Peru,[e]officially theRepublic of Peru,[f]is a country in westernSouth America.It is bordered in the north byEcuadorandColombia,in the east byBrazil,in the southeast byBolivia,in the south byChile,and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is amegadiverse countrywith habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west to the peaks of theAndesmountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country to the tropicalAmazon basinrainforest in the east with theAmazon River.[11]Peru has apopulationof over 32 million, and its capital and largest city isLima.At 1,285,216 km2(496,225 sq mi), Peru is the19th largest country in the world,and thethird largest in South America.
Republic of Peru | |
|---|---|
| Motto:"Firme y feliz por la unión"(Spanish) "Firm and Happy for the Union" | |
| Anthem:"Himno Nacional del Perú"(Spanish) "National Anthem of Peru" | |
National seal Great Seal of the State | |
 Location of Peru (dark green) | |
| Capital and largest city | Lima 12°2.6′S77°1.7′W/ 12.0433°S 77.0283°W |
| Official languages | Spanish |
| Co-official languages[b] | |
| Ethnic groups (2017)[c] |
|
| Religion |
|
| Demonym(s) | Peruvian |
| Government | Unitarysemi-presidential republic[2][3] |
| Dina Boluarte | |
| Vacant | |
| Gustavo Adrianzén | |
| Alejandro Soto Reyes | |
| Legislature | Congress of the Republic |
| Independence fromSpain | |
| 28 July 1821 | |
| 9 December 1824 | |
• Recognized | 14 August 1879 |
| Area | |
• Total | 1,285,216[4][5]km2(496,225 sq mi) (19th) |
• Water (%) | 0.41 |
| Population | |
• 2023 estimate | 34,352,720[6](43rd) |
• Density | 23/km2(59.6/sq mi) (197th) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $566.582 billion[7](45th) |
• Per capita | $16,631[7](97th) |
| GDP(nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $282.458 billion[7](49th) |
• Per capita | $8,291[7](86th) |
| Gini(2021) |  40.2[8]medium inequality |
| HDI(2022) | 0.762[9] high(87th) |
| Currency | Peruvian sol(PEN) |
| Time zone | UTC−5(PET) |
| Date format | dd/mm/yyyy (CE) |
| Drives on | right |
| Calling code | +51 |
| ISO 3166 code | PE |
| Internet TLD | .pe |
Peruvian territorywas home toseveral culturesduring the ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE. Notable pre-colonial cultures and civilizations include theCaral–Supe civilization(the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of thecradles of civilization), theNazca culture,theWariandTiwanakuempires, theKingdom of Cusco,and theInca Empire,the largest known state in thepre-ColumbianAmericas. TheSpanish Empireconquered the region in the 16th century andCharles Vestablished a viceroyaltywith the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital inLima.[12]Higher education started in the Americas with the official establishment of theNational University of San Marcosin Lima in 1551.
Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, and following the military campaigns ofBernardo O'Higgins,José de San Martín,andSimón Bolívar,as well as the decisivebattle of Ayacucho,itcompleted its independence in 1824.In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until a period of relativeeconomic and political stabilitybegan due to the exploitation ofguanothat ended with theWar of the Pacific(1879–1884). Throughout the 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including theinternal conflictbetween the state and guerrilla groups, interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation ofPlan Verde[13][14]shifted Peru towardsneoliberal economicsunder the authoritarian rule ofAlberto FujimoriandVladimiro Montesinosin the 1990s, with the former's political ideology ofFujimorismleaving a lasting imprint on the country's governance that continues to present day.[15][16]The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction, but the subsequent decade revealed long-existingsociopolitical vulnerabilities,exacerbated by apolitical crisisinstigated byCongressand theCOVID-19 pandemic,precipitating the period ofunrest beginning in 2022.[17]
Thesovereign stateof Peru is arepresentative democraticrepublic divided into25 regions.Its main economic activities includemining,manufacturing,agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such astelecommunicationsandbiotechnology.[18]The country forms part ofThe Pacific Pumas,a political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high insocial freedom;[19]it is an active member of theAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,thePacific Alliance,theComprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnershipand theWorld Trade Organization;and is considered as amiddle power.[20]
Peru's population includesMestizos,Amerindians,Europeans,AfricansandAsians.The main spoken language isSpanish,although a significant number of Peruvians speakQuechuan languages,Aymara,or otherIndigenous languages.This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such asart,cuisine,literature,andmusic.
Etymology
The name of the country may be derived fromBirú,the name of a local ruler who lived near theBay of San Miguel,Panama City, in the early 16th century.[21]Spanishconquistadors,who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of theNew World.[22]WhenFrancisco Pizarroinvaded the regions farther south, they came to be designatedBirúorPerú.[23]
An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writerInca Garcilaso de la Vega,son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the nameBirúwas that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governorPedro Arias Dávilaand went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.[24]
TheSpanish crowngave the name legal status with the 1529Capitulación de Toledo,which designated the newly encounteredInca Empireas the province of Peru.[25]In 1561, the rebelLope de Aguirredeclared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denominationViceroyalty of Peru,which became thePeruvian Republicfrom itsindependenceuntil1979,when it adopted its current name ofRepublic of Peru.[26]
History
Prehistory and Pre-Columbian Peru
The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500BCEin theHuaca Prietasettlement.[27]Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such asirrigationandterracing;camelidhusbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied onreciprocityandredistributionbecause these societies had no notion of market or money.[28]The oldest known complex society in Peru, theCaral/Norte Chico civilization,flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.[29]These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. TheCupisniqueculture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE[30]along what is now Peru'sPacific coastwas an example of early pre-Inca culture.
TheChavín culturethat developed from 1500 to 300 BCE was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center inChavín de Huantar.[31]After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of theParacas,Nazca,Wari,and the more outstandingChimuandMoche.
The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork.[32]The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru, the Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450.[33]Their capital was atChan Chanoutside of modern-dayTrujillo.[33]In the highlands, both theTiahuanacoculture, nearLake Titicacain both Peru and Bolivia,[34]and the Wari culture, near the present-day city ofAyacucho,developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE.[35]
In the 15th century, theIncasemerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed thelargest empirein thepre-Columbian Americaswith their capital inCusco.[36]The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, theQuechuas.Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperorPachacuti.[37]Under his rule and that of his son,Topa Inca Yupanqui,the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as the God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco.[38]From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on theAndeanmountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of the empire wasQuechua,[39]although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire asTawantinsuyuwhich can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacredHuacas,but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship ofInti,the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that ofPachamama.[40]The Incas considered their King, theSapa Inca,to be the "child of the sun."[41]
Conquest and colonial period
Atahualpa (also Atahuallpa), the lastSapa Inca,became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brotherHuáscarin a civil war sparked by the death of their father,[42]Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party ofconquistadors(supported by theChankas,Huancas,CañarisandChachapoyasasIndian auxiliaries) led byFrancisco Pizarrodefeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in theBattle of Cajamarca.[43]After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as theViceroyalty of Peruwith its capital atLima,which was then known as "La Ciudad de los Reyes" (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated theNeo-Inca StateinVilcabambain 1572.
The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change.[44]ViceroyFrancisco de Toledoreorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindianforced laboras its primary workforce.[45]With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes atPotosí(present-day Bolivia) andHuancavelica,the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvianbullionprovided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.[46]The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via theManila Galleonstransiting through Acapulco, hadCallaoat Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas.[47]In relation to this, DonSebastian Hurtado de Corcuera,governor of Panama was also responsible for settlingZamboanga Cityin the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists.[48]African slaveswere added to the labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted toCatholicism,with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by the Devil, who was working" through them to frustrate "their foundations.[49]It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as theCoricanchain the city of Cusco. The church employed theInquisition,making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of the Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru.[50]Peruvian Catholicism follows thesyncretismfound in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.[51]In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in theacculturationof the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.
By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.[52]In response, the Crown enacted theBourbon Reforms,a series ofedictsthat increased taxes and partitioned theViceroyalty.[53]The new laws provokedTúpac Amaru II's rebellionand other revolts, all of which were suppressed.[54]As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and theircreolesuccessors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist thePortuguese expansion of Brazilacross the meridian. TheTreaty of Tordesillaswas rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 whileSpain controlled Portugal.The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties ofNew GranadaandRio de la Plataat the expense of the territories that formed theViceroyalty of Peru;this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrativeAndeantrade toBuenos AiresandBogotá,while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.[55]The conquest and colony brought a mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture.[51]Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that ofJuan Santos Atahualpain 1742, and Rebellion ofTúpac Amaru IIin 1780 around the highlands near Cuzco.[56]
Independence
In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept bywars of independence,Peru remained aroyaliststronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarchy,independencewas achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns ofJosé de San MartínandSimón Bolívar.
The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, thewar of independence in North America,and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among theCriollopopulation in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish government over its colonies.
After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata,José de San Martíncreated theArmy of the Andesandcrossed the Andes in 21 days.Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army GeneralBernardo O'Higginsand liberated the country in the battles ofChacabucoandMaipúin 1818.[57]On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in the port ofParacasunder the command of General José de San Martín andThomas Cochrane,who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town ofPisco.San Martín settled inHuachoon 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port ofCallaoin Lima. At the same time in the north,Guayaquilwas occupied by rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging theViceroythat Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful.
The Viceroy of Peru,Joaquín de la PazuelanamedJosé de la Sernacommander-in-chief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized acoupagainst de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create aconstitutional monarchy,a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag.Upper Peru(present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army ofSimón Bolívarliberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for aLatin American Confederationfloundered and aunion with Boliviaproved ephemeral.[58]
Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating theViceroyalty of New Granadain the Battles ofCaraboboin 1821 andPichinchaa year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in theGuayaquil Conference.Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after the first parliament was assembled. The newly foundedPeruvian Congressnamed Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military.
With the help ofAntonio José de Sucre,they defeated the larger Spanish army in theBattle of Junínon 6 August 1824 and the decisiveBattle of Ayacuchoon 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.[59]
19th century
From the 1840s to the 1860s Peru enjoyeda period of stabilityunder the presidency ofRamón Castilla,through increased state revenues fromguanoexports.[60]However, by the 1870s these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.[61]Peru embarked on a railroad-building program that helped but also bankrupted the country.
In 1879 Peru entered theWar of the Pacific,which lasted until 1884.Boliviainvoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. ThePeruvian Governmenttried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on 5 April 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of thedepartment of Tarapacáand the provinces ofTacnaandArica,in the Atacama region. Two outstanding military leaders throughout the war wereFrancisco BolognesiandMiguel Grau.Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s.
20th century
Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under theCivilista Party,which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime ofAugusto B. Leguía.TheGreat Depressioncaused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of theAmerican Popular Revolutionary Alliance(APRA).[62]The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called theTreaty of Lima,returnedTacnato Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in ayear-long war with Colombiaover a territorial dispute involving theAmazonas Departmentand its capitalLeticia.
In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought theEcuadorian–Peruvian War,after which theRio Protocolsought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, GeneralManuel A. Odríabecame president. Odría's presidency was known as theOchenio.He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed apopulistcourse that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however,civil rightswere severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded byManuel Prado Ugarteche.However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via acoup d'étatled byRicardo Pérez Godoy.Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won byFernando Belaúnde Terrywho assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process.
On 3 October 1968 anothercoup d'étatled by a group of officers led by GeneralJuan Velasco Alvaradobrought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by theCEPALtheses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize theInternational Petroleum Corporation(IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished thelatifundasystem and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives. Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of 73.6 acres (29.8 hectares). The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated theQuechualanguage – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by the authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. TheUnited Statesresponded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after the coup d'état of thegeneral Pinochet.GeneralEdgardo Mercado Jarrin(Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 GeneralFrancisco Morales Bermúdez Cerrutiseized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated inOperation Condorin collaboration with other American military dictatorships.[63][64]
Peru engaged in a two-week-long conflict with Ecuador during thePaquisha Warin early 1981 as a result of territorial dispute between the two countries. The economic policyPresidentAlan Garcíadistanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in the country.[65]After the country experiencedchronic inflation,the Peruvian currency, thesol,was replaced by theIntiin mid-1985, which itself was later replaced by thenuevo solin July 1991, at which time the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles. The per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20% at which national reserves were a negative $900 million. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, likeSendero Luminoso(Shining Path) andMRTA,which causedgreat havocthroughout the country.[66][67]The Shining Path had appeared in the universities in the 1970s. These students, many of them from peasant backgrounds, then returned to their communities and organized local party committees. The abandonment by the state of certain rural regions favored the establishment of the party. In June 1979, demonstrations for free education were severely repressed by the army: 18 people were killed according to the official report, but non-governmental estimates put the death toll at several dozen. This event led to a radicalization of political protests in the countryside and eventually to the outbreak of armed struggle. After the beginning of the armed struggle, the new recruits of the Shining Path were generally peasants with little political background, rather than truly political militants.[68]
The Peruvian armed forces grew frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises and draftedPlan Verde– which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of themedia in Peruand the establishment of aneoliberaleconomy controlled by amilitary juntain Peru – as an effort to overthrow his government.[69][70][71][72]Alberto Fujimoriassumed the presidency in 1990 and according to Rospigliosi, the head of theNational Intelligence Service (SIN)General Edwin "Cucharita" Díaz andVladimiro Montesinosplayed a key role with making President Fujimori abide by the military's demands while "an understanding was established between Fujimori, Montesinos and some of the military officers" involved in Plan Verde prior to Fujimori's inauguration.[73][74]Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde.[72][74]Fujimori's policies, prescribed byHernando de Soto,led to the immediate suffering of poor Peruvians who saw unregulated prices increase rapidly, with those living in poverty seeing prices increase so much that they could no longer afford food.[75]De Soto advocated for the collapse of Peru's society, with the economist saying that a civil crisis was necessary to support the policies of Fujimori.[76]These drastic measures caused inflation to drop from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.[66][67]The description of Fujimori's economic achievements as a "Peruvian miracle" was exaggerated and inequality persisted following his presidency.[77]
Due to his controversial governance, Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts and used coup proposals from Plan Verde, dissolving Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in theauto-golpe( "self-coup" ) of 5 April 1992.[78][72][79]He then revised the constitution; called new congressional elections; and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Fujimori's administration was dogged byinsurgentgroups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: theBarrios Altos massacreandLa Cantuta massacreby Government paramilitary groups, and the bombings ofTarataandFrecuencia Latinaby Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents.[15]Using theterruqueo,afearmongeringtactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established acult of personalityby portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru.[15]Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize thehuman rightsviolations committed in the last years of violence.[80]HisPrograma Nacional de Población– an implementation of one of Plan Verde's proposals for the "total extermination" of impoverished Peruvians that would possibly be sympathetic to insurgent groups – also resulted with theforced sterilizationof at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women.[73][81][82]
In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in theCenepa War,but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into a self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities.[83]
21st century
Into the new century, Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth,[83]thoughFujimorismheld power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation.[15]In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict.[84]A caretaker government presided over byValentín Paniaguatook on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. AfterwardsAlejandro Toledobecame president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former presidentAlan Garcíabecame President of Peru after winning the2006 elections.In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter,Keiko Fujimori,entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism.[85][86][87]In May 2008, Peru became a member of theUnion of South American Nations.In April 2009, former presidentAlberto Fujimoriwas convicted of human rights violations andsentencedto 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by theGrupo Colinadeath squadduring his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s.[88]
During the presidencies ofOllanta Humala,Pedro Pablo KuczynskiandMartín Vizcarra,the right-wing Congress led by Keiko Fujimori obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents.[89][90]On 5 June 2011,Ollanta Humalawas elected president, with his cabinet beingsuccessfully censuredby the Fujimorist Congress.[91]Beginning withPedro Pablo Kuczynski,Congress usedbroadly interpretedimpeachmentwording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru that allowed impeachment of the president without cause[92][93][94][95]to place pressure on the president, forcing him toresignin 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice presidentMartín Vizcarrathen assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings as he led the anti-corruptionconstitutional referendummovement.[96][97]TheCOVID-19 pandemicresulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration[77]and triggering an economic crisis that led toVizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress.[98]Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated PresidentManuel Merino,facedprotestsacross the country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency.[99]Merino was replaced by PresidentFrancisco Sagasti,who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies.[100]Electionswere held on 11 April 2021, andPedro Castilloof theFree Peruparty won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress.[101]
On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo was sworn in as the newpresident of Peruafter a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election.[102]That same year, Peru celebrated thebicentenary of independence.[103]Castillofaced multiple impeachment votesduring his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin athird impeachment effort,Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting todissolvethe opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice PresidentDina Boluarte.She became the country's first female president.[104][105]Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to theMexicanembassy and was charged with the crime of rebellion.[106]
The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents.[17][107]This resentment led to the2022–2023 Peruvian political protests,which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with theAyacucho massacreandJuliaca massacreoccurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades.[17]The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish anauthoritarianorcivilian-military government.[17][107][108]
Government and politics
Peru is aunitarysemi-presidentialrepublicwith a multi-party system.[2][3]The country has maintained aliberal democraticsystem under its1993 Constitution,which replaced aconstitutionthat leaned the government to a federation to authorize more power to the president.[109][110]It is also aunitary republic,in which the central government holds the most power and can createadministrative divisions.The Peruvian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United States (awritten constitution,an autonomousSupreme court,and apresidential system) and thePeople's Republic of China(aunicameralcongress, apremierandministry system).[111]
The Peruvian government isseparatedinto three branches:
- Legislature: the unicameralCongress of Peru,consisting of 130 members of Congress (on a basis of population), thepresident of Congress,and the Permanent Commission;[112]
- Executive: the president, theCouncil of Ministers,which in practice controlsdomestic legislationand serve as a Cabinet to the president, consisting of theprime ministerand 18 ministers of the state;
- Judiciary: theSupreme Court of Peru,also known as theRoyal Audencia of Lima,composed of 18justicesincluding a supreme justice, along with 28superior courts,195trial courts,and 1,838district courts.
Under its constitution, the president of Peru is bothhead of stateandgovernmentand is elected to a five-year term without immediate reelection.[113]The president appointsministerswho oversee the 18ministries of the state,including theprime minister,into theCabinet.[114]The constitution designates minimal authority to the prime minister, who presides overcabinet meetingsin which ministers advise the president and acts as a spokesperson on behalf of theexecutive branch.[115]The president is also able to posequestions of confidenceto the Congress of Peru, and consequently order thedissolution of congress,done in1992byAlberto Fujimoriand in2019byMartín Vizcarra.[116]
In the Congress of Peru there are 130 members, from 25administrative divisions,determined by respective population and elected to five-year terms.[117]Bills are proposed by the executive andlegislativepowers and become law through apluralityvote in Congress.[118]The judiciary is nominally independent,[119]though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history.[120]The Congress of Peru can also pass amotion of no confidence,censureministers, as well as initiateimpeachmentsandconvictexecutives.[121][122]Due to broadly interpretedimpeachmentwording in the1993 Constitution of Peru,the legislative branch can impeach the president without cause, effectively making the executive branch subject to Congress.[92][93][94][95]In recent times, the legislative body has passed semi-successful impeachment and two successful impeachments;Alberto Fujimoriresigned prior to removal in 2000,Pedro Pablo Kuczynskiresignedin 2018,Martín Vizcarrawasremoved from officein 2020 andPedro Castillowas removed in 2022.[123]Following a ruling in February 2023 by theConstitutional Court of Peru,whose members are elected by Congress, judicial oversight of the legislative body was also removed by the court, essentially giving Congress absolute control of Peru's government.[124][125]
Peru'selectoral systemusescompulsory votingfor citizens from the age of 18 to 70, includingdual-citizensandPeruviansabroad.[126]Members of Congress aredirectly electedby constituents in respective districts throughproportional voting.The president is elected in a general election, along with thevice president,through a majority in atwo-round system.[127]Elections are observed and organized by theNational Jury of Elections,National Office of Electoral Processes,and theNational Registry of Identification and Civil Status.[128]
Peru uses amulti-party systemforcongressionaland general elections. Major groups that have formed governments, both on a federal and legislative level, are parties that have historically adoptedeconomic liberalism,progressivism,right-wing populism(specificallyFujimorism),nationalism,andreformism.[129]
Themost recent general electionwas held on 11 April 2021 and resulted inFree Peruwinning the most seats in Congress, although it fell well short of a majority.[130]A presidential runoff betweenPedro CastilloandKeiko Fujimoritook place on 5 June 2021 and resulted in the victory of Castillo.[131]
Allegations of corruption in politics
Many presidents of Peru have been ousted from office or imprisoned on allegations of corruption from the 1990s into the 21st century. Alberto Fujimori is serving a 25-year prison sentence for commandingdeath squadsthat killed civilians in a counterinsurgency campaign during his tenure (1990–2000). He was later also found guilty of corruption. Former president Alan García (1985–1990 and 2006–2011) killed himself in April 2019 when Peruvian police arrived to arrest him over allegations he participated in theOdebrecht briberyscheme. Former president Alejandro Toledo is accused of allegedly receiving bribes from Brazilian construction firmOdebrechtduring his government (2001–2006). Former president Ollanta Humala (2011–2016) is also under investigation for allegedly receiving bribes from Odebrecht during his presidential election campaign. Humala's successor Pedro Pablo Kuczynski (2016–2018) remains under house arrest while prosecutors investigate him for favoring contracts with Odebrecht. Former president Martín Vizcarra (2018–2020) was controversially ousted by Congress after media reports alleged he had received bribes while he was a regional governor years earlier.[132][133]
Corruption is also widespread throughout Congress as legislators use their office forparliamentary immunityand other benefits,[134]with the large majority of Peruvians disapproving of Congress and its behavior.[135]
Administrative divisions
Peru is divided into 26 units:24 departments,theConstitutional Province of Callaoand theProvince of Lima(LIM) – which is independent of any region and serves as thecountry's capital.[136]Under the constitution, the 24 departments plus Callao Province have an elected "regional"[g]government composed of the regional governor and theregional council.[137][138]
The governor constitutes theexecutive body,proposesbudgets,and creates decrees, resolutions, and regional programs.[139]The Regional Council, the region'slegislative body,debates and votes on budgets, supervises regional officials, and can vote to remove the governor, deputy governor, or any member of the council from office. The regional governor and the Regional Council serve a term of four years, without immediate reelection. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[140][141]
Provinces such asLimaare administered by amunicipal council,headed by a mayor.[142]The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in thedecentralizationprocess and still influence local politics.[143][144]
Some areas of Peru are defined asmetropolitan areaswhich overlap district areas. The largest of them, theLima metropolitan area,is the seventh-largest metropolis in the Americas.
Foreign relations
Over recent decades,Peru's foreign relationshas historically been dominated by close ties with the United States and Asia,[145]particularly through theAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation(APEC), theWorld Trade Organization,thePacific Alliance,Mercosur,and theOrganization of American States(OAS).[146][147] Peru is an active member of severalregional trade blocsand is one of the founding members of theAndean Community of Nations.It is also a member of international organizations such as theOASand theUnited Nations.[148]Javier Pérez de Cuéllar,a celebrated Peruvian diplomat, served asUnited Nations Secretary Generalfrom 1981 to 1991.
Peru planned to be fully integrated into theOrganization for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) by 2021, attributing its economic success and efforts to strengthen institutions as meeting factors to be a part of the OECD.[149][150]Peru is a member of theWorld Trade Organization,and has pursued multiple major free trade agreements, most recently thePeru–United States Free Trade Agreement,theChina–Peru Free Trade Agreement,theEuropean Union Free Trade Agreement,free trade agreements with Japan, and many others.[151][152]
Peru maintains an integrated relationship with other South American nations, and is a member of various South American intergovernmental agreements, more recently theOrganization of American States,Mercosur,theAndean Communityof Nations, thePacific Alliance,and theAPEC.Peru has historically experiencedstressed relations with Chile,including thePeru v Chileinternational court resolution and theChilean-Peruvian maritime dispute,but the two countries have agreed to work in improving relations.[153]
Peru has participated in taking a leading role in addressing thecrisis in Venezuelathrough the establishment of theLima Group.[154]
Peru is the 99th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[155]
Military and law enforcement
Peru has the fourth largest military in Latin America. Peru's armed forces – theArmed Forces of Peru– comprise thePeruvian Navy(MGP), thePeruvian Army(EP), and thePeruvian Air Force(FAP), in total numbering 392,660 personnel (including 120,660 regulars and 272,000 reservists) as of 2020.[156]Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.[157]
Their functions are separated by branch:
- ThePeruvian Armyis made up of the Chief of Staff, two Control Bodies, two Support Bodies, five Military Regions and six Command Rooms.
- ThePeruvian Air Forcewas officially created on 20 May 1929, with the name of Peruvian Aviation Corps. Its main function is to serve as the country'sair defense.It also participates insocial support campaignsfor hard-to-reach populations, organizes air bridges during disasters, and participates ininternational peace missions.Its four majorair basesare located in the cities ofPiura,Callao,ArequipaandIquitos.
- ThePeruvian Navyis in charge of the country's maritime, river, and lake defense. It is made up of 26,000 sailors. Personnel are divided into three levels: superior personnel, junior personnel and seafarers.
The military is governed by both thecommander in chief,Ministry of Defense,andJoint Command of the Armed Forces(CCFFAA). The CCFFAA has subordinates to the Operational Commands and Special Commands, with which it carries out the military operations that are required for the defense and the fulfillment of the tasks that the executive power provides.[158]Conscriptionwas abolished in 1999 and replaced byvoluntary military service.[159]TheNational Police of Peruis often classified as a part of the armed forces. Although in fact it has a different organization and a wholly civil mission, its training and activities over more than two decades as ananti-terroristforce have produced markedly military characteristics, giving it the appearance of a virtual fourth military service with significant land, sea and air capabilities and approximately 140,000 personnel. The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Ministry of Interior.[160][157]
Since the end of thecrisis in Peruin 2000, the federal government has significantly reduced annual spending in defense.[161]In the 2016–2017 budget, defense spending has constituted 1.1% of GDP ($2.3 billion), the second lowest spending relative to GDP in South America following Argentina.[162]More recently, the Armed Forces of Peru have been used incivil defense.In 2020, Peru used its military personnel and even reservists to enforce the strictquarantinemeasures placed during theCOVID-19 pandemic.[163]
Geography
Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in theSouthern Hemisphere,its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of theequator,covers 1,285,216 km2(496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. TheAndesmountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically.[164]
Thecosta(coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. Thesierra(highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes theAltiplanoplateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft)Huascarán.[165]The third region is theselva(jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by theAmazon rainforestthat extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region.[166]The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are theendorheicbasin ofLake Titicaca,and the Amazon basin, which empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon River, which at 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater.
Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of threebasins.Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of theAmazon Riverhave a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit thesierra.Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[167]Peru's longest rivers are theUcayali,theMarañón,thePutumayo,theYavarí,theHuallaga,theUrubamba,theMantaro,and the Amazon.[168]
The largestlake in Peru,Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America.[169] The largestreservoirs,all in the coastal region of Peru, are thePoechos,Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs.[170]
Climate
Although Peru is located entirely in thetropics,the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents (HumboldtandEl Niño) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. Elevations above sea level in the country range from −37 to 6,778 m (−121 to 22,238 ft) and precipitation ranges from less than 20 mm (0.79 in) annually in desert areas to more than 8,000 mm (310 in) in tropical rainforest areas.
Due to its geography, Peru can be divide into three main climates. The unbroken and relatively slim coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[171]In the mountain region, which covers almost a third of the country, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[172]ThePeruvian Amazon,covering more than half of the total area of Peru, is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[173]
Wildlife
Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of themendemic,[174]and is one of themegadiversecountries.
Peru has over 1,800speciesof birds (120endemic), over 500 species ofmammals,over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwaterfishes.[175][176]The hundreds of mammals include rare species like thepuma,jaguarandspectacled bear.The Birds of Peru produce large amounts ofguano,an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities ofsea bass,flounder,anchovies,tuna,crustaceans,andshellfish,and is home to many sharks,sperm whales,and whales.[177]The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru.[178]
Peru also has an equally diverseflora.The coastal deserts produce little more thancacti,apart from hillyfog oasesand river valleys that contain unique plant life.[179] The Highlands above the tree-line known aspunais home to bushes,cactus,drought-resistant plants such asichu,and the largest species ofbromeliad– the spectacularPuya raimondii.
The cloud-forest slopes of the Andes sustainmoss,orchids,and bromeliads, and theAmazon rainforestis known for its variety of trees and canopy plants.[177]Peru had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 8.86/10, ranking it 14th globally out of 172 countries.[180]
Economy
The economy of Peru is the 48th largest in the world (ranked byPurchasing power parity),[181]and the income level is classified asupper middleby the World Bank.[182]Peru is, as of 2011[update],one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to an economic boom experienced during the 2000s.[183]It has an above-averageHuman Development Indexof 0.77 which has seen steady improvement overthe last 25 years.[clarify][184]Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which providehard currencyto finance imports and external debt payments.[185]Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitariandistribution of incomehave proven elusive.[186]According to 2015 data, 19.3% of its total population is poor, including 9% that lives in extreme poverty.[187]Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; as of 2014[update]it stands at 2.5%.[188]and 8,6 in 2023.[189]The unemployment rate has fallen steadilyin recent years,[clarify]and as of 2012[update]stands at 3.6%.
Peruvian economic policy has varied widely overthe past decades.[clarify]The 1968–1975 government ofJuan Velasco Alvaradointroduced radical reforms, which includedagrarian reform,the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of aneconomic planning system,and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives ofincome redistributionand the end ofeconomic dependence on developed nations.[190]
Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when theliberalizinggovernment ofAlberto Fujimoriendedprice controls,protectionism,restrictions onforeign direct investment,and most state ownership of companies.[191]
As of 2010[update]Servicesaccount for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[192]Recent economic growth had been fueled bymacroeconomicstability, improvedterms of trade,and rising investment and consumption.[193]Trade was expected to increase further after the implementation of afree trade agreement with the United Statessigned on 12 April 2006.[194]Peru's main exports were copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners were the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[195]Peru was ranked 76th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2023.[196]
Informal workers represent, in 2019, 70% of the labour market according to the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics (INEI). In 2016, almost three million children and adolescents worked in the informal sector.[197]
Mining
The country is heavily dependent onminingfor the export of raw materials, which represented 61.3% of exports in 2023.[198]In 2019, the country was the second world producer ofcopper,[199]silver[200]andzinc,[201]eighth world producer ofgold,[202]third world producer oflead,[203]the world's fourth largest producer oftin,[204]the fifth world's largest producer ofboron[205]and the world's fourth largest producer ofmolybdenum.[206]– not to mention gas and of oil. The country has an expectant competitive position in global mining, maintaining mining leadership in Latin America and a solid mining history and trajectory little industrialized, Peru suffers from the international variation of commodity prices.[207]
The Yanacocha mine inCajamarcais the main source of gold extraction in Peru. It is considered the largest gold mine in South America and the second largest in the world. In 2005, 3,333,088 ounces of gold were produced. An indicator of mining growth can be seen in mining exports, having grown from US$1,447 million in 1990[208]to US$39,639 million in 2023.[198]
Agriculture
Peru is the world's largest producer ofquinoa,andmacaone of the 5 largest producers ofavocado,blueberry,artichokeandasparagus,one of the 10 largest producers in the world ofcoffeeandcocoa,and one of the 15 largest producers in the world ofpotatoandpineapple,also having a considerable production ofgrape,sugarcane,rice,banana,maizeandcassava;its agriculture is considerably diversified. In livestock, Peru is one of the 20 largest producers ofchicken meatin the world.[209]
According to a report by the UNFood and Agriculture Organization(FAO) published in August 2022, half of Peru's population is moderatelyfood insecure(16.6 million people), and more than 20% (6.8 million people), are severely food insecure: they go without food for a whole day, or even several days.[210][211]
The director of FAO Peru stresses that "this is the great paradox of a country that has enough food for its population. Peru is a net producer of food and one of the major agro-exporting powers in the region. Food insecurity is due to highsocial inequalityand low wages, with Peru's minimum wage being one of the lowest in South America and a large informal sector. According to the FAO, the small farmers themselves suffer from hunger. Poorly paid, they also suffer from the impacts ofclimate changeand face the problem ofdrug traffickingon their land and mining activity that exhausts the soil. "[210][211]
Industry
TheWorld Banklists the top producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. By the 2019 list, Peru has the 50th most valuable industry in the world ($28.7 billion).[212]
In 2011 and 2016 Peru was the world's largest supplier offishmeal.[213]It is also the world's leading producer of alpaca wool, and the most important exporter of cotton textile garments in Latin America, and due to its natural wealth, it is an excellent place for the development of the polymer industry worldwide. The country is in a stage of economic growth and it is expected, in light of the agreements and treaties signed in free trade areas, to become one of the most attractive South American nations for developing business.
Infrastructure
Transport
Peru's road network in 2021 consisted of 175,589 km (109,106 mi) of highways, with 29,579 km (18,380 mi) paved.[214]Some highways in the country that stand out are thePan American HighwayandInteroceanic Highway.In 2016, the country had 827 km (514 mi) ofduplicated highways,and was investing in more duplications: the plan was to have 2,634 km (1,637 mi) in 2026.[215]The country's rail network is small: in 2018, the country only had 1,939 km (1,205 mi) of railways.[216]
Peru has important international airports such asLima,CuzcoandArequipa.The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina) and Minas Gerais (Brazil).[217]Multiple airport expansions are currently under construction across Peru, the two main ones being theJorge Chávez International AirportandChinchero International Airport.Jorge Chávez International Airport,the largest in Peru, is undergoing an expansion which includes the construction of a new runway, control tower and a new terminal, along with new hotels, logistical buildings and cargo sector. Altogether, they make up the Ciudad Aeropuerto, Airport City. It will allow transit of 40 million passengers every year and will be completed in December 2024. Another ambitious airport project is theChinchero International AirportinCusco.The new airport is set to replace the old,Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airportand help passengers bypass a stop in Lima by introducing international routes.
Peru has important ports inCallao,IloandMatarani.The 15 most active ports in South America in 2018 were: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).[218]ThePort of Callaois currently the largest port in Peru, but will soon be overtaken by theChancay Port Terminal,a joint project betweenChinaand Peru inChancay,north ofLima.When completed, the port will become the largest in Latin America.[219]The first stage of construction is expected to be complete in late 2024.[220]
Energy
The electricity sector has experienced notable improvements in recent years. The number of homes with electric lighting grew from 82% in 2007 to 94.2% in 2016. while the quality and effectiveness of service provision improved. Current electricity generation capacity is evenly divided between thermal energy and hydroelectric energy sources. The National Interconnected Electrical System supplies 85% of the connected population, with several isolated systems that cover the rest of the country. Peruvian electricity production totalled 5.1 TWh in the month of October 2022. Of these, 52% came from hydroelectric plants, 38.3% from thermoelectric plants (which use oil, gas and coal) and 9.7% of renewable energy plants like: wind, solar, and others.[221]
In 2021, Peru had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 5,490 MW in hydropower (34th largest in the world), 409 MW in wind power (49th largest in the world), 336 MW in solar power (62nd largest in the world), and 185 MW in biomass.[222]
Healthcare
According to thePan American Health Organization,life expectancy for men is 72.6 years, while for women it is 77.9 years. Infant mortality is eighteen per thousand births, having been reduced 76% from 1990 to 2011.[224]The main causes of death of Peruvians areneoplasm,influenzaandpneumonia,bacterial diseases, ischemic heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases. According to the 2017 Population and Housing Censuses, 75.5% of the population has some type of health insurance, that is, 22,173,663 people, despite this, 24.5% of the population does not have any type of insurance.[225]
Demographics
With about 31.2 million inhabitants in 2017, Peru is thefourth most populous country in South America.[226]The demographic growth rate of Peru declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; with the population being expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[227]According to the 1940 Peruvian census, Peru had a population of seven million residents.[228]
As of 2017[update],79.3% lived in urban areas and 20.7% in rural areas.[229]Major cities include theLima metropolitan area(home to over 9.8 million people),Arequipa,Trujillo,Chiclayo,Piura,Iquitos,Cusco,Chimbote,andHuancayo;all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the2007 census.[230]There are 15uncontactedAmerindian tribes in Peru.[231]Peru has alife expectancyof 75.0 years (72.4 for males and 77.7 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2016 from theWorld Bank.[232]
Largest cities or towns in Peru
National Institute of Statistics and Informatics- INEI (Estimated 2024)[233] | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | ||
 Lima  Arequipa |
1 | Lima | Lima | 10,213,900(Metro pop.) | 11 | Ica | Ica | 362,400 |  Trujillo  Chiclayo |
| 2 | Arequipa | Arequipa | 1,177,200(Metro pop.) | 12 | Juliaca | Puno | 341,700 | ||
| 3 | Trujillo | La Libertad | 1,048,800(Metro pop.) | 13 | Tacna | Tacna | 327,800 | ||
| 4 | Chiclayo | Lambayeque | 615,700(Metro pop.) | 14 | Ayacucho | Ayacucho | 261,200 | ||
| 5 | Piura | Piura | 586,300 | 15 | Cajamarca | Cajamarca | 254,300 | ||
| 6 | Huancayo | Junín | 563,400 | 16 | Huánuco | Huánuco | 242,400 | ||
| 7 | Cusco | Cusco | 490,900 | 17 | Chincha Alta | Ica | 222,500 | ||
| 8 | Iquitos | Loreto | 458,300 | 18 | Sullana | Piura | 209,200 | ||
| 9 | Pucallpa | Ucayali | 428,700 | 19 | Huacho | Lima | 192,100 | ||
| 10 | Chimbote | Ancash | 410,300 | 20 | Tarapoto | San Martín | 178,800 | ||
Ethnic groups
Peru is amultiethnic nationformed by successive waves of different peoples over five centuries.Amerindiansinhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before theSpanish conquestin the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook, their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because ofinfectious diseases.[235]
The 2017 census for the first time included a question on ethnic self-identification. According to the results, 60.2% of the people identified themselves asmestizo,22.3% identified themselves asQuechua,5.9% identified themselves aswhite,3.6% identified themselves asblack,2.4% identified themselves asAymara,2.3% identified themselves as other ethnic groups, and 3.3% did not declare their ethnicity.[236]
Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mi xing widely with each other and with Indigenous peoples. After independence, there was gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, and Italy.[237]Peru freed its black slaves in 1854.[238]Chinese and Japanese arrived in the 1850s as laborers following the end of slavery, and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.[239]
Language
According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages are Spanish and, in areas where they predominate,Quechuaand other Indigenous languages. Spanish is spoken natively by 82.6% of the population, Quechua by 13.9%, and Aymara by 1.7%, while other languages are spoken by the remaining 1.8%.[240]
Spanish language is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country, which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse Indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to theAmazon basin.[241]
Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The Indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional Indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous Indigenous languages are spoken, includingAsháninka,Bora,andAguaruna.[241]
Religion
Roman Catholicism has been the predominant faith in Peru for centuries, albeit religious practices have a high degree ofsyncretismwith Indigenous traditions.[citation needed]Two of its universities,Pontifical Catholic University of Peruand Universidad Cattolica San Pablo, are among the 5 top universities of the country.[242]As of the 2017 census, 76% of the population over 12 years old described themselves asCatholic,14.1% asEvangelical,4.8% as Protestant, Jewish,Latter-day Saints,andJehovah's Witnesses,and 5.1% as nonreligious.[243]
Amerindian religious traditions continue to play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities likeCorpus Christi,Holy Weekand Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions. Amerindian festivities from pre-Columbian remain widespread;Inti Raymi,an ancient Inca festival, is still celebrated, especially in rural communities.
The majority of towns, cities, and villages have their own official church or cathedral andpatron saint.The two saints of Peru areRose of Lima,the first Saint of the America's, andMartin de Porres.The largest cathedral in Peru is theLima Metropolitan Cathedral.Other notable church's and cathedrals are theCusco CathedralBasilica Cathedral of Arequipaand theBasilica of Santo Domingo.
Education
Peru's literacy rate is estimated at 92.9% as of 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[244]Primary and secondary education arecompulsoryand free in public schools.[181][245]
Peru is home to one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in the New World. TheNational University of San Marcos,founded on 12 May 1551, during theViceroyalty of Peru,is the first officially established and the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas.[citation needed]
Toponyms
Many of the PeruviantoponymshaveIndigenoussources. In the Andes communities ofAncash,CuscoandPuno,Quechua or Aymara names are overwhelmingly predominant. Their Spanish-based orthography, however, is in conflict with the normalized Alpha bets of these languages. According to Article 20 ofDecreto Supremo No 004-2016-MC(Supreme Decree) which approves the Regulations to Law 29735, published in the official newspaper El Peruano on 22 July 2016, adequate spellings of thetoponymsin the normalized Alpha bets of the Indigenous languages must progressively be proposed with the aim of standardizing the naming used by the National Geographic Institute(Instituto Geográfico Nacional, IGN).The National Geographic Institute realizes the necessary changes in the official maps of Peru.[246]
Culture
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Iberian and Andean traditions,[248]though it has also been influenced by various European, Asian, and African ethnic groups.Peruvian artistic traditionsdate back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture ofPre-Inca cultures.The Incas maintained these crafts and madearchitecturalachievements including the construction ofMachu Picchu.Baroquedominated colonial art, though modified by Native traditions.[249]
During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of theCusco Schoolare representative.[250]Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence ofIndigenismoin the early 20th century.[251]Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has beeneclecticand shaped by both foreign and local art currents.
Visual arts
Peruvian art has its origin in theAndean civilizations.These civilizations arose in the territory of modern Peru before thearrival of the Spanish.Peruvian art incorporated European elements after the Spanish conquest and continued to evolve throughout the centuries up to the modern day.
Pre-Columbian art
Peru's earliest artwork came from theCupisniqueculture, which was concentrated on the Pacific coast, and the Chavín culture, which was largely north ofLimabetween the Andean mountain ranges of theCordillera Negraand theCordillera Blanca.Decorative work from this era, approximately the 9th century BCE, was symbolic and religious in nature. The artists worked with gold, silver, andceramicsto create a variety of sculptures and relief carvings. These civilizations were also known for their architecture and wood sculptures.
Between the 9th century BCE and the 2nd century CE, theParacasCavernas and ParacasNecropoliscultures developed on the south coast of Peru. Paracas Cavernas produced complex polychrome and monochrome ceramics with religious representations. Burials from the Paracas Necropolis also yielded complex textiles, many produced with sophisticated geometric patterns.
The 3rd century BCE saw the flowering of the urban culture,Moche,in theLambayequeregion. The Moche culture produced architectural works, such as theHuacas del Sol y de la Lunaand theHuaca RajadaofSipán.They were experts atcultivation in terracesandhydraulic engineeringand produced original ceramics, textiles, pictorial and sculptural works.
Another urban culture, theWari civilization,flourished between the 8th and 12th centuries inAyacucho.Their centralized town planning was extended to other areas, such asPachacamac,CajamarquillaandWari Willka.
Between the 9th and 13th centuries CE, the military urbanTiwanakuempire rose by the borders ofLake Titicaca.Centered around a city of the same name in modern-day Bolivia, the Tiwanaku introduced stone architecture and sculpture of a monumental type. These works of architecture and art were made possible by the Tiwanaku's developingbronze,which enabled them to make the necessary tools.
Urban architecture reached a new height between the 14th and 15th centuries in theChimú Culture.The Chimú built the city ofChan Chanin the valley of theMoche River,inLa Libertad.The Chimú were skilledgoldsmithsand created remarkable works ofhydraulic engineering.
TheInca Civilization,which united Peru under its hegemony in the centuries immediately preceding the Spanish conquest, incorporated into their own works a great part of the cultural legacy of the civilizations which preceded it. Important relics of their artwork and architecture can be seen in cities likeCusco,architectural remains likeSacsayhuamánandMachu Picchuand stone pavements that united Cusco with the rest of the Inca Empire.
Colonial art
Peruvian sculpture and painting began to define themselves from theateliersfounded by monks, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian Baroque School. In this context, the stalls of theCathedralchoir, the fountain of the Main Square of Lima both byPedro de Noguera,and a great part of the colonial production were registered. The first center of art established by the Spanish was theCuzco Schoolthat taughtQuechuaartists European painting styles.Diego Quispe Tito(1611–1681) was one of the first members of the Cuzco school andMarcos Zapata(1710–1773) was one of the last.[252]
Painting of this time reflected a synthesis of European and Indigenous influences, as is evident in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, by D. de Mora or in the canvases of the ItaliansMateo Pérez de Alesioand Angelino Medoro, the Spaniards Francisco Bejarano and J. de Illescas and the Creole J. Rodriguez.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, theBaroqueStyle also dominated the field ofplastic arts.
Literature
The term Peruvian literature not only refers to literature produced in the independent Republic of Peru, but also to literature produced in theViceroyalty of Peruduring the country's colonial period, and tooralartistic forms created by diverse ethnic groups that existed in the area during thepre-Columbian period,such as theQuechua,theAymaraand theChankapeople.
Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions ofpre-Columbiancivilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression includedchroniclesandreligious literature.After independence,CostumbrismandRomanticismbecame the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works ofRicardo Palma.[253]The early 20th century'sIndigenismomovement was led by such writers asCiro Alegría[254]andJosé María Arguedas.[255]César Vallejowrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such asNobel laureateMario Vargas Llosa,a leading member of theLatin American Boom.[256]
Cuisine
Because of the Spanish expedition and discovery of America, explorers started theColumbian exchangewhich included unknown food in the Old World, including potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Modern Indigenous Peruvian food often includes corn, potatoes, andchilies.There are now more than 3,000 kinds of potatoes grown on Peruvian terrain, according to Peru's Instituto Peruano de la Papa.[257] ModernPeruvian cuisineblendsAmerindianandSpanish foodwith strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.[258]Common dishes includeanticuchos,ceviche,andpachamanca.Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.[259]Peru is known to have one of the best cuisines in the world. The capital, Lima, is home toCentral Restaurante,which is theWorld's Best Restaurantsand serves various Peruvian dishes from each geographical part of the country, the Costa (coast, Sierra (mountains) and Selva (rainforest).
Peruvian cuisine reflects local practices and ingredients – including influences from the Indigenous population including theIncaand cuisines brought in with colonizers and immigrants. Without the familiar ingredients from their home countries, immigrants modified their traditional cuisines by using ingredients available in Peru. The four traditional staples of Peruvian cuisine arecorn,potatoes and othertubers,Amaranthaceaes(quinoa,kañiwaandkiwicha) andlegumes(beansandlupins). Staples brought by the Spanish include rice, wheat, and meats (beef, pork, and chicken). Many traditional foods – such asquinoa,kiwicha,chili peppers,and several roots andtubershave increased in popularity in recent decades, reflecting a revival of interest in Native Peruvian foods and culinary techniques. It is also common to see traditional cuisines being served with a modern flair in towns likeCusco,where tourists come to visit. ChefGastón Acuriohas become well known for raising awareness of local ingredients.
Music
Peruvian music hasAndean,Spanish,andAfricanroots.[260]In pre-Columbian times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; thequenaand thetinyawere two common instruments.[261]Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like thecharango.[262]African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and thecajón,a percussion instrument.Peruvian folk dancesincludemarinera,tondero,zamacueca,diabladaandhuayno.[263]
Peruvian music is dominated by the nationalinstrument,thecharango.The charango is a member of thelutefamily of instruments and was invented duringcolonial timesby musicians imitating the Spanishvihuela.In the Canas andTiticacaregions, the charango is used in courtship rituals, symbolically invoking mermaids with the instrument to lure the woman to the male performers. Until the 1960s, the charango was denigrated as an instrument of the rural poor. After the revolution in 1959, which built theIndigenismomovement (1910–1940), the charango was popularized among other performers. Variants include thewalaycho,chillador,chinlili,and the larger and lower-tunedcharangon.
While the Spanish guitar is widely played, so too is the Spanish-in-originbandurria.Unlike the guitar, it has been transformed by Peruvian players over the years, changing from a 12-string, 6-course instrument to one having 12 to 16 strings in a mere four courses. Violins andharps,also of European origin, are also played. A very famous instrument from Peru is thePan flute,dating back to Incan times. It is made of hollow bamboo tubes and is widely played in the Peruvian Andes.
Cinema
While the Peruvian film industry has not been nearly as prolific as that of some other Latin American countries, some Peruvian movies produced enjoyed regional success. Historically, the cinema of Perubegan in Iquitosin 1932 by Antonio Wong Rengifo (with a momentous, initialfilm billboardfrom 1900) because of therubber boomand the intense arrival of foreigners with technology to the city, and thus continued an extensive, unique filmography, with a different style than the films made in the capital, Lima.
Peru also produced the first animated 3-D film in Latin America,Piratas en el Callao.This film is set in the historical port city ofCallao,which during colonial times had to defend itself against attacks by Dutch and British privateers seeking to undercut Spain's trade with its colonies. The film was produced by thePeruviancompany Alpamayo Entertainment, which made a second 3-D film one year later:Dragones: Destino de Fuego.
In February 2006, the filmMadeinusa,produced as a joint venture between Peru and Spain and directed byClaudia Llosa,was set in an imaginary Andean village and describes the stagnating life of Madeinusa performed byMagaly Solierand the traumas of post-civil war Peru.
Llosa, who shared elements ofGabriel García Márquez'smagic realism,won an award at theRotterdam Film Festival.Llosa's second feature,The Milk of Sorrow( "La Teta Asustada" ), was nominated for the82nd Academy Awardsfor Best Foreign Language Picture, the first Peruvian film in the academy's history to be nominated.The Milk of Sorrow( "La Teta Asustada" ), won the Golden Bear award at the 2009 Berlinale.
Sport
The practice of sport in Peru dates back to Colonial times. With the arrival of the Spanish to this territory, the practice of sport changed radically. Later, this was influenced by the American ideology of physical education linked to commercialization. Sports in the country are divided into several sports federations (one for each sports practice) that are under the tutelage of the highest state entity to regulate their practice, the Peruvian Sports Institute (IPD). Most of the sports federations are based in theVilla Deportiva Nacionalin Lima. Peru's largest stadium isEstadio Monumental "U"which has a capacity of over 80,000, making it the second largest stadium in South America. The countries national stadium is theEstadio Nacional.Peru has hosted various sporting events, such as the2004 Copa América,2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship,2013and2024 Bolivarian Games,and the largest sporting event held by the country, the2019 Pan American Games.
Football,is the most popular and widely practiced in the country. ThePeruvian Primera Divisiónis the most important club tournament in the nation. The men's team has had some important performances on the world stage. They participated in theFIFA World Cupfive times. Likewise, they have been champions of theCopa Américaon two occasions in1939and1975and impressed at the1936 Summer Olympicsbefore going home after withdrawing from a walkover given to Austria in the quarter-final.Teófilo Cubillasis considered Peru's greatest footballer. At the club level,Universitariostands out with the runner-up in theCopa Libertadoresin 1972 andSporting Cristalalso with the runner-up in 1997. The only Peruvian clubs with international titles are Cienciano, which won the2004 Recopa Sudamericanaand the2004 Recopa Sudamericana,and Universitario champion of the2011 U-20 Copa Libertadores.
Other popular sports in Peru isvolleyball,surfingandkarate.Peru has won multiple gold, silver, and bronze medals at thePan American Games.ThePeru women's national volleyball teamwas one of the dominant teams in the 1980s and 90s and won the silver medal at the1988 Summer Olympics,losing to theSoviet Union3–2 after having led by a wide margin. Peru has usually been very good at surfing and volleyball.
See also
Notes and references
Notes
- ^In Peru,other languageshave been officially recognized as legitimateautochthonous languages,which are co-official alongsideSpanishin those areas where they predominate.
- ^In those areas where they predominate.
- ^The2017 National Censusincluded, for the first time, a question ofethnic self-identificationthat was addressed to people aged 12 and over considering elements such as their ancestry, their customs and their family origin to visualize and better understand the cultural reality of the country.
- ^The question about religion included in the2017 National Censuswas addressed to people aged 12 and over.
- ^/pəˈruː/pə-ROO;Spanish:Perú[peˈɾu];Quechua:Piruw[pɪɾʊw];[10]Aymara:Piruw[pɪɾʊw]
- ^Spanish:
- ^The government in each department is referred to as "regional" governments despite being departments.
Citations
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Only in Latin America have all new democracies retained a pure presidential form, except for Peru (president-parliamentary) and Bolivia (assembly-independent).
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At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society calledEl cuaderno verde.This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself.El cuaderno verdewas passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori.
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important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan.... Fujimori essentially adopted the Green Plan and the military became a partner in the regime.... The self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the Green Plan
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terruqueo, ou seja, a construção artificial, racista e conveniente de um inimigo sociopolítico para deslegitimar formas de protesto social
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a Middle Power like Peru lack the diplomatic and other resources...
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The wreck excavation could prove that European style jewelry was being made in the Philippines. Some 56 intact storage jars were discovered. Investigations revealed that they had come from kilns in South China, Cochin China (Vietnam), and Siam (Thailand), and one was of Spanish design. The archaeology of the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, consequently, also provides us with intriguing new insights into the trans-Pacific trade connection and the commodities involved. Each time a galleon arrived at Acapulco, a market, la feria, was organized. This attracted all kinds of people such as Indian peddlers, Mexican and Peruvian merchants, soldiers, the king's officials, and friars, as well as a few Chinese and some Filipinos. From Acapulco, the goods were transported into the hinterlands, into Mexico City, and various other places, including Peru. The Peruvian port at that time was Callao and the Ciudad de los Reyes, that is Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Generally speaking, much of what was not sold (rezagos) directly in Acapulco was redirected towards Peru. Peruvian ships, mainly loaded with silver, mercury, cacao from Guayaquil, and Peruvian wines, sailed to ports along the Mexican and Guatemalan coasts, returning with Asian goods and leftover cargo from the galleon ships. Besides Callao and Guayaquil, Paita was also frequently a port of call.
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He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reenforcement of soldiers, many of them from Perú, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom.
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The inflation rate in 1990 was 7,650%....President Fujimori immediately implemented a program of severe austerity and privatization programs. The economic shock therapy hit the poor the hardest, but brought inflation down to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992.
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- ^Gaussens, Pierre (2020)."The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s".Canadian Journal of Bioethics.3(3): 180+.doi:10.7202/1073797ar.S2CID234586692.
a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention
- ^Burt, Jo-Marie (September–October 1998). "Unsettled accounts: militarization and memory in postwar Peru".NACLA Report on the Americas.32(2).Taylor & Francis:35–41.doi:10.1080/10714839.1998.11725657.
the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.
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important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan.... Fujimori essentially adopted the 'Plan Verde,' and the military became a partner in the regime.... The autogolpe, or self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the 'Plan Verde.'
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the outlines for Peru's presidential coup were first developed within the armed forces before the 1990 election. This Plan Verde was shown to President Fujimorti after the 1990 election before his inauguration. Thus, the president was able to prepare for an eventual self-coup during the first two years of his administration
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In September 1992, a small, elite squad within Peru's antiterrorist police (established under Garcia) captured the Shining Path leader, Abimael Guzman. Within the next few weeks, using information in Guzman's hideout, police arrested more than 1,000 suspected guerillas. During the next few years, the Shining Path was decimated.
- ^Gaussens, Pierre (2020)."The forced serilization of indigenous population in Mexico in the 1990s".Canadian Journal of Bioethics.3(3): 180+.doi:10.7202/1073797ar.S2CID234586692.
a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention
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At the end of the 1980s, a group of military elites secretly developed an analysis of Peruvian society calledEl cuaderno verde.This analysis established the policies that the following government would have to carry out in order to defeat Shining Path and rescue the Peruvian economy from the deep crisis in which it found itself.El cuaderno verdewas passed onto the national press in 1993, after some of these policies were enacted by President Fujimori.... It was a program that resulted in the forced sterilization of Quechua-speaking women belonging to rural Andean communities. This is an example of 'ethnic cleansing' justified by the state, which claimed that a properly controlled birth rate would improve the distribution of national resources and thus reduce poverty levels.... The Peruvian state decided to control the bodies of 'culturally backward' women, since they were considered a source of poverty and the seeds of subversive groups
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Further reading
- Akers, Charles Edmond;Edmundson, George(1911)..Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 21 (11th ed.). pp. 264–278.
- Economy
- (in Spanish)Banco Central de Reserva.Cuadros Anuales HistóricosArchived1 May 2011 at theWayback Machine.
- (in Spanish)Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática.Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por departamentos, 2004–2008.Lima: INEI, 2009.
- Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 1920–1950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.),A cultural history of Latin America.Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227–260.
External links
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Textbooksfrom Wikibooks
Resourcesfrom Wikiversity
- Country ProfilefromBBC News
- Peru.The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.
- World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Peru
- PeruLinksArchived15 October 2008 at theWayback Machineweb directory
Wikimedia Atlas of Peru
Perutravel guide from Wikivoyage- (in Spanish)Web portalof the Peruvian Government
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