Chinese literature

For the 1951–2001 English-language magazine, seeChinese Literature(magazine).

The history ofChinese literatureextends thousands of years, and begins with the earliest recorded inscriptions, court archives, building to the major works of philosophy and history written during theAxial Age.TheHan(202 BC – 220 AD) andTang(618–907 AD) dynasties were considered golden ages of poetry, while theSong(960–1279) andYuan(1271–1368) were notable for their lyrics (ci), essays, dramas, and plays. During theMingandQing,mature novels were written inwritten vernacular Chinese,an evolution from the preeminence ofLiterary Chinesepatterned off the language of theChinese classics.The introduction of widespreadwoodblock printingduring the Tang and the invention ofmovable type printingbyBi Sheng(990–1051) during the Song rapidly spread written knowledge throughout China. Around the turn of the 20th century, the authorLu Xun(1881–1936) is considered an influential voice of vernacular Chinese literature.

Chinese literature
Traditional Chinese	Trung Quốc văn học
Simplified Chinese	Trung Quốc văn học
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Zhōngguó wénxué Bopomofo ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄨㄣˊ ㄒㄩㄝˊ Wade–Giles Chung1-kuo2wen2-hsüeh2 Tongyong Pinyin Jhongguó wún-syué IPA [ʈʂʊ́ŋ.kwǒ wə̌n.ɕɥě] Wu Romanization [TsonBìnhkohNhậpvhenĐiohBình]Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 10) (help) Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Jūng-gwok màhn-hohk Jyutping zung1 gwok3 man4 hok6 IPA [tsʊŋ˥ kʷɔk̚˧ mɐn˩ hɔk̚˨] Southern Min Tâi-lô Tiong-kok bûn-ha̍k

Pre-classical period

Formation of the earliest layer of Chinese literature was influenced by oral traditions of different social and professional provenance: cult and lay musical practices (Shijing),divination (Yi jing), astronomy, exorcism. An attempt at tracing the genealogy of Chinese literature to religious spells and incantations (the sixzhuSáu chúc, as presented in the "Da zhu" chapter of theRites of Zhou) was made by Liu Shipei.

Classical texts

Main article:Chinese classics

See also:List of Chinese language poets

There is a wealth of early Chinese literature dating from theHundred Schools of Thoughtthat occurred during theEastern Zhou dynasty(770–256 BC). The most important of these include the Classics ofConfucianism,ofDaoism,ofMohism,ofLegalism,as well as works of military science andChinese history.Note that, except for the books of poems and songs, most of this literature is philosophical and didactic; there is little in the way of fiction. However, these texts maintained their significance through both their ideas and their prose style.

The Confucian works in particular have been of high importance to Chinese culture and history, as a set of works known as theFour Books and Five Classicswere, in the 12th century AD, chosen as the basis for theImperial examinationfor any government post. These nine books therefore became the center of the educational system. They have been grouped into two categories: theFive Classics,allegedly commented and edited byConfucius,and theFour Books.TheFive Classicsare:

1. theI Ching,orClassic of Changes,adivinationmanual;
2. theClassic of Poetry,a collection of poems, folk songs, festival and ceremonial songs, hymns and eulogies;
3. theBook of RitesorRecord of Rites;
4. theBook of documents,an early Chinese prose collection of documents and speeches allegedly written by rulers and officials of the earlyZhou periodand earlier;
5. theSpring and Autumn Annals,a historical record of Confucius' native state,Lu,from 722 to 479 BC.

TheFour Booksare:

1. theAnalects of Confucius,a book of pithy sayings attributed to Confucius and recorded by his disciples;
2. theMencius,a collection of political dialogues;
3. theDoctrine of the Mean,a book that teaches the path to Confucian virtue; and
4. theGreat Learning,a book about education, self-cultivation and theDao.

Other importantphilosophical works include the MohistMozi,which taught "inclusive love" as both an ethical and social principle, andHanfeizi,one of the central Legalist texts.

ImportantDaoistclassics include theDao De Jing,theZhuangzi,and theLiezi.Later authors combined Daoism with Confucianism and Legalism, such asLiu An(2nd century BC), whoseHuainanzi(The Philosophers of Huai-nan) also added to the fields ofgeographyandtopography.

Among the classics of military science,The Art of WarbySun Tzu(6th century BC) was perhaps the first to outline guidelines for effective internationaldiplomacy.It was also the first in a tradition of Chinese military treatises, such as theWujing Zongyao(Collection of the Most Important Military Techniques,1044 AD) and theHuolongjing(Fire Dragon Manual,14th century AD).

Historical texts, dictionaries and encyclopedias

Main article:Chinese historiography

Further information:Category:Chinese encyclopediasandChinese dictionary

Sima Qianlaid the ground for professionalChinese historiographymore than 2,000 years ago.

The Chinese kept consistent and accurate court records, and although their calendars varied from court to court, these disparate records could be aligned without evident contradiction by the year 841 BC, at the beginning of theGonghe Regencyof theWestern Zhou dynasty.The earliest knownnarrative historyof China was theZuo Zhuan,which was compiled no later than 389 BC, and attributed to the blind 5th-century BC historianZuo Qiuming.TheBook of Documentsis thought to have been compiled as far back as the 6th century BC, and was certainly compiled by the 4th century BC, the latest date for the writing of theGuodian Chu Slipsunearthed in aHubeitomb in 1993. TheBook of Documentsincludedearly information on geographyin theYu Gongchapter.TheBamboo Annalsfound in 281 AD in the tomb of the King of Wei, who was interred in 296 BC, provide another example; however, unlike theZuo Zhuan,the authenticity of the early date of theBamboo Annalsis in doubt. Another early text was the political strategy book of theZhan Guo Ce,compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC, withpartial amounts of the textfound amongst the 2nd century BCtomb siteatMawangdui.The oldest extantdictionaryin China is theErya,dated to the 3rd century BC, anonymously written but with later commentary by the historianGuo Pu(276–324). Other early dictionaries include theFangyanbyYang Xiong(53 BC – 18 AD) and theShuowen JiezibyXu Shen(58–147 AD). One of the largest was theKangxi Dictionarycompiled by 1716 under the auspices of theKangxi Emperor(r. 1661–1722); it provides definitions for over 47,000 characters.

Although court records and other independent records existed beforehand, the definitive work in early Chinese historical writing was theShiji,orRecords of the Grand Historianwritten byHan dynastycourt historianSima Qian(145 BC – 90 BC). This groundbreaking text laid the foundation for Chinese historiography and the many official Chinese historical texts compiled for each dynasty thereafter. Sima Qian is often compared to the GreekHerodotusin scope and method, because he covered Chinese history from the mythicalXia dynastyuntil the contemporary reign ofEmperor Wu of Hanwhile retaining an objective and non-biased standpoint. This was often difficult for the official dynastic historians, who used historical works to justify the reign of the current dynasty. He influenced the written works of many Chinese historians,including the worksofBan GuandBan Zhaoin the 1st and 2nd centuries, and evenSima Guang's 11th-century compilation of theZizhi Tong gian,presented toEmperor Shenzong of Songin 1084 AD. The overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed theTwenty-Four Histories,created for each successive Chinese dynasty up until theMing dynasty(1368–1644); China's last dynasty, theQing dynasty(1644–1911), is not included.

Large encyclopedias were also produced in China through the ages. TheYiwen Leijuencyclopedia was completed byOuyang Xunin 624 during theTang dynasty,with aid from scholarsLinghu DefenandChen Shuda.During theSong dynasty,the compilation of theFour Great Books of Song(10th century – 11th century), begun byLi Fangand completed byCefu Yuangui,represented a massive undertaking of written material covering a wide range of different subjects. This included theTaiping Guangji(978), theTaiping Yulan(983), theWenyuan Yinghua(986), and theCefu Yuangui(1013). Although these Song dynasty Chinese encyclopedias featured millions of writtenChinese characterseach, their aggregate size paled in comparison to the laterYongle Encyclopedia(1408) of the Ming dynasty, which contained a total of 50 million Chinese characters.Even this size was trumped by later Qing dynasty encyclopedias, such as the printed theComplete Classics Collection of Ancient China(1726), which featured over 100 million written Chinese characters in over 800,000 pages, printed in 60 different copies usingcopper-metal Chinesemovable typeprinting. Other great encyclopedic writers include the polymath scientistShen Kuo(1031–1095) and hisDream Pool Essays,the agronomist and inventorWang Zhen(fl.1290–1333) and hisNongshu,and the minor scholar-officialSong Ying xing(1587–1666) and hisTiangong Kaiwu.

Classical poetry

Main article:Classical Chinese poetry

Bai Juyi(772–846), a famousTang dynastypoet and statesman.

The rich tradition of Chinese poetry began with two influential collections. In northern China, theShijingorClassic of Poetry(approx. 11th–7th century BC) comprises over 300 poems in a variety of styles ranging from those with a strong suggestion of folk music to ceremonial hymns.The wordshihas the basic meaning of poem or poetry, as well as its use in criticism to describe one of China's lyrical poetic genres.Confuciusis traditionally credited with editing theShijing.Its stately verses are usually composed of couplets with lines of four characters each (or four syllables, as Chinese characters are monosyllabic), and a formal structure of end rhymes. Many of these early poems establish the later tradition of starting with a description of nature that leads into emotionally expressive statements, known asbi,Xing,or sometimebi xing.Associated with what was then considered to be southern China, theChuciis ascribed toQu Yuan(c. 340–278 BC) and his followerSong Yu(fl. 3rd century BC) and is distinguished by its more emotionally intense affect, often full of despair and descriptions of the fantastic.In some of its sections, theChu Ciuses a six-character per line meter, dividing these lines into couplets separated in the middle by a strongcaesura,producing a driving and dramatic rhythm. Both theShijingand theChucihave remained influential throughout Chinese history.

During the greater part of China's first great period of unification, begun with the short-livedQin dynasty(221 BC – 206 BC) and followed by the centuries-longHan dynasty(206 BC – 220 AD), theshiform of poetry underwent little innovation. But a distinctively descriptive and eruditefuform (not the samefucharacter as that used for the bureau of music) developed that has been called "rhyme-prose", a uniquely Han offshoot of Chinese poetry's tradition.Equally noteworthy isMusic Bureaupoetry (yuefu), collected and presumably refined popular lyrics from folk music. The end of the Han witnesses a resurgence of theshipoetry, with the anonymous19 Old Poems.This collection reflects the emergence of a distinctive five-character line that later becameshipoetry's most common line length.From theJian'anreign period (196 – 220 AD) onward, the five-character line became a focus for innovations in style and theme.The Cao family,rulers of theWei dynasty(220 – 265 AD) during the post-HanThree Kingdomsperiod, distinguished themselves as poets by writing poems filled with sympathy for the day-to-day struggles of soldiery and the common people. Taoist philosophy became a different, common theme for other poets, and a genre emphasizing true feeling emerged led byRuan Ji(210–263).The landscape genre of Chinese nature poetry emerged under the brush ofXie Lingyun(385–433), as he innovated distinctively descriptive and complementary couplets composed of five-character lines.A farmland genre was born in obscurity byTao Qian(365–427) also known as Tao Yuanming as he labored in his fields and then wrote extolling the influence of wine.Toward the close of this period in which many later-developed themes were first experimented with, theXiaofamilyof theSouthern Liang dynasty(502–557) engaged in highly refined and often denigratedcourt-style poetry lushly describing sensual delights as well as the description of objects.

Reunified China'sTang dynasty(618–907) high culture set a high point for many things, including poetry. Various schools ofBuddhism(a religion from India) flourished as represented by theChan(or Zen) beliefs ofWang Wei(701–761).His quatrains (jueju) describing natural scenes are world-famous examples of excellence, each couplet conventionally containing about two distinct images or thoughts per line.Tang poetry's big star isLi Bai(701–762) also pronounced and written as Li Bo, who worked in all major styles, both the more free old style verse (gutishi) as well as the tonally regulated new style verse (jintishi).Regardless of genre, Tang poets notably strove to perfect a style in which poetic subjects are exposed and evident, often without directly referring to the emotional thrust at hand.The poetDu Fu(712–770) excelled at regulated verse and use of the seven-character line, writing denser poems with more allusions as he aged, experiencing hardship and writing about it.A parade of great Tang poets also includesChen Zi'ang(661–702),Wang Zhihuan(688–742),Meng Haoran(689–740),Bai Juyi(772–846),Li He(790–816),Du Mu(803–852),Wen Tingyun(812–870), (listed chronologically) andLi Shangyin(813–858), whose poetry delights in allusions that often remain obscure,and whose emphasis on the seven-character line also contributed to the emerging posthumous fame of Du Fu,now ranked alongside Li Bai. The distinctively differentcipoetry form began its development during the Tang as Central Asian and other musical influences flowed through its cosmopolitan society.

China'sSong dynasty(960–1279), another reunification era after a brief period of disunity, initiated a fresh high culture. Several of its greatest poets were capable government officials as well includingOuyang Xiu(1007–1072),Su Shi(1037–1101), andWang Anshi(1021–1086). Theciform flourished as a few hundred songs became standard templates for poems with distinctive and variously set meters.The free and expressive style of Song high culture has been contrasted with majestic Tang poems by centuries of subsequent critics who engage in fierce arguments over which dynasty had the best poetry.Additional musical influences contributed to theYuan dynasty's (1279–1368) distinctivequopera culture and spawned thesanquform of individual poems based on it.

Classical Chinese poetry composition became a conventional skill of the well-educated throughout theMing(1368–1644) andQing(1644–1911) dynasties. Over a million poems have been preserved, including those by women, such asDong XiaowanandLiu Rushi,and by many other diverse voices.Painter-poets, such asShen Zhou(1427–1509),Tang Yin(1470–1524),Wen Zhengming(1470–1559), andYun Shouping(1633–1690), created worthy conspicuous poems as they combined art, poetry and calligraphy with brush on paper.Poetry composition competitions were socially common, as depicted in novels, for example over dessert after a nice dinner.The Song versus Tang debate continues through the centuries.While China's later imperial period does not seem to have broken new ground for innovative approaches to poetry, picking through its vast body of preserved works remains a scholarly challenge, so new treasures may yet be restored from obscurity.

Classical prose

A Ming dynasty Dehua porcelain sculpture ofWenchang Wang,a Chinese deity of literature.

Early Chinese prose was deeply influenced by the great philosophical writings of theHundred Schools of Thought(770–221 BC). The works ofMozi,Mencius,andZhuang Zhoucontain well-reasoned, carefully developed discourses that reveal much stronger organization and style than their predecessors. Mozi's polemic prose was built on solid and effective methodological reasoning. Mencius contributed elegant diction and, like Zhuang Zhou, relied on comparisons, anecdotes, and allegories. By the 3rd century BC, these writers had developed a simple, concise and economical style that served as a model literary form for over two millennia. These were written inClassical Chinese,which mostly represented the spoken language during theSpring and Autumn period.

During theTang dynasty,the ornate, artificial style of prose developed in previous periods was replaced by a simple, direct, and forceful prose based on examples from the Hundred Schools and theHan dynasty,the period in which the great historical works ofSima TanandSima Qianwere published. This neoclassical style dominated prose writing for the next 800 years. It was exemplified in the work ofHan Yu(768–824), a master essayist and strong advocate of a return toConfucianorthodoxy; Han Yu was later listed as one of the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song".

TheSong dynastysaw the rise in popularity of "travel record literature" (youji wenxue).Travel literaturecombined both diary and narrative prose formats, it was practised by seasoned travellers likeFan Chengda(1126–1193) andXu Xiake(1587–1641), and can be seen in the example ofSu Shi'sRecord of Stone Bell Mountain.

After the 14th century, vernacular fiction became popular, at least outside of court circles. Vernacular fiction covered a broader range of subject matter and was longer and more loosely structured than literary fiction. One of the masterpieces of Chinese vernacular fiction is the 18th-century domestic novelDream of the Red Chamber.

Classical fiction and drama

Pages from a printed edition of the 17th century novelXingshi Yinyuan Zhuan(translated asThe Bonds of Matrimonyand others) written by Xizhou Sheng, one of the longest Chinese novels of the time at over a million words

Chinese fiction was rooted in the official histories and such less formal works asA New Account of the Tales of the WorldandIn Search of the Supernatural(4th and 5th centuries);Finest Flowers from the World of Letters,a 10th-century compilation of earlier works;Great Tang Records on the Western Regionscompleted by a pilgrim to India namedXuanzangin 646;Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang,the best known collection of Literary Chinesechuanqifrom the Tang dynasty; and theTaiping Guangji,which preserved the corpus of these Tang dynasty tales. There was a range of less formal works either oral or using oral conventions, such asbianwen,pingshu,andhuaben,which formed background to thenovelas early as theSong dynasty.The novel as an extended prose narrative which realistically creates a believable world of its own evolved in China and in Europe from the 14th–18th centuries, though a little earlier in China. Chinese audiences were more interested in history and Chinese authors generally did not present their works as fictional. Readers appreciated relative optimism, moral humanism, relative emphasis on group behavior, and welfare of the society.

With the rise of monetary economy and urbanization beginning in the Song dynasty, there was a growing professionalization of entertainment fostered by the spread of printing, the rise of literacy and education. In both China and Europe, the novel gradually became more autobiographical and serious in exploration of social, moral, and philosophical problems. Chinese fiction of the lateMing dynastyand earlyQing dynastywas varied, self-conscious, and experimental.

Modern literature

See also:Modern Chinese poetry

Scholars now tend to agree that modern Chinese literature did not erupt suddenly in theNew Culture Movement(1910s–1920s). Instead, they trace its origins back at least to the late Qing period (1895–1911) and at most to the 17th century.

Late Qing (1895–1911)

The late Qing was a period of intellectual ferment sparked by a sense of national crisis. Intellectuals began to seek solutions to China's problems outside of its own tradition. They translated works of Western expository writing and literature, which enthralled readers with new ideas and opened up windows onto new exotic cultures. Most outstanding were the translations ofYan Fu( nghiêm phục ) (1864–1921) andLin Shu( Lâm Thư ) (1852–1924). In this climate, a boom in the writing of fiction occurred, especially after the 1905 abolition of the civil service examination when literati struggled to fill new social and cultural roles for themselves. Stylistically, this fiction shows signs of both the Chinese novelistic tradition and Western narrative modes. In subject matter, it is strikingly concerned with the contemporary: social problems, historical upheaval, changing ethical values, etc. In this sense, late Qing fiction is modern. Important novelists of the period includeWu Woyao( Ngô ốc Nghiêu ) (1866–1910),Li Boyuan( Lý bá nguyên ) (1867–1906),Liu E( Lưu ngạc ) (1857–1909), andZeng Pu( từng phác ) (1872–1935).

The late Qing also saw a "revolution in poetry" ( thơ giới cách mạng ), which promoted experimentation with new forms and the incorporation of new registers of language. However, the poetry scene was still dominated by the adherents to the Tongguang School (named after theTongzhiandGuangxureigns of the Qing), whose leaders—Chen Yan( trần diễn ),Chen Sanli( trần tam lập ),Zheng Xiaoxu( Trịnh hiếu tư ), andShen Zengzhi( Thẩm từng thực )—promoted a Song style in the manner of Huang Ting gian. These poets would become the objects of scorn by New Culturalists likeHu Shih,who saw their work as overly allusive, artificial, and divorced from contemporary reality.

In drama, the late Qing saw the emergence of the new "civilized drama"( kịch văn minh ), a hybrid of Chinese operatic drama with Western-style spoken drama.Peking operaand "reformed Peking opera" were also popular at the time.

Republican Era (1912–49)

The literary scene in the first few years before the collapse of the Qing in 1911 was dominated by popular love stories, some written in the classical language and some in the vernacular. This entertainment fiction would later be labeled "Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies"fiction by New Culturalists, who despised its lack of social engagement. Throughout much of the Republican era, Butterfly fiction would reach many more readers than its" progressive "counterpart.

In the course of theNew Culture Movementduring the 1910s and 1920s decades, the vernacular language largely displaced the classical in all areas of literature and writing. Literary reformersHu Shih(1891–1962) andChen Duxiu(1880–1942) declared the classical language "dead" and promoted the vibrant vernacular in its stead.Hu Shih once said, "A dead language can never produce a living literature."In terms of literary practice,Lu Xun(1881–1936) is usually said to be the first major stylist in the new vernacular prose that Hu Shih and Chen Duxiu were promoting.Another female writer who, in the words of scholar Nicole Huang, "persistently experimented with new literary language" is Eileen Chang.

Though often said to be less successful than their counterparts in fiction writing, poets also experimented with the vernacular in new poetic forms, such as free verse and the sonnet. Given that there was no tradition of writing poetry in the vernacular, these experiments were more radical than those in fiction writing and also less easily accepted by the reading public. Modern poetry flourished especially in the 1930s, in the hands of poets likeZhu Xiang( chu Tương ),Dai Wangshu,Li Jinfa( Lý tóc vàng ),Wen Yiduo,andGe Xiao( cát tiêu ). Other poets, even those among theMay Fourthradicals (e.g.,Yu Dafu), continued to write poetry in classical styles.

May Fourth radicalism, combined with changes in the education system, made possible the emergence of a large group of women writers.While there had beenwomen writersin the late imperial period and the late Qing, they had been few in number. These writers generally tackled domestic issues, such as relations between the sexes, family, friendship and war, Eileen Chang's writing uses the spatial specificities of the modern apartment as essential to the construction of a vision of life in wartime.But they were revolutionary in giving direct expression to female subjectivity.Ding Ling's storyMiss Sophia's Diaryexposes the thoughts and feelings of its female diarist in all their complexity.

In the Republican period, the female literary archetypes of the "New Woman" and the "Modern Girl" developed as a response to the Confucian ideal of "good wives" and "wise mothers."Depictions of these new feminine archetypes often varied significantly between female and male writers. In literature written by women, the Modern Girl represented the struggle women confronted in establishing their voices in a changing China.These Modern Girls were sometimes disillusioned with modernity. Male-authored works often portrayed the Modern Girl as afemme fatalewho rejected chastity in favor of bodily pleasure and consumerism.The "New Woman" frequently emphasized nationalistic themes. Both of these archetypes appeared in literature dealing with debates over birth control andabortion in China.

The 1920s and 1930s saw the emergence of spoken drama. Most outstanding among playwrights of the day areOuyang Yuqian,Hong Shen,Tian Han,andCao Yu.More popular than this Western-style drama, however, was Peking opera, raised to new artistic heights by the likes ofMei Lanfang.

In these decades, mass-appeal fiction which elites deemed culturally insignificant became known as "butterfly fiction," a label largely equivalent to the English phraselow-browfiction.

In the late 1920s and 1930s, literary journals and societies espousing various artistic theories proliferated. Among the major writers of the period wereGuo Moruo(1892–1978), a poet, historian, essayist, and critic;Mao Dun(1896–1981), the first of the novelists to emerge from theLeague of Left-Wing Writersand one whose work reflected the revolutionary struggle and disillusionment of the late 1920s; satirist and novelistLao She(1899–1966); andBa Jin(1904–2005), a novelist whose work was influenced byIvan Turgenevand other Russian writers. In the 1930s Ba Jin produced a trilogy that depicted the struggle of modern youth against the age-old dominance of the Confucian family system. Comparison often is made betweenJia(Family), one of the novels in the trilogy, andDream of the Red Chamber.Many of these writers became important as administrators of artistic and literary policy after 1949. Most of those authors who were still alive during theCultural Revolution(1966–76) were either purged or forced to submit to public humiliation.

The League of Left-Wing Writers founded in 1930 includedLu Xunamong its leadership. By 1932 it had adopted the Soviet doctrine ofsocialist realism;that is, the insistence that art must concentrate on contemporary events in a realistic way, exposing the ills of nonsocialist society and promoting a glorious future undercommunism.

Other styles of literature were at odds with the highly-political literature being promoted by the League. The "New Sensationists"( tân cảm giác phái )—a group of writers based inShanghaiwho were influenced, to varying degrees, by Western and Japanese modernism—wrote fiction that was more concerned with the unconscious and with aesthetics than with politics or social problems. Most important among these writers wereMu Shiying,Liu Na'ou( Lưu nột âu ), andShi Zhecun.Other writers, includingShen CongwenandFei Ming( phế danh ), balked at the utilitarian role for literature by writing lyrical, almost nostalgic, depictions of the countryside.Lin Yutang,who had studied at Harvard and Leipzig, introduced the concept ofyoumo(humor), which he used in trenchant criticism of China's political and cultural situation before leaving for the United States.

Themes of "revolution plus love" became a left-wing literary fashion during the 1930s, although it was also criticized from the left including by Mao Dun.In this narrative formula, the story begins with conflict between the revolutionary mission and romantic love, followed by calls for the protagonists to devote themselves to revolution and set aside their personal feelings, and ultimately results in the couple working together for the revolution in a form of love itself.As described by academicDavid Der-Wei Wang,"[R]evolution plus love functioned both as a literary trope, titillating and sustaining a society's desire for self-reform, and as a political mandate, calling for the redisposition of the social body in both public and personal spheres."

During theSecond Sino-Japanese War,there was a revival of writing classical-style poetry.

TheChinese Communist Partyhad established a base after theLong MarchinYan'an.In 1942,Mao Zedonggave a series of lectures called "Talks at the Yan'an Forum on Art and Literature"that clearly made literature subservient to politics via theYan'an Rectification Movement.The Yan'an Talks articulated the view that socialist literature should not merely reflect existing culture, but should help culturally produce the consciousness of a new society.Mao articulated five independent although related categories of creative consideration for socialist cultural production: (1) class stand, (2) attitude, (3) audience, (4) work style, and (5) popularization/massification.The Yan'an Talks would become the national guideline for culture after the establishment of the People's Republic of China.

Consistent with political goals of mobilizing the masses, literary depictions ofParty cadresbecame important.Literature of the period represented good cadres as those who took the lead on the road to socialism while adopting a theme of antibureaucratism to criticize cadres who sought special privileges.

Maoist Era (1949–76)

After coming to power in 1949, the Communists gradually nationalized the publishing industry, centralized the book distribution system, and brought writers under institutional control through the Writers Union. A system of strict censorship was implemented, with Mao's Yan'an Talks as the guiding force. Periodic literary campaigns targeted figures such asHu Shihand other figures from the New Culture period, especiallyHu Feng,a protege of Lu Xun who, along with his wifeMei Zhi,did not toe the Party line on literature.Socialist realism became the uniform style, and many Soviet works were translated.

The ability to satirize and expose the evils in contemporary society that had made writers useful to theChinese Communist Partybefore its accession to power was no longer welcomed. Party cultural leaders such asZhou Yangused Mao's call to have literature "serve the people" to mount attacks on "petty bourgeoisidealism "and" humanitarianism ". This conflict came to a head in theHundred Flowers Campaign(1956–57). Mao Zedong initially encouraged writers to speak out against problems in the new society. Having learned the lessons of the anti-Hu Feng campaign, they were reluctant, but then a flurry of newspaper articles, films, and literary works drew attention to such problems as bureaucratism and authoritarianism within the ranks of the party. Shocked at the level of discontent, Mao'sAnti-Rightist Movementput large numbers of intellectuals through "thought reform" or sent them to labor camps.

At the time of theGreat Leap Forward(1957–59), the government increased its insistence on the use of socialist realism and combined with it so-called revolutionary realism and revolutionary romanticism.Class strugglewas a frequent narrative structure and political mode of expression in literature of the late 1950s.These narratives depicted class struggle as a way to resolve social conflict, usually through the protagonists uncovering a conspiracy between new and old class enemies.

Despite the literary control and strictures to limit subjects to contemporary China and the glories of the revolution, writers produced widely read novels of energy and commitment. Examples of this new socialist literature includeThe Builder(Chuangye Shi gây dựng sự nghiệp sử ) by Liu Qing liễu thanh,The Song of Youth(Qing Chun Zhi Ge thanh xuân chi ca ) byYang Mo,Tracks in the Snowy Forest(Lin Hai Xue Yuan biển rừng cánh đồng tuyết ) byQu Bo,Keep the Red Flag Flying(Hong Qi Pu hồng kỳ phổ ) by Liang Bin lương bân,The Red Sun(Hong Ri hồng nhật ) by Wu Qiang Ngô cường, andRed Cragby Luo Guangbin la quảng bân and Yang Yiyan ( dương ích ngôn ).

During the 1960s, the Maoist view of class struggle focused on challenging revisionism within society through thesocialist education movement,and, motivated by concerns that Party bureaucrats might become a new bourgeoisie, implementing class struggle within the party itself.Literature of the period reflected both strands of class struggle.

Local government bureaus andwork unitscomposed cultural works such as songs and dramas in an effort to overturn traditional cultural preferences for early marriage, large families, andsons over daughters.Academic Sarah Mellors Rodriguez writes that though these works of birth planning propaganda may seem trite to modern audiences, their themes spoke directly to widespread concerns among Chinese people at the time.

In the first twenty years after the founding of the People's Republic of China, many literary works addressed the close relationship between rural Chinese and the Communist Party.

At the same time, from the 1950s, in Taiwan has flourishedmodernist poetry,includingavant-gardeandsurrealism,led by Qin Zihao (1902–1963) and Ji Xian (b. 1903).

Cultural Revolution

During theCultural Revolution(1966–1976), Mao's wife,Jiang Qingled the campaign against "feudal" and "bourgeois" culture. The only stage productions allowed were her "Eight Model Operas",which combined traditional and western forms, while great fanfare was given to politically orthodox films and heroic novels, such as those byHao Ran( hạo nhiên ).The period has long been regarded as a cultural wasteland, but some now suggest that the leading works have an energy which is still of interest.

The principles for cultural production laid out by Mao in the 1942 Talks at the Yan'an Forum became dogmatized during the Cultural Revolution.

Mao Zedong has also written several poems such as:

• • ChangshaThấm viên xuân · Trường Sa1925
  • Double Ninth FestivalThải tang tử · trùng dương1929
  • Long MarchThơ thất luật · trường chinh1935
  • SnowThấm viên xuân · tuyết1936
  • The People's Liberation Army occupied NanjingThơ thất luật · nhân dân giải phóng quân chiếm lĩnh Nam Kinh1949
  • SwimmingThủy Điệu Ca Đầu · bơi lội1956
  • Ode to the Plum BlossomBặc tính tử vịnh mai1961

Trends of promoting birth planning through art continued after Mao's death.UnderHua Guofeng,a collection of songs, short plays, and skits relating to birth control were published as a volume titledCompilation of Birth Planning Literature and Art Propaganda Materials.

Opening and reform (1978–1989)

The arrest ofJiang Qingand the other members of theGang of Fourin 1976, and especially the reforms initiated at theThird Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committeein December 1978, led writers to take up their pens again. Much of the literature in what would be called the "new era" ( tân thời kỳ ) discussed the serious abuses of power that had taken place at both the national and the local levels during theCultural Revolution.The writers decried the waste of time and talent during that decade and bemoaned abuses that had held China back. This literature, often called "scar literature",or" the literature of the wounded ", discussed the experiences ofsent-down youthwith great though not complete frankness and conveyed disquieting views of the party and the political system. Intensely patriotic, these authors wrote cynically of the political leadership that gave rise to the extreme chaos and disorder of the Cultural Revolution. Many of these themes and attitudes were also found inFifth Generation filmsof directors trained after 1978, many of which were based on published novels and short stories. Some of this fiction and cinema extended the blame to the entire generation of leaders and to the political system itself. The political authorities were faced with a serious problem: how could they encourage writers to criticize and discredit the abuses of the Cultural Revolution without allowing that criticism to go beyond what they considered tolerable limits?

During this period, the number of literary magazines rose sharply, and many from before the Cultural Revolution were revived. Poetry also changed in its form and content. Four "misty poets",Bei Dao,Gu Cheng,Duo DuoandYang Lianexpressed themselves in deliberately obscure verse which reflected subjective realism rather than the realism of the sort promoted during the Cultural Revolution.There was a special interest in foreign works. Recent foreign literature was translated, often without carefully considering its interest for the Chinese reader. Literary magazines specializing in translations of foreign short stories became very popular, especially among the young.

Some leaders in the government, literary and art circles feared change was happening too fast. The first reaction came in 1980 with calls to combat "bourgeois liberalism", a campaign that was repeated in 1981. These two difficult periods were followed by theAnti-Spiritual Pollution Campaignin late 1983.

At the same time, writers remained freer to write in unconventional styles and to treat sensitive subject matter. A spirit of literary experimentation flourished in the second half of the 1980s. Fiction writers such asWang Meng,Zhang Xinxin,andZong Puand dramatists such asGao Xing gianexperimented with modernist language and narrative modes. Another group of writers—collectively said to constitute theXungen movement—includingHan Shaogong,Mo Yan,Ah Cheng,andJia Pingwasought to reconnect literature and culture toChinese traditions,from which a century of modernization and cultural and politicaliconoclasmhad severed them. Other writers such asYu Hua,Ge Fei,andSu Tongexperimented in a more avant-garde mode of writing that was daring in form and language and showed a complete loss of faith in ideals of any sort.

Post-Tiananmen (1989–present)

In the wake of theTiananmen massacre of 1989and with the intensification of market reforms, literature and culture turned increasingly commercial and escapist.Wang Shuo,the so-called "hooligan" writer, is the most obvious manifestation of this commercial shift, though his fiction is not without serious intent.Some writers, such asYan Lianke,continue to take seriously the role of literature in exposing social problems; his novelDreams of Ding Village(Đinh trang mộng) deals with the plight ofHIV-AIDSvictims. As in the May Fourth Movement, women writers came to the fore. Many of them, such asChen Ran,Wei Hui,Wang Anyi,andHong Ying,explore female subjectivity in a radically changing society. Neo-realism is another important current in post-Tiananmen fiction, for instance in the writings ofLiu Heng,Chi Li,Fang Fang,He Dun,andZhu Wen.

According toMartin Woeslertrends in contemporary Chinese literature include: 'cult literature' withGuo Jingming'sCry Me a Sad River(Bi thương nghịch lưu thành hà), vagabond literature withXu Zechen'sRunning Through Beijing(Chạy bộ xuyên qua Trung Quan Thôn)Liu Zhenyun'sThe Pickpockets(Ta kêu Lưu nhảy), underground literature withMian Mian'sPanda Sex(Thanh danh hỗn độn), divided in historicizing literature withYu Dan'sConfucius in Your Heart(《 Luận Ngữ 》 tâm đắc), 'longing for something' literature such asYi Zhongtian,and in Tibetan literature withAlai,literature of the mega cities, women's literature withBi Shumin'sWomen’s Bo xing(Nữ nhi quyền) andThe Female Psychologist(Nữ tâm lý sư), master narratives by narrators likeMo YanwithLife and Death are Wearing Me Out(Sinh tử mệt nhọc).Oblique social criticism is also a popular form, for exampleHan Han's novelHis land(Hắn quốc), which was written in a surreal style opposed to the uncritical mainstream, but ranked 1st in 2009 Chinese bestseller list.Another example is Yan Ge's novelFamily of Joy(Nhà của chúng ta), which was written in Sichuanese and won the Chinese Media Group New Talent Award in 2013.

Chinese language literature also flourishes in the diaspora—inSouth East Asia,theUnited States,andEurope.According to a 2014 report from the International Publishing Association, China is the largest publisher of books, magazines and newspapers in the world by volume.In book publishing alone, some 128,800 new titles of books were published in 2005, according to the General Administration of Press and Publication. There are more than 600 literary journals across the country. Living inFrancebut continuing to write primarily in Chinese,Gao Xing gianbecame the first Chinese writer to receive theNobel Prize for Literaturein 2000. In 2012,Mo Yanalso received the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 2015, children's authorCao Wenxuanwas awarded theHans Christian Andersen Award,the first Chinese author to win the top international children's book prize (although several Chinese authors had previously been nominated).

Selections fromAsia Weekly's 100 greatest Chinese novels of the 20th century

• 
  No. 1:The True Story of Ah Q(Call to Arms) byLu Xun
• 
  No. 3:Rickshaw BoybyLao She
• 
  No. 5:Fortress BesiegedbyQian Zhongshu
• 
  No. 6:ZiyebyMao Dun
• 
  No. 8:FamilybyBa Jin
• 
  No. 9:Tales of Hulan RiverbyXiao Hong
• 
  No. 10:The Travels of Lao CanbyLiu E
• 
  No. 13:Officialdom UnmaskedbyLi Baojia
• 
  No. 16:SinkingbyYu Dafu
• 
  No. 25:Four Generations Under One Roofby Lao She
• 
  No. 27:Fate in Tears and LaughterbyZhang Henshui
• 
  No. 32:A Flower in a Sinful SeabyZeng Pu
• 
  No. 95:Bizarre Happenings Eyewitnessed over Two DecadesbyWu Jianren

Online literature

In the new millennium, online literature in China plays a much more important role than in the United States and the rest of the world.Most books are available online, where the most popular novels find millions of readers. They cost an average of 2 CNY, or roughly a tenth of the average price of a printed book.

Shanda Literature Ltd.is an online publishing company that claims to publish 8,000 Chinese literary works daily.

Book market

Inside Chongwen Book City, a large bookstore inWuhan.

China buys many foreign book rights; nearly 16 million copies of the sixth book of theHarry Potterseries were sold in Chinese translation. AsChina Book Reviewreported, the rights to 9,328 foreign titles – including many children's books – went to China in 2007. China was nominated as aGuest of Honourat theFrankfurt Bookfairin 2009.

The book market in China traditionally orders books during book fairs, because the country lacks a national book ordering system. In 2006, 6.8 million titles were sold, not including an unknown number of banned titles, bootleg copies and underground publishing factories. Seven percent of all publishers are located in Shanghai. Because the industry lacks a national distribution system, many titles from publishers in the provinces can only be found there.

The central publishing houses belonging to ministries or (other) government institutions have their main seat at Beijing (40 percent of all publishers). Most regional publishing houses are situated in the capitals of the provinces. Universities also have associated presses. Private publishing is tolerated. 220,000 books were published in 2005. Among 579 publishers—almost five times more than thirty years ago—225 are supervised by ministries, commissions or the army; 348 are controlled by agencies; and six are even more independent. On the other hand, 100,000 private bookstores bring in the half of the income of the book industry.

China's state-run General Administration of Press and Publication ( tin tức xuất bản tổng thự ) screens all Chinese literature intended to be sold on the open market. The GAPP has the legal authority to screen, censor, and ban any print, electronic, or Internet publication in China. Because all publishers in China are required to be licensed by the GAPP, that agency also has the power to deny people the right to publish, and completely shut down any publisher who fails to follow its dictates.As a result, the ratio of official to unlicensed books is said to be 2:3.According to a report in ZonaEuropa, there are more than 4,000 underground publishing factories around China.The Chinese government continues to hold public book burningson unapproved yet popular "spiritual pollution" literature, though critics claim this spotlight on individual titles only helps fuel book sales.Many new-generation Chinese authors who were targeted by such government action have been subsequently published in English and found success in western literary markets, such asWei Hui'sShanghai Baby,Anchee Min's controversial memoirRed Azalea,Timemagazine banned-book covergirl Chun Sue'sBeijing Doll,andMian Mian'sCandy.Online bestsellerGhost Blows Out the Lighthad to be rewritten to remove references to the supernatural before it could be released in print.

Impact of translation on modern and contemporary Chinese writers

Translated literature has long played an important role in modern China. Some writers, such asLu Xun,Yu Dafu,Ba Jinand others were literary translators themselves, and many present day writers in China, such as the Nobel laureateMo Yan,listed translated works as sources of enlightenment and inspiration.

History books about Chinese literature

The first two known history books about Chinese literature were published by Japanese authors in the Japanese language.Kojō Tandōwrote the 700 pageShina bungakushi( chi kia văn học sử; "History of Chinese Literature" ), published in 1897.Sasakawa Rinpūwrote the second ever such book in 1898, also calledShina bungakushi.

The first such book in English wasA History of Chinese Literature,byHerbert Giles,published in 1901. 1904'sZhongguo wenxue shibyLin Chuanjiawas the first such history in Chinese.Lin Quanjia was inspired by a 1903 translation of Sasakawa's book.

The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature,edited byKang-i Sun ChangandStephen Owen,is a fundamental contemporary 2-volumes set work published in 2010 by theCambridge University Press.

Studies in history of the modern Chinese literature from the 17th century to 21st century were published in 2017 by theHarvard University Pressas a fourth volume of new literary history series. The bookA New Literary History of Modern China,edited byDavid Der-wei Wang,contains many scholarly essays and articles in time-line order.

Contemporary Chinese literature in translation

Chinese literature is increasingly available in translation- there are now several well-established websites sharing information, for example,Paper Republic,Writing Chinese,Chinese Short Stories,My Chinese Books,Chinese Books for Young Readers.

In 2005, the Chinese government started a sponsoring program for translations of government-approved Chinese works, which has already resulted in more than 200 books being translated from Chinese into other languages.

Selected modern Chinese writers

• Ba Jin( ba kim ) (1904–2005)
• Bei Dao( bắc đảo ) (1949—)
• Bing Xin( băng tâm ) (1900–1999)
• Can Xue( tuyết đọng ) (1953–)
• Cao Wenxuan( tào văn hiên ) (1955-)
• Cao Yu( tào ngu ) (1910–1996)
• Eileen Chang( Trương Ái Linh ) (1920–1995)
• Chen Zhongshi( trần trung thực ) (1942–2016)
• Chiung Yao( Quỳnh Dao ) (1938—)
• Cong Weixi( từ duy hi ) (1933–2019)
• Feng Zikai( phong tử khải ) (1898–1975)
• Gao Xing gian( cao hành kiện ) (1940–)
• Guo Moruo( Quách Mạt Nhược ) (1892–1978)
• He Qifang( dữ dội phương ) (1912–1977)
• Hu Shih( hồ thích ) (1891–1962)
• Jia Pingwa( giả bình lõm ) (1952—)
• Jidi Majia( cát địch mã thêm ) (1961–)
• Jin Yong( Kim Dung ) (1924–2018) (Pen name of Louis Cha Leung-yung)
• Lao She( lão xá ) (1897–1966)
• Liang Qichao( Lương Khải Siêu ) (1873–1929)
• Liang Shiqiu( lương thật thu ) (1903–1987)
• Lin Haiyin( biển rừng âm ) (1918–2001)
• Lin Yutang( lâm ngữ đường ) (1895–1976)
• Liu Cixin( Lưu Từ Hân ) (1963—)
• Liu E( Lưu ngạc ) (1857–1909)
• Lu Xun( Lỗ Tấn ) (1881–1936)
• Ma Jian( mã kiến ) (1953—)
• Mao Dun( mao thuẫn ) (1896–1981)
• Mo Yan( không nói ) (1955—)
• Qian Zhongshu( tiền chung thư ) (1910–1988)
• Qiu Miaojin( khâu diệu tân ) (1969–1995)
• Qu Bo (writer)( khúc sóng ) (1922–2002)
• Sanmao (author)( tam mao ) (1943–1991)
• Shen Congwen( Thẩm từ văn ) (1902–1988)
• Shi Tiesheng( sử thiết sinh ) (1951–2010)
• Su Manshu( tô mạn thù ) (1894–1918)
• Su Tong( tô đồng ) (1963—)
• Tian Han( điền hán ) (1898–1968)
• Tie Ning( thiết ngưng ) (1957—)
• Wang Guowei( vương quốc duy ) (1877–1927)
• Wang Tao( vương thao ) (1828–1897)
• Wang Xiaobo( vương tiểu sóng ) (1952–1997)
• Wang Zengqi( uông từng kỳ ) (1920–1997)
• Wen Yiduo( nghe một nhiều ) (1899–1946)
• Xiao Hong( tiêu hồng ) (1911–1942)
• Xu Dishan( hứa mà sơn ) (1893–1941)
• Xu Zhimo( Từ Chí Ma ) (1896–1936)
• Yan Fu( nghiêm phục ) (1853–1924)
• Yan Lianke( diêm liền khoa ) (1958–)
• Yang Mu( dương mục ) (1940–2020)
• Ye Shengtao( diệp thánh đào ) (1894–1988)
• Yu Dafu( úc đạt phu ) (1896–1945)
• Yu Hua( dư hoa ) (1960-)
• Zhang Xianliang( trương hiền lượng ) (1936–2014)
• Zhang Xinxin( trương tân hân ) (1953-)
• Zhang Zao( trương táo ) (1962–2010)
• Zhu Ziqing( chu tự thanh ) (1898–1948)

Writers of Chinese heritage who write in other languages

Chinese writers writing in English:
See alsoList of Asian-American writers,Chinese American literature

• Ha Jin( ha kim ) (1956—)
• Chiang Yee(1903–1977)
• Amy Tan( đàm ân mỹ ) (1952–)
• Yiyun Li(1972-)
• Qiu Xiaolong(1953-)
• Tao Lin(1983–)
• Xiaolu Guo(1973-)

Chinese writers writing in French:

• Chen Jitong( trần quý cùng ) (1852–1907)
• François Cheng( trình ôm một ) (1929—)
• Dai Sijie( mang tư kiệt ) (1954—)
• Shan Sa( sơn táp ) (1972—)

See also

• Censorship in the People's Republic of China
• Chen prophecy
• Chinese classic texts
• Chinese culture
• Chinese dictionary
• Chinese encyclopedias
• Chinese language
• Chinese mythology
• Classical Chinese poetry
• Dream Pool Essays
• Huainanzi
• List of Chinese authors
• List of Chinese quotations
• List of Hong Kong poets
• List of poems in Chinese or by Chinese poets
• Literature of Hong Kong
• Society and culture of the Han dynasty
• Taiwanese literature
• Tea classics
• Women in Chinese literature
• List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language

References

Sources

These are general works. For those on specific topics, please see the particular article.

• Bary, Wm. Theodore de; Lufrano, Richard, compl. (2000) [1995].Sources of Chinese Tradition: From 1600 through the Twentieth Century.Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-11271-8.{{cite encyclopedia}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Cai, Zong-qi, ed. (2008).How to Read Chinese Poetry: A Guided Anthology.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-13941-1
• Chang, Kang-i Sun;Owen, Stephen,eds. (2010).The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature,2 vol. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-11677-0
• Chaves, Jonathan, ed. (1986).The Columbia Book of Later Chinese Poetry: Yüan, Ming, and Ch'ing Dynasties (1279–1911).New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-06149-8
• Chen, Xiaomei (2014).The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Drama.Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-16502-0.
• Cheng, François (1982).Chinese Poetic Writing.Trans. Donald A. Riggs and Jerome P. Seaton. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.ISBN0-253-20284-1
• Cui, Jie and Zong-qi Cai (2012).How to Read Chinese Poetry Workbook.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-15658-8
• Idema Wilt L.,and Lloyd Haft, eds (1997).A Guide to Chinese Literature.Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies.ISBN0892640995.Bibliographical and background essays.
• Knight, Sabina (2012).Chinese Literature: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, Very Short Introductions Series.ISBN9780195392067.
• Lévy, André (2000).Chinese Literature, Ancient and Classical.Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Translated by William H. Nienhauser. xi, 168p.ISBN0253336562.
• Lin, Shuen-fu and Stephen Owen (1986).The Vitality of the Lyric Voice.Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.ISBN0-691-03134-7
• Liu, James J.Y. (1962).The Art of Chinese Poetry.Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.ISBN0-226-48687-7
• Mair, Victor H.(2001).The Columbia History of Chinese Literature.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0231109849.
• Mair, Victor H.(1994).The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature.New York: Columbia University Press, Translation from the Asian Classics, 1994.ISBN023107428X.
• Mair, Victor H., Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt and Paul Rakita Goldin, eds.Hawai'i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture.(Honolulu:University of Hawai'i Press,2005).ISBN0824827856.
• Nienhauser, William H. Jr. (1986 and 1998).The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature.2v. Bloomington:Indiana University Press.ISBN0-253-32983-3,0-253-33456-X.
• Nienhauser, William H., ed. (1986).The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature.Indiana University Press.ISBN0253329833.
• Wang, David Der-wei,ed. (2017).A New Literary History of Modern China.Harvard, Ma: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-97887-4.
• Watson, Burton(1971).Chinese Lyricism: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-03464-4
• Watson, Burton, ed. (1984).The Columbia Book of Chinese Poetry: From Early Times to the Thirteenth Century.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN0-231-05683-4

Further reading

• Doleželová-Velingerová, Milena;et al., eds. (1988–1990).A Selective Guide to Chinese Literature, 1900–1949.Vol. 1–4. Leiden: E. J. Brill.Vol. 1:The Novel|Vol. 2:The Short Story|Vol. 3:The Poem|Vol. 4:The Drama

External links

• Paper Republic – Chinese Literature in Translation– useful site, and produces annual list of translations into English (2015,2014,2013,2012)
• MCLC Resource Center—Literature– bibliography of scholarly studies and translations of modern Chinese literature
• Modern Chinese Literature and Culture– scholarly journal
• Chinese Text Sampler– Annotated collection of classical and modern Chinese literary texts
• Chinese Text Project– Early classical texts with English and modern Chinese translations
• http:// china-on-site /comicindex.php–manhuaretellings of old Chinese legends
• Renditions– English translations of modern and classical Chinese literature
• China the Beautiful – Chinese Art and Literature– Early classical texts
• Chinese Text Sampler: Readings in Chinese Literature, History, and Popular Culture– Annotated Collection of Digitized Chinese Texts for Students of Chinese Language and Culture
• The Columbia University Pressweb page accompanying Cai 2008has PDF and MP3 files for more than 75 poems and CUP'sweb page accompanying Cui 2012includes MP3 files of modern Chinese translations for dozens of these