

On 15 January 2021, the rulingLao People's Revolutionary Party(Communist Party of Laos) electedThongloun Sisoulithas its new secretary general, the most powerful post in Laos, succeeding retiring party chiefBounnhang Vorachi.[59]

On 3 December 2021, the 422-kilometreBoten-Vientiane railway,a flagship of theBelt and Road Initiative(BRI), was opened.[60]

Geography

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Main article:Geography of Laos
Mekong Riverflowing throughLuang Prabang
Paddy fieldsin Laos

Laos is the only landlocked country inSoutheast Asia,and it lies mostly between latitudes14°and23°N(a small area is south of 14°), and longitudes100°and108°E.Its thickly forested landscape consists mostly of rugged mountains, the highest of which isPhou Biaat 2,818 metres (9,245 ft), with some plains and plateaus. The Mekong River forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand, where the mountains of theAnnamite Rangeform most of the eastern border with Vietnam and theLuang Prabang Rangethe northwestern border with theThai highlands.There are two plateaus, theXiangkhoangin the north and theBolaven Plateauat the southern end. Laos can be considered to consist of three geographical areas: north, central, and south.[61]Laos had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 5.59/10, ranking it 98th globally out of 172 countries.[62]

In 1993, the Laos government set aside 21% of the nation's land area forhabitat conservationpreservation.[63]The country is one of four in the opium poppy growing region known as the "Golden Triangle".[64]According to the October 2007 UNODC fact bookOpium Poppy Cultivation in South East Asia,the poppy cultivation area was 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi), down from 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi) in 2006.[65]

Climate

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Köppen climate classification map of Laos

The climate is mostly tropical savanna and influenced by themonsoonpattern.[66]There is a distinct rainy season from May to October, followed by a dry season from November to April. Local tradition holds that there are three seasons (rainy, cool and hot) as the latter two months of the climatologically defined dry season are noticeably hotter than the earlier four months.[66]

Wildlife

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Main article:Wildlife of Laos

Administrative divisions

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Main article:Administrative divisions of Laos

Laos is divided into 17provinces(khoueng) and one prefecture (kampheng nakhon), which includes the capital city Vientiane (Nakhon Louang Viangchan).[67]A new province,Xaisomboun province,was established on 13 December 2013.[68]Provinces are further divided intodistricts(muang) and then villages (ban). An "urban" village is essentially a [town].[61]

No. Subdivisions Capital Area (km2) Population
1 Attapeu Attapeu(Samakkhixay district) 10,320 114,300
2 Bokeo Houayxay(Houayxay district) 6,196 149,700
3 Bolikhamsai Paksan(Paksane District) 14,863 214,900
4 Champasak Pakse(Pakse District) 15,415 575,600
5 Houaphanh Xam Neua(Xamneua District) 16,500 322,200
6 Khammouane Thakhek(Thakhek District) 16,315 358,800
7 Luang Namtha Luang Namtha(Namtha District) 9,325 150,100
8 Luang Prabang Luang Prabang(Luang Prabang district) 16,875 408,800
9 Oudomxay Muang Xay(Xay District) 15,370 275,300
10 Phongsaly Phongsali(Phongsaly District) 16,270 199,900
11 Sainyabuli Sayabouly(Xayabury District) 16,389 382,200
12 Salavan Salavan(Salavan District) 10,691 336,600
13 Savannakhet Savannakhet(Khanthabouly District) 21,774 721,500
14 Sekong Sekong(Lamarm District) 7,665 83,600
15 Vientiane Prefecture Vientiane(Chanthabouly district) 3,920 1,001,477
16 Vientiane Province Phonhong(Phonhong District) 15,927 373,700
17 Xiengkhouang Phonsavan(Pek District) 15,880 229,521
18 Xaisomboun Anouvong (Anouvong district) 8,300 82,000
An updated map of Lao provinces (from 2014)

Politics and government

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Main articles:Politics of LaosandForeign relations of Laos
Thongloun Sisoulith,
general secretary of the LPRPandpresidentsince 2021
Sonexay Siphandone,
prime ministersince 2022

The Lao PDR is one of the world's fewsocialist statesopenly endorsingcommunism.The only legal political party is theLao People's Revolutionary Party(LPRP). With theone-party statestatus of Laos, theGeneral Secretary(party leader) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as thesupreme leader.[48]As of 22 March 2021,the head of state isPresidentThongloun Sisoulith.He has beenGeneral Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party,a position making him thede factoleader of Laos, since January 2021.[69][70]The incumbenthead of governmentisPrime MinisterSonexay Siphandone.Government policies are determined by the party through its 11-memberPolitburoand 61-memberCentral Committee.

Laos's first French-written and monarchical constitution was promulgated on 11 May 1947, and declared Laos an independent state within theFrench Union.The revised constitution of 11 May 1957 omitted reference to the French Union, though close educational, health and technical ties with the former colonial power persisted. The 1957 document was abrogated in December 1975, when a communist people's republic was proclaimed. A new constitution was adopted in 1991 and enshrined a "leading role" for the LPRP.[48]

Flag of the rulingLao People's Revolutionary Party

Foreign relations

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Main article:Foreign relations of Laos
Prime MinisterThongloun Sisoulithwith Indian Prime MinisterNarendra ModiandASEANheads of state in New Delhi on 25 January 2018

The foreign relations of Laos after the takeover by thePathet Laoin December 1975 were characterised by a hostile posture toward the West, with the government of the Lao PDR aligning itself with theSoviet Bloc,maintaining close ties with the Soviet Union[71]and depending heavily on the Soviets for most of its foreign assistance.[72]Laos also maintained a "special relationship" withVietnamand formalised a 1977 treaty of friendship and cooperation that created tensions with China.[citation needed][73]

Laos's emergence frominternational isolationhas been marked through improved and expanded relations with other countries includingRussia,China,Thailand,Australia,Germany,Italy,JapanandSwitzerland.[74]Trade relations with the United Stateswere normalised in November 2004 through Congress approved legislation.[75]Laos was admitted into theAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN) in July 1997 and acceded to theWorld Trade Organizationin 2016.[76]In 2005, it attended the inauguralEast Asia Summit.[77]

Military

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Main article:Lao People's Armed Forces

TheLao People's Armed Forces(LPAF) is thearmed forcesof the Lao People's Democratic Republic and the institution of theLao People's Revolutionary Party,who are charged with protecting the country.

Hmong conflict

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SomeHmonggroups fought asCIA-backed units on the royalist side in theLaotian Civil War.After the Pathet Lao took over the country in 1975, the conflict continued in isolated pockets. In 1977, a communist newspaper promised the party would hunt down the "American collaborators" and their families "to the last root".[78]As many as 200,000 Hmong went into exile inThailand,with many ending up in theUS.Other Hmong fighters hid out in mountains in Xiangkhouang Province for many years, with a remnant emerging from the jungle in 2003.[78]

In 1989, theUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR), with the support of theUS government,instituted theComprehensive Plan of Action,a programme to stem the tide ofIndochinese refugeesfrom Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia. Under the plan, refugee status was evaluated through a screening process. Recognised asylum seekers were given resettlement opportunities, while the remaining refugees were to be repatriated under guarantee of safety. After talks with the UNHCR and the Thai government, Laos agreed to repatriate the 60,000 Lao refugees living in Thailand, including several thousand Hmong people. Very few of the Lao refugees, however, were willing to return voluntarily.[79]Pressure to resettle the refugees grew as the Thai government worked to close its remaining refugee camps. While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, allegations of forced repatriation surfaced.[80][81]Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities.[82]

Hmong girls in Laos, 1973

In 1993, Vue Mai, a former Hmong soldier and leader of the largest Hmong refugee camp in Thailand, who had been recruited by the US Embassy inBangkokto return to Laos as proof of the repatriation programme's success, disappeared inVientiane.According to the US Committee for Refugees, he was arrested by Lao security forces and was never seen again.[83]Following the Vue Mai incident, debate over the Hmong's planned repatriation to Laos intensified greatly, especially in the United States, where it drew strong opposition from manyAmerican conservativesand some human rights advocates. In a 23 October 1995National Reviewarticle,Michael Johnslabelled the Hmong's repatriation aClinton administration"betrayal", describing the Hmong as a people "who have spilled their blood in defence of American geopolitical interests".[84]Debate on the issue escalated quickly. In an effort to halt the planned repatriation, the Republican-ledUS SenateandHouse of Representativesboth appropriated funds for the remaining Thailand-based Hmong to be immediately resettled in the United States; Clinton, however, responded by promising a veto of the legislation.[citation needed]

In their opposition of the repatriation plans, Democratic and Republican Members of Congress challenged the Clinton administration's position that the government of Laos was not systematically violating Hmong human rights. US RepresentativeSteve Gunderson,for instance, told a Hmong gathering: "I do not enjoy standing up and saying to my government that you are not telling the truth, but if that is necessary to defend truth and justice, I will do that."[84]Republicans called several Congressional hearings on alleged persecution of the Hmong in Laos in an apparent attempt to generate further support for their opposition to the Hmong's repatriation to Laos.

Although some accusations of forced repatriation were denied,[85]thousands of Hmong people refused to return to Laos. In 1996 as the deadline for the closure of Thai refugee camps approached, and under mounting political pressure, the United States agreed to resettle Hmong refugees who passed a new screening process.[86]Around 5,000 Hmong people who were not resettled at the time of the camp closures sought asylum atWat Tham Krabok,a Buddhist monastery in central Thailand where more than 10,000 Hmong refugees had already been living. The Thai government attempted to repatriate these refugees, but the Wat Tham Krabok Hmong refused to leave and the Lao government refused to accept them, claiming they were involved in theillegal drug tradeand were of non-Lao origin.[87]Following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the United States, in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15,000 of the refugees in 2003.[88]Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the United States, fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizeable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century.[89]In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province ofPhetchabun.[90]

Lending further support to earlier claims that the government of Laos was persecuting the Hmong, filmmaker Rebecca Sommer documented first-hand accounts in her documentary,Hunted Like Animals,[91]and in a comprehensive report that includes summaries of refugee claims, which was submitted to the UN in May 2006.[92]

TheEuropean Union,[93]UNHCHR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation.[93][94][95][96]The Thai foreign ministry has said that it will halt deportation of Hmong refugees held in Detention Centres inNong Khai,while talks are underway to resettle them in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the United States.[97]Plans to resettle additional Hmong refugees in the United States were stalled by provisions of PresidentGeorge W. Bush'sPatriot ActandReal ID Act,under which Hmong veterans of the Secret War, who fought on the side of the United States, are classified as terrorists because of their historical involvement in armed conflict.[98]

Human rights

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Main article:Human rights in Laos

Human rights violations remain a significant concern in Laos.[99][19]InThe Economist'sDemocracy Index2016Laos was classified as an "authoritarian regime", ranking lowest of the nineASEANnations included in the study.[100][101]Prominent civil society advocates, human rights defenders, political and religious dissidents, and Hmong refugees have disappeared at the hands of Lao military and security forces.[102]

Ostensibly, theConstitution of Laosthat was promulgated in 1991 and amended in 2003 contains most key safeguards for human rights. For example, Article 8 makes it clear that Laos is amultinational stateand is committed to equality between ethnic groups. The constitution also contains provisions forgender equality,freedom of religion,freedom of speech,and freedom of press and assembly.[103]On 25 September 2009, Laos ratified theInternational Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,nine years after signing the treaty. The stated policy objectives of both the Lao government and international donors remain focused upon achieving sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction.[104][105]

However, the government of Laos frequently breaches its own constitution and the rule of law, since the judiciary and judges are appointed by the ruling communist party. According to independent non-profit/non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such asAmnesty International,[106]Human Rights Watch,[107]and Civil Rights Defenders,[108]along with the US State Department,[109]serious human rights violations such as arbitrary detentions, disappearances, free speech restrictions, prison abuses and other violations are an ongoing problem. Amnesty International raised concerns about the ratification record of the Lao government on human rights standards and its lack of co-operation with the UN human rights mechanisms and legislative measures—both impact negatively upon human rights.[19]The organisation also raised concerns in relation to freedom of expression, poor prison conditions, restrictions on freedom of religions, protection of refugees and asylum-seekers, and the death penalty.[106]Laos has also been cited as an origin country for human trafficking.[110]A number of citizens, primarily women and girls from allethnic groupsand foreigners, have been victims ofsex trafficking in Laos.[111][112][113]

Economy

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Main article:Economy of Laos
GDP per capita development in Laos

The Lao economy depends on investment and trade with its neighbours, Thailand, Vietnam, and, especially in the north, China.Pakxehas also experienced growth based on cross-border trade with Thailand and Vietnam. In 2009, despite the fact that the government is still officially communist, theObama administrationin the US declared Laos was no longer a Marxist–Leninist state and lifted bans on Laotian companies receiving financing from theUS Export-Import Bank.[114][115]

In 2016, China was the biggest foreign investor in the Laotian economy, having invested US$5.395 billion since 1989, according to the Laos Ministry of Planning and Investment's 1989–2014 report. Thailand (invested US$4.489 billion) and Vietnam (invested US$3.108 billion) are the second and third largest investors respectively.[116]The economy receivesdevelopment aidfrom theInternational Monetary Fund,Asian Development Bank,and other international sources; and alsoforeign direct investmentfor development of the society, industry,hydropowerand mining (most notably of copper and gold).

Subsistence agriculturestill accounts for half of the GDP and provides 80% of employment. Only 4% of the country is arable land and a mere 0.3% used as permanent crop land,[117]the lowest percentage in theGreater Mekong Subregion.[118]The irrigated areas account for only 28% of the total area under cultivation which, in turn, represents only 12% of all of the agricultural land in 2012.[119]Rice dominates agriculture, with about 80% of the arable land area used for growing rice.[120]Approximately 77% of Lao farm households are self-sufficient in rice.[121]Laos may have the greatest number of rice varieties in the Greater Mekong Subregion. The Lao government has been working with theInternational Rice Research Instituteof thePhilippinesto collect seed samples of each of the thousands of rice varieties found in Laos.[122]

Laos is rich in mineral resources and imports petroleum and gas.Metallurgyis an important industry, and the government hopes to attract foreign investment to develop the substantial deposits ofcoal,gold,bauxite,tin,copper,and other valuable metals. Themining industry of Laoshas received prominent attention with foreign direct investments. This sector has made significant contributions to the economic condition of Laos. More than 540 mineral deposits of gold, copper,zinc,leadand other minerals have been identified, explored and mined.[123]In addition, the country's plentiful water resources and mountainous terrain enable it to produce and export large quantities of hydroelectric energy.[124]Of the potential capacity of approximately 18,000 megawatts, around 8,000 megawatts have been committed for export to Thailand and Vietnam.[125]As of 2021, despite cheap hydro power available in the country, Laos continues to also rely on fossil fuels, coal in particular, in domestic electricity production.[126]

In 2018, the countryranked 139thon theHuman Development Index(HDI), indicating medium development.[127]According to theGlobal Hunger Index(2018), Laos ranks as the 36th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation(s).[128]In 2019, the UN Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights conducted an official visit to Laos and found that the country's top-down approach to economic growth and poverty alleviation "is all too often counterproductive, leading to impoverishment and jeopardising the rights of the poor and marginalised."[129]

The country's most widely recognised product may beBeerlao,which in 2017 was exported to more than 20 countries worldwide. It is produced by theLao Brewery Company.[130]

Tourism

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Main article:Tourism in Laos
Near the sanctuary on the main upper level ofVat Phou,looking back towards theMekong River

The tourism sector has grown rapidly, from 80,000 international visitors in 1990, to 1.876 million in 2010,[131]when tourism had been expected to rise to US$1.5857 billion by 2020. In 2010, one in every 11 jobs was in the tourism sector. Export earnings from international visitors and tourism goods are expected to generate 16% of total exports or US$270.3 million in 2010, growing in nominal terms to US$484.2 million (12.5% of the total) in 2020.[132]The European Council on Trade and Tourism awarded the country the "World Best Tourist Destination" designation for 2013 for architecture and history.[133]

Luang PrabangandVat Phouare bothUNESCO World Heritagesites. Major festivals include Lao New Year celebrated around 13–15 April and involves awater festivalsimilar but more subdued than that of Thailand and other Southeast Asian countries.

The Lao National Tourism Administration, related government agencies and the private sector are working together to realise the vision put forth in the country's National Ecotourism Strategy and Action Plan. This includes decreasing the environmental and cultural impact of tourism; increasing awareness in the importance of ethnic groups and biological diversity; providing a source of income to conserve, sustain and manage the Lao protected area network and cultural heritage sites; and emphasizing the need for tourism zoning and management plans for sites that will be developed asecotourismdestinations.[134]

Transportation

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Main articles:Transport in LaosandTelecommunications in Laos
Rivers are an important means of transport in Laos.

The main international airports are Vientiane'sWattay International AirportandLuang Prabang International AirportwithPakse International Airportalso having a few international flights. The national carrier isLao Airlines.Other carriers serving the country includeBangkok Airways,Vietnam Airlines,AirAsia,Thai AirwaysandChina Eastern Airlines.

The mountainousgeography of Laoshad impeded Laos's ground transportation development throughout the 20th century. Its first railway line, a short 3-km longmetre-gaugerailway that connectssouthern Vientianeto Thailand, only opened in 2009. A major breakthrough occurred in December 2021, when the 414-km longBoten–Vientiane railwaythat runs from the capitalVientianetoBotenat the northern border with China, built as part of China'sBelt and Road Initiative,was opened.[135]Two new lines connecting with Vietnam, namely theVientiane–Vũng ÁngandSavannakhet–Lao Baorailways, are also under planning, in line to meet the Laotian government's vision of becoming a land-linked nation.

The major roads connecting to urban centres, in particularRoute 13,have been significantly upgraded in recent years. Laos's first expressway, theVientiane–Boten Expressway,parallels both Route 13 and the Boten–Vientiane railway; the first section from Vientiane to Vang Vieng was opened in 2020, with other sections under construction. However, villages far from major roads can be reached only through unpaved roads that may not be accessible year-round.

There is limited external and internal telecommunication, but mobile phones have become widespread. 93% of households have a telephone, either fixed line or mobile.[136]: 8 Electricity is available to 93% of the population.[136]: 8 Songthaewsare used in the country for long-distance and local public transport.

Water supply

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Main article:Water supply and sanitation in Laos

According to the World Bank data conducted in 2014, Laos has met the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets on water and sanitation regarding the UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme. However, as of 2018, there are approximately 1.9 million of Lao's population who could not access an improved water supply and 2.4 million people without access to improved sanitation.[137]

Laos has made particularly noteworthy progress increasing access tosanitation.[138]Laos's predominantly rural[139]population makes investing in sanitation difficult. In 1990 only 8% of the rural population had access to improved sanitation.[138]Access rose rapidly from 10 per cent in 1995 to 38 per cent in 2008. Between 1995 and 2008 approximately 1,232,900 more people had access to improved sanitation in rural areas.[138]Laos's progress is notable in comparison to similar developing countries.[138]The authorities in Laos have recently developed an innovative regulatory framework for public–private partnership contracts signed with small enterprises, in parallel with more conventional regulation of state-owned water enterprises.[140]

Demographics

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Main article:Demographics of Laos

The term "Laotian" does not necessarily refer to the Lao language, ethnic Lao people, language or customs. It is a political term that includes the non-ethnic Lao groups within Laos and identifies them as "Laotian" because of their political citizenship. Laos has the youngest population of any country in Asia with a median age of 21.6 years.[141]

Laos's population was estimated at 7.45 million in 2020, dispersed unevenly across the country. Most people live in valleys of the Mekong River and its tributaries. Vientiane prefecture, the capital and largest city, had about 683,000 residents in 2020.[141]

Ethnicity

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The people of Laos are often categorised by their distribution byelevation(lowlands, midlands and upper high lands), as this somewhat correlates with ethnic groupings. More than half of the nation's population is ethnic Lao—the principal lowland inhabitants, and the politically and culturally dominant people of Laos.[142]The Lao belong to theTailinguistic group[143]who began migrating south from China in the first millennium CE.[144]Ten per cent belong to other "lowland" groups, which together with the Lao people make up theLao Loum(lowland people).[142]

In the central and southern mountains,Mon-Khmer-speaking groups, known asLao Theungor mid-slope Laotians, predominate. Other terms are Khmu, Khamu (Kammu) or Kha as the Lao Loum refer to them to indicate theirAustroasiaticlanguage affiliation. However, the latter is considered pejorative, meaning 'slave'. They were the indigenous inhabitants of northern Laos. SomeVietnamese,Laotian Chinese[145]andThaiminorities remain, particularly in the towns, but many left after independence in the late 1940s, many of whom relocated either to Vietnam, Hong Kong, or to France. Lao Theung constitute about 30% of the population.[146]

Hill peopleand minority cultures of Laos such as theHmong,Yao (Mien)(Hmong-Mien),Dao,Shan,and severalTibeto-Burmanspeaking peoples have lived in isolated regions of Laos for many years. Mountain/hill tribes of mixed ethno/cultural-linguistic heritage are found in northern Laos, which include theLuaandKhmu peoplewho are indigenous to Laos. Collectively, they are known asLao Soungor highland Laotians. Lao Soung account for about 10% of the population.[47]

Languages

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The official and majority language isLao,a language of theTai-Kadailanguage family. However, only slightly more than half of the population speaks Lao natively. The remainder, particularly in rural areas, speak ethnic minority languages. TheLao Alpha bet,which evolved sometime between the 13th and 14th centuries, was derived from the ancientKhmer scriptand is very similar to Thai script.[147]Languages likeKhmu(Austroasiatic) andHmong(Hmong-Mien) are spoken by minorities, particularly in the midland and highland areas. A number ofLaotian sign languagesare used in areas with high rates of congenital deafness.[47]

Frenchis used in government and commerce, and Laos is a member of the French-speaking organisation ofLa Francophonie.The organisation estimated in 2010 that there were 173,800 French speakers in Laos.[148] The French language's decline was slower and occurred later in Laos than in Vietnam and Cambodia, as the monarchy of Laos had close political relations with France. At the eve of theVietnam War,theSecret Warwas beginning in Laos as political factions between communist Pathet Lao and the government occurred.Pathet Lao-held areas used Lao as their sole language and following the end of the Vietnam War, French began its sharp decline in Laos. Additionally, many elite and French-educated Lao immigrated to nations such as the United States and France to escape government persecution. With the end of isolationism in the early 1990s however, the French language rebounded, thanks to the establishment of French, Swiss and Canadian relations and the opening of French-language centres in central Laos. Today, French has a healthier status in Laos than the other Francophone nations of Asia and about 35% of all students in Laos receive their education in French, with the language being a required course in many schools. French is also used in public works in central and southern Laos and Luang Prabang and is a language of diplomacy and of the elite classes, higher professions and elders.

English,the language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), has become increasingly studied in recent years.[149]

Religion

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Main article:Religion in Laos
Wat Nong Sikhounmuang pagoda inLuang Prabang

66 percent of Laotians wereTheravadaBuddhist, 1.5 percent Christian, 0.1 percent Muslim, 0.1 percent Jewish, and 32.3 percent were other or traditional (mostly practitioners ofSatsana Phi) in 2010.[4][150]Buddhism has long been one of the most important social forces in Laos. Theravada Buddhism coexisted peacefully since its introduction to the country with thelocal polytheism.[47]

Health

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Main article:Health in Laos
Mahosot Hospitalin Vientiane

Malelife expectancy at birthwas at 62.6 years and female life expectancy was at 66.7 years in 2017.[150]Healthy life expectancy was 54 years in 2007.[151]Government expenditure on health is about four per cent of GDP,[151]about US$18 (PPP) in 2006.[151]

Education

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Main article:Education in Laos
See also:National Library of Laos
National University of Laosin Vientiane

The adultliteracyrate for women in 2017 was 62.9%; for adult men, 78.1%.[136]: 39–40 

In 2004 the net primary enrollment rate was 84%.[151]TheNational University of Laosis the Lao state's public university. As a low-income country, Laos faces abrain-drainproblem as many educated people migrate to developed countries. It is estimated that about 37% of educated Laotians live outside Laos.[152]Laos was ranked 110th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2023.[153][154]

Culture

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Main article:Culture of Laos
See also:Lao art,Lao cuisine,Dance and theatre of Laos,Laotian society,List of festivals in Laos,andMusic of Laos
An example ofLao cuisine
Lao women wearingsinhs
Lao dancers during theNew Yearcelebration

Theravada Buddhism is a dominant influence in Lao culture. It is evident throughout the country, expressed in language, temples and the arts and literature. Many elements of Lao culture predate Buddhism. For example, Laotian music is dominated by its national musical instrument, thekhaen,a type of bamboomouth organthat has prehistoric origins. Thekhaentraditionally accompanied the singer inmor lam,the dominant style offolk music.

Sticky riceis a staple food and has cultural and religious significance to the Lao people. Sticky rice is generally preferred overjasmine rice,and sticky rice cultivation and production is thought to have originated in Laos. There are many traditions and rituals associated with rice production in different environments and among many ethnic groups. For example, Khammu farmers in Luang Prabang plant the rice varietykhao kamin small quantities near the farm house in memory of dead parents, or at the edge of the rice field to indicate that parents are still alive.[155]

Thesinhis a traditional garment worn by Lao women in daily life. It is a hand-woven silk skirt that can identify the woman who wears it in a variety of ways.

Cinema

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Main article:Cinema of Laos

Since the founding of the Lao PDR in 1975, very few films have been made in Laos.[156]The first feature-length film made after the monarchy was abolished isGun Voice from the Plain of Jars,directed by Somchith Pholsena in 1983, although its release was prevented by a censorship board.[157]One of the first commercial feature-length films wasSabaidee Luang Prabang,made in 2008.[158]The 2017 documentary feature filmBlood Roadwas predominantly shot and produced in Laos with assistance from the Lao government. It was recognised with aNews and Documentary Emmy Awardin 2018.[159]

Australian filmmaker Kim Mordount's first feature film was made in Laos and features a Laotian cast speaking their native language. EntitledThe Rocket,the film appeared at the 2013Melbourne International Film Festivaland won three awards at the Berlin International Film Festival.[160]Examples of Lao feature films that have received international recognition include Lao New Wave Cinema'sAt the Horizon,directed by Anysay Keola, which was screened at the OzAsia Film Festival,[161]and Lao Art Media'sChanthaly(Lao:ຈັນທະລີ), directed byMattie Do,which was screened at the 2013Fantastic Fest.[162][163]In September 2017, Laos submittedDearest Sister(Lao:ນ້ອງຮັກ), Mattie Do's second feature film, to the90th Academy Awards(or the Oscars) for consideration forBest Foreign Language Film,marking the country's first submission for the Oscars.[164]

As of 2018, Laos has three theatres dedicated to showing films.[165]

Festivals

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There are some public holidays, festivities and ceremonies in Laos.

  • Hmong New Year (Nopejao)
  • Bun Pha Wet
  • Magha Puja
  • Chinese New Year
  • Boun Khoun Khao
  • Boun Pimai
  • Boun Bang Fai (Rocket festival)
  • Visakha Puja
  • Pi Mai/Songkran (Lao New Year)
  • Khao Phansaa
  • Haw Khao Padap Din
  • Awk Phansaa
  • Bun Nam
  • Lao National Day (2 December)[166][167]

Media

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All newspapers are published by the government, including two foreign language papers: the English-language dailyVientiane Timesand the French-language weeklyLe Rénovateur.Additionally, the Khao San Pathet Lao, the country's official news agency, publishes English and French versions of its eponymous paper. Laos has nine daily newspapers, 90 magazines, 43 radio stations, and 32 TV stations operating throughout the country. As of 2011,Nhân Dân('The People') and theXinhua News Agencyare the only foreign media organisations permitted to open offices in Laos—both opened bureaus in Vientiane in 2011.[citation needed]Lao National Televisionis the state owned service.

The Lao government controls all media channels to prevent critique of its actions.[168]Lao citizens who have criticised the government have been subjected to enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrests and torture.[169][170]

Polygamy

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Polygamyis officially a crime in Laos, though the penalty is minor. The constitution and Family Code bar the legal recognition of polygamous marriages, stipulating thatmonogamyis the principal form of marriage in the country.[171]Polygamy, however, is still customary among some Hmong people.[172]As of 2017, 3.5% of women and 2.1% of men between the ages of 15–49 were in a polygamous union.[136]: 19 

Sport

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New Laos National StadiuminVientiane

The martial art ofmuay Lao,the national sport,[173]is a form of kickbo xing similar to Thailand'smuay Thai,BurmeseLethweiand CambodianPradal Serey.[174]

Association footballis the most popular sport in Laos.[175]Itsnational football teamis a member of theAsian Football Confederationand of theASEAN Football Federation.It has failed to qualify for theFIFA World Cupor theAFC Asian Cup,but has participated in minor competitions like theAFC Solidarity Cupand theAFF Championship.TheLao Leagueis the top professional league for association football clubs in the country.[176]Since the start of the league,Lao Army F.C.has been the most successful club with 8 titles.[177]

Laos has no tradition in other team sports. In 2017, the country sent a team for the first time to the team events at theSoutheast Asian Games.Thenational basketball teamcompeted at the2017 Southeast Asian Gameswhere it beatMyanmarin the eighth place game.[178]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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  1. ^Includingover 100 smaller ethnic groups
  2. ^"The State respects and protects all lawful activities of Buddhists and of followers of other religions, [and] mobilises and encourages Buddhist monks and novices as well as the priests of other religions to participate in activities that are beneficial to the country and people."[3]
  3. ^The most powerful political position isGeneral Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party,notPresident.The general secretary controls thePolitburoand theSecretariat,Laos's top decision-making bodies, making the officeholder thede factoleader of Laos.
  4. ^/laʊs/ⓘ,/ˈlɑːoʊs,ˈlɑːɒs,ˈleɪɒs/lowss,LAH-ohss,LAH-oss,LAY-oss;[9][10][11]Lao:ລາວ,Lāo[láːw]
  5. ^Lao:ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ(ສປປ ລາວ)
    French:République démocratique populaire Lao(RDP LaoorRDPL)

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