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Sébastien Le Prestre, Marquis of Vauban

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"Vauban" redirects here. For other uses, seeVauban (disambiguation).

Sébastien Le Prestre,seigneurde Vauban,later styling himself as themarquisde Vauban(baptised 15 May 1633 – 30 March 1707),[1]commonly referred to asVauban(French:[vobɑ̃]), was a Frenchmilitary engineerandMarshal of Francewho worked underLouis XIV.He is generally considered the greatest engineer of his time, and one of the most important in European military history.

Marshal

Sébastien Le Prestre

Marquis of Vauban
Maréchal Vauban,byHyacinthe Rigaud,17th century
Born15 May 1633
Saint-Léger-de-Fourcheret,Burgundy,Kingdom of France
Died30 March 1707(1707-03-30)(aged 73)
Paris,Kingdom of France
Buried
Bazoches,later reburied inLes Invalides
AllegianceFrance
Service/branch
Years of service1651–1703
RankMaréchal de France,1703
CommandsCommissaire général des fortifications(Commissioner General of Fortifications) (1678–1703)
Battles/wars
Awards
Signature

His principles for fortifications were widely used for nearly 100 years, while aspects of his offensive tactics remained in use until the mid-twentieth century. He viewed civilian infrastructure as closely connected to military effectiveness and worked on many of France's major ports, as well as projects like theCanal de la Bruche,which remains in use today. He founded theCorps royal des ingénieurs militaires,whose curriculum was based on his publications on engineering design, strategy and training.

His economic tract,La Dîme royale,used statistics in support of his arguments, making it a precursor of modern economics. Later destroyed byroyal decree,it contained radical proposals for a more even distribution of the tax burden. His application of rational and scientific methods to problem-solving, whether engineering or social, anticipated an approach common in theAge of Enlightenment.

Perhaps the most enduring aspect of Vauban's legacy was his view of France as a geographical entity. His advocacy of giving up territory for a more coherent and defensible border was unusual for the period; the boundaries of the French state he proposed in the north and east have changed very little in the three centuries since.[2]

Early life and education

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Château de Bazoches,acquired by Jacques Le Prestre in 1570, purchased by Vauban in 1675

Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban was born in May 1633, in Saint-Léger-de-Foucheret, renamedSaint-Léger-VaubanbyNapoleon IIIin 1867, in theYonne,now part ofBourgogne-Franche-Comté.His parents, Urbain Le Prestre (c.1602–1652) and Edmée de Cormignolle (died c. 1651), were members of the minor nobility, from Vauban inBazoches.[1]

In 1570, his grandfather Jacques Le Prestre acquiredChâteau de Bazoches,when he married Françoise de la Perrière, an illegitimate daughter of the Comte de Bazoches, who diedintestate.The 30-year legal battle by the Le Prestre family to retain the property proved financially ruinous, forcing Urbain to become a forestry worker. He also designed gardens for the local gentry, including the owners of the Château de Ruère, where Vauban spent his early years.[3]

His only sister, Charlotte (1638–1645?), died young, but he had many relatives; his cousin, Paul le Prestre (c. 1630 – 1703), was an army officer who supervised construction ofLes Invalides.[4]Three of Paul's sons served in the army, two of whom were killed in action in 1676 and 1677. The third, Antoine (1654–1731), became Vauban's assistant and later alieutenant-general;in 1710, he was appointed Governor ofBéthunefor life, while he inherited Vauban's titles and the bulk of his lands.[5]

Vauban's family was impacted by the domestic conflict and foreign wars, including theHuguenot rebellionsof the 1620s, the1635–1659 Franco-Spanish War,and 1648 to 1653Fronde;his Catholic grandfather married a Protestant fromLa Rochelle,and served Huguenot leaderAdmiral Coligny,while two of his uncles died in the war with Spain.[6]

Career

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Louis XIVatMaastricht, 1673;sieges conducted by Vauban provided him an easy way to win military prestige.

In 1643, at the age of ten, Vauban was sent to theCarmelitecollege inSemur-en-Auxois,where he was taught the basics of mathematics, science and geometry. His father's work was also relevant; the design of neo-classical gardens and fortifications were closely linked, since they both concerned managing space.[7]It was common to combine these skills;John Armstrong(1674–1742),Marlborough's chief military engineer, laid out the lake and gardens atBlenheim Palace.[8]

In 1650, Vauban joined the household of his local magnate, thePrince de Condé,where he metde Montal;a close neighbour fromNièvre,the two were colleagues for many years, and often worked together.[9]During the 1650–1653Fronde des nobles,Condé was arrested by the Regency Council, led byLouis XIV's motherAnne of AustriaandCardinal Mazarin.After being released in 1652, he and his supporters, among them Vauban and de Montal, went into exile in theSpanish Netherlandsand allied with the Spanish.[10]

In early 1653, when Vauban worked on the defences ofSainte-Menehould,one of Condé's principal possessions,[11]he was captured by a Royalist patrol and switched sides, serving in the force led byLouis Nicolas de Clervillethat took Sainte-Menehould in November 1653. Clerville, later appointedCommissaire général des fortifications,employed him on siege operations and building fortifications. In 1655, Vauban was appointedIngénieur du Roior Royal Engineer, and by the time the war with Spain ended in 1659, he was known as a talented engineer of energy and courage.[12]

Vauban'sPré carréor 'duelling zone' on France's northern border, defended by a line of fortresses known as theCeinture de fer(marked in red and green)

Under the terms of theTreaty of the Pyrenees,Spain ceded much ofFrench Flanders,and Vauban was put in charge of fortifying newly acquired towns such asDunkirk.This pattern of French territorial gains, followed by fortification of new strongpoints, was followed in the 1667–1668War of Devolution,1672–1678Franco-Dutch Warand 1683–1684War of the Reunions.

The first fortification Vauban designed was the 1673siege of Maastricht,although he was subordinate to Louis, who ranked as the senior officer present, and thus took credit for its capture.[13]Vauban was rewarded with a large sum of money, which he used to purchase the Château de Bazouches from his cousin in 1675.[14]

Post-1673, French strategy inFlanderswas based on a memorandum from Vauban toLouvois,Minister of War, setting out a proposed line of fortresses known as theCeinture de fer,oriron belt(see Map). He was madeMaréchal de campin 1676, and succeeded Clerville asCommissaire general des fortificationsin 1677.[15]

During the Nine Years' War, he supervised thecapture of Namurin 1692, the major French achievement of the war, while the 1697siege of Athis often considered his offensive masterpiece.[16]He was rewarded with money, and made Comte de Vauban, a member of theOrder of the Holy SpiritandOrder of Saint Louis,and an Honorary Member of theFrench Academy of Sciences.[17]

The numbers needed to conduct a siege, and prevent interference from opponents meant armies of the Nine Years' War often exceeded 100,000 men, sizes unsustainable for pre-industrial societies.[18]It prompted a change in tactics, Marlborough arguing winning one battle was more beneficial than taking 12 fortresses.[19]The armies of theWar of the Spanish Successionaveraged around 35,000, and siege warfare superseded by a greater emphasis on mobility.[20]

Vauban, painted near the end of his life in 1703

In 1703, Vauban was promotedMaréchal de France,marking the end of his military career, although theCeinture de ferproved its worth after the French defeat atRamilliesin 1706. Under pressure from superior forces on multiple fronts, France's northern border remained largely intact despite repeated efforts to break it.Capturing Lillecost the Allies 12,000 casualties and most of the 1708 campaigning season; the lack of progress between 1706 and 1712 enabled Louis to reach an acceptable deal atUtrechtin 1713, as opposed to the humiliating terms presented in 1707.[21]

With more leisure time, Vauban developed a broader view of his role. His fortifications were designed for mutual support, so they required connecting roads, bridges and canals; garrisons needed to be fed, so he prepared maps showing the location of forges, forests and farms. Since these had to be paid for, he developed an interest in tax policy, and in 1707 publishedLa Dîme royale,documenting the economic misery of the lower classes. His solution was a flat 10% tax on all agricultural and industrial output, and eliminating the exemptions which meant most of the nobility and clergy paid nothing. Although confiscated and destroyed by royal decree, the use of statistics to support his arguments "... establishes him as a founder of modern economics, and precursor of theEnlightenment's socially concerned intellectuals. "[22][citation needed]

In the course of his career, Vauban supervised or designed the building of more than 300 separate fortifications,[a]and by his own estimate, supervised more than 40 sieges from 1653 to 1697.[23]

Personal life and death

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Vauban's mausoleum inLes Invalides

In 1660, Vauban married Jeanne d'Aunay d'Epiry (ca 1640–1705); they had two daughters, Charlotte (1661–1709) and Jeanne Françoise (1678–1713), as well as a short-lived infant son.[24]He also had a long-term relationship with Marie-Antoinette de Puy-Montbrun, daughter of an exiledHuguenotofficer, usually referred to as 'Mademoiselle de Villefranche.'[25]

Vauban died in Paris on 30 March 1707; buried near his home inBazoches,his grave was destroyed during theFrench Revolution.In 1808,Napoleon Iordered his heart reburied inLes Invalides,resting place for many of France's most famous soldiers.[26]

Doctrines and legacy

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Offensive doctrines; siege warfare

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The 'siege parallel'; three parallel trenches, linked by communication lines. The first trench is out of range of the defenders and can withstand an assault from the rear, the third brings the assault troops to the foot of theglacis;redoubts protect the ends of each.

While his modern fame rests on the fortifications he built, Vauban's greatest innovations were in offensive operations, an approach he summarised as 'More powder, less blood.' Initially reliant on existing concepts, he later adapted these on lines set out in his memorandum of March 1672,Mémoire pour servir à l'instruction dans la conduite des sièges.[27]

In this period, sieges became the dominant form of warfare; during the 1672–1678Franco-Dutch War,three battles were fought in theSpanish Netherlands,of which onlySeneffewas unrelated to a siege. Their importance was heightened by Louis XIV, who viewed them as low-risk opportunities for demonstrating his military skill and increasing his prestige; he was present at 20 of those conducted by Vauban.[28]

The 'siege parallel' had been in development since the mid-16th century but Vauban brought the idea to practical fulfilment atMaastrichtin 1673.[29]Three parallel trenches were dug in front of the walls, the earth thus excavated being used to create embankments screening the attackers from defensive fire, while bringing them as close to the assault point as possible (see diagram). Artillery was moved into the trenches, allowing them to target the base of the walls at close range, with the defenders unable to depress their own guns enough to counter this; once a breach had been made, it was then stormed. This approach was used in offensive operations well into the 20th century.[30]

However, Vauban adapted his approach to the situation, and did not use the siege parallel again untilValenciennesin 1677. Always willing to challenge accepted norms, at Valenciennes, he proposed assaulting the breach during the day, rather than at night as was normal practice. He argued this would reduce casualties by surprising the defenders, and allow better co-ordination among the assault force; he was supported by Louis, and the attack proved successful.[31]

Vauban made several innovations in the use of siege artillery, includingricochet firing,and concentrating on specific parts of the fortifications, rather than targeting multiple targets. His Dutch rivalMenno van Coehoornemployed a similar approach. While the 'Van Coehoorn method' sought to overwhelm defences with massive firepower, such as the Grand Battery of 200 guns at Namur in 1695, Vauban preferred a more gradual approach.[32]Both had their supporters; Vauban argued his was less costly in terms of casualties, but it took more time, an important consideration in an age when far more soldiers died from disease than in combat.[33]

Defensive doctrines; fortifications

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Neuf-Brisach,the final fortress designed by Vauban; note how the houses support and reinforce the outer defensive walls
See also:Fortifications of Vauban UNESCO World Heritage Sites

It was accepted even the strongest fortifications would fall, given time; the process was so well understood by the 1690s, betting on the length of a siege became a popular craze.[34]As few states could afford large standing armies, defenders needed time to mobilise; to provide this, fortresses were designed to absorb the attackers' energies, similar to the use ofcrumple zonesin modern cars.[35]The French defence ofNamur in 1695showed "how one could effectively win a campaign, by losing a fortress, but exhausting the besiegers."[36]

As with the siege parallel, the strength of Vauban's defensive designs was his ability to synthesise and adapt the work of others to create a more powerful whole. His first works used the 'star-shape' orbastion fortdesign, also known as thetrace Italienne,based on the designs of Antoine de Ville (1596–1656) andBlaise Pagan(1603–1665).[37]His subsequent 'systems' strengthened their internal works with the addition of casemated shoulders and flanks.[28]

The principles of Vauban's 'second system' were set out in the 1683 workLe Directeur-Général des fortifications,and used atLandauand Mont-Royal, nearTraben-Trarbach;both were advanced positions, intended as stepping-off points for French offensives into theRhineland.[38]Located 200 metres (660 ft) above theMoselle,Mont-Royal had main walls 30 metres (98 ft) high, 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long and space for 12,000 troops; this enormously expensive work was demolished when the French withdrew after the 1697Treaty of Ryswick,and only the foundations remain today.[39]Fort-Louiswas another new construction, built on an island in the middle of theRhine;this allowed Vauban to combine his defensive principles with town planning, although like Mont-Royal, little of it remains.[40]

The French retreat from the Rhine after 1697 required new fortresses;Neuf-Brisachwas the most significant, designed on Vauban's 'third system', and completed after his death byLouis de Cormontaigne.Using ideas from Fort-Louis, this incorporated a regular square grid street pattern inside an octagonal fortification; tenement blocks were built inside each curtain wall, strengthening the defensive walls and shielding more expensive houses from cannon fire.[41]

To create a more coherent border, Vauban advocated destroying poor fortifications, and relinquishing territory that was hard to defend. In December 1672, he wrote toLouvois:"I am not for the greater number of places, we already have too many, and please God we had half of that, but all in good condition!"[42]

Many of the fortifications designed by Vauban are still standing; in 2008,twelve groups of Vauban fortificationswere inscribed on theUNESCOWorld Heritage Listfor their exceptional engineering and influence on military fortifications from the 17th through the 20th centuries.[43]

Infrastructure and engineering

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Canal de la Bruche– one of Vauban's many civilian infrastructure projects

While often overlooked, Vauban worked on many civilian infrastructure projects, including rebuilding the ports ofBrest,DunkerqueandToulon.Since his fortifications were designed for mutual support, roads and waterways were an essential part of their design, such as theCanal de la Bruche,a 20-kilometre (12 mi) canal built in 1682 to transport materials for the fortification ofStrasbourg.[7]As early as 1684, Vauban published design tables for retaining walls with heights between 3 and 25 metres. Three years later, Vauban, in his role as newly appointed Commissary General of all French fortifications, sent his engineers in the Corps du Génie Militaire his Profil général pour les murs de soutènement in which he presented his retaining wall profiles that were later adopted by engineering offers such as Bélidor (1729), Poncelet (1840) and Wheeler (1870). He also provided advice on the repair and enlargement of theCanal du Midiin 1686.[44]

His holistic approach to urban planning, which integrated city defences with layout and infrastructure, is most obvious at Neuf-Brisach. His legacy is recognised in theVauban district in Freiburg,named after a French army base on the same location, which developed as a model for sustainable neighbourhoods post-1998.[45]

Vauban's 'scientific approach' and focus on large infrastructure projects strongly influenced American military and civil engineering and inspired the creation of theUS Corps of Engineersin 1824.[46]Until 1866, West Point's curriculum was modelled on that of the FrenchEcole Polytechniqueand designed to produce officers with skills in engineering and mathematics.[47]

To ensure a steady supply of skilled engineers, in 1690 Vauban established theCorps royal des ingénieurs militaires;until his death, candidates had to pass an examination administered by Vauban himself. Young French Huguenots made up a disproportionately high number of successful engineers due to the social and educational characteristics of French Protestantism. After the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, a significant number of these engineers joined the English and Dutch armies to fight in Ireland, Flanders and Spain.[48]Many of his publications, includingTraité de l'attaque des placesandTraité des mines,were written at the end of his career to provide a training curriculum for his successors.[49]

Assessment

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Việt Minhtroops atDien Bien Phu,1954, in one of Vauban's parallel trenches

Vauban's offensive tactics remained relevant for centuries; his principles were clearly identifiable in those used by theViệt MinhatDien Bien Phuin 1954.[50]His defensive fortifications dated far more quickly, partly due to the enormous investment required; Vauban himself estimated that in 1678, 1694 and 1705, between 40 and 45% of the French army was assigned to garrison duty.[51]

Vauban's reputation meant his designs remained in use long after developments in artillery made them obsolete, for example the Dutch fort ofBourtange,built in 1742. TheCorps des ingénieurs militaireswas based on his teachings; between 1699 and 1743, only 631 new candidates were accepted, the vast majority relatives of existing or former members.[52]As a result, French military engineering became ultra-conservative, while many 'new' works used his designs, or professed to do so, such as those built by Louis de Cortmontaigne atMetzin 1728–1733. This persisted into the late 19th century;Fort de Queuleu,built in 1867 near Metz, is recognisably a Vauban-style design.[53]

Some French engineers continued to be innovators, notably theMarquis de Montalembert,who publishedLa Fortification perpendiculairein 1776. A rejection of the principles advocated by Vauban and his successors; his ideas became the prevailing orthodoxy in much of Europe but were dismissed in France.[54]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^IncludingAntibes(Fort Carré),Arras,Auxonne,Barraux,Bayonne,Belfort,Bergues,Citadel of Besançon,Bitche,Blaye,Briançon,Bouillon,Calais,Cambrai,Colmars-les-Alpes,Collioure,Douai,Entrevaux,Givet,Gravelines,Hendaye,Huningue,Joux,Kehl,Landau,Le Palais(Belle-Île),La Rochelle,Le Quesnoy,Lille,Lusignan,Le Perthus(Fort de Bellegarde),Luxembourg City,Maastricht,Maubeuge,Metz,Mont-Dauphin,Mont-Louis,Montmédy,Namur,Neuf-Brisach,Perpignan,Plouezoc'h(in French)(Château du Taureau)(in French),Rocroi,Saarlouis,Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port,Saint-Omer,Sedan,Strasbourg,Toul,Valenciennes,Verdun,Villefranche-de-Conflent(town andFort Liberia), andYpres.He directed the building of 37 new fortresses, and fortified military harbours, includingAmbleteuse,Brest,Dunkerque,Freiburg im Breisgau,Lille (Citadel of Lille),Rochefort,Saint-Jean-de-Luz(Fort Socoa),Saint-Martin-de-Ré,Toulon,Wimereux,Le Portel,andCézembre[23]

References

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  1. ^abVauban 1633-1707.
  2. ^Langins 2004,p. 11.
  3. ^Pujo 1991,p. 112.
  4. ^Lepage 2009,p. 17.
  5. ^Desvoyes 1872,p. 13.
  6. ^Pujo 1991,p. 152.
  7. ^abWolfe 2009,p. 151.
  8. ^Latcham 2004.
  9. ^Moreri 1749,p. 690.
  10. ^Tucker 2009,p. 654.
  11. ^Duffy 1995,p. 136.
  12. ^Lepage 2009,p. 9.
  13. ^Lepage 2009,p. 57.
  14. ^"Château de Bazoches".Chemins de Mémoires.Retrieved5 January2019.
  15. ^Wolfe 2009,p. 149.
  16. ^Ostwald 2006,p. 47.
  17. ^Leridon 2004,p. 85.
  18. ^Childs 1991,p. 2.
  19. ^Van Hoof 2004,p. 83.
  20. ^Lynn 1999,p. 309.
  21. ^Kamen 2001,pp. 70–72.
  22. ^France, Dejean 2005.
  23. ^abLepage 2009,pp. 57–58.
  24. ^Desvoyes 1872,pp. 11–12.
  25. ^"F Marie-Antoinette du PUY-MONTBRUN la Belle Mademoiselle de Villefranche".Geneanet.Retrieved14 January2019.
  26. ^"Dome des Invalides".Musée de l'Armée Invalides.Retrieved6 January2019.
  27. ^Lepage 2009,p. 43.
  28. ^abHolmes 2011.
  29. ^Duffy 1995,p. 10.
  30. ^Vesilind 2010,p. 23.
  31. ^De Périni 1896,p. 186.
  32. ^Ostwald 2006,pp. 285–286.
  33. ^Afflerbach & Strachan 2012,pp. 159–160.
  34. ^Manning 2006,pp. 413–414.
  35. ^Afflerbach & Strachan 2012,p. 159.
  36. ^Lynn 1999,pp. 248–249.
  37. ^Lepage 2009,pp. 69–72.
  38. ^Duffy 1995,p. 20.
  39. ^"Fortress Mont Royal".Traben-Tarbach Tourist Information.Retrieved3 January2019.
  40. ^"Fort Louis".The Fortifications of Vauban.Retrieved11 January2019.
  41. ^Dobroslav 1992,p. 221.
  42. ^Lepage 2009,p. 142.
  43. ^"Fortifications of Vauban".UNESCO World Heritage Centre.United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.Retrieved14 November2021.
  44. ^Allende 1805,pp. 688–691.
  45. ^Schiller 2010,Box 10.7.
  46. ^Klosky & Klosky 2013,pp. 69–87.
  47. ^Baldwin.
  48. ^Mousnier 1979,pp. 577–578].
  49. ^Ostwald 2006,pp. 123–124.
  50. ^Lepage 2009,p. 56.
  51. ^Lynn 1997,p. 62.
  52. ^Mousnier 1979,pp. 577–578.
  53. ^Lepage 2009,pp. 283–284.
  54. ^Delon & Picon 2001,pp. 540–451.

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Bibliography

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  • Halévy, Daniel (1924).Vauban. Builder of Fortresses.Geoffrey Bles.
  • Hebbert, F.J. (1990).Soldier of France: Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban, 1633–1707.P. Lang.ISBN978-0-8204-0890-3.
  • Satterfield, George (2003).Princes, Posts and Partisans: The Army of Louis XIV and Partisan Warfare in the Netherlands (1673-1678).Brill.ISBN978-9004131767.
French nobility
Preceded by
first creation
 Comte de Vauban
1693–1707 		Succeeded by
Antoine le Prestre 1707-1754
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