Wikipedia

Soft power

(Redirected fromSoft Power)
For the musical, seeSoft Power(musical).

Inpolitics(and particularly ininternational politics),soft poweris the ability toco-optrather thancoerce(in contrast withhard power). It involves shaping the preferences of others through appeal and attraction. Soft power is non-coercive, usingculture,politicalvalues,andforeign policiesto enact change. In 2012,Joseph NyeofHarvard Universityexplained that with soft power, "the bestpropagandais not propaganda ", further explaining that during theInformation Age,"credibility is the scarcest resource".[1]

Nye popularised the term in his 1990 book,Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power.[2]

In this book he wrote: "when one country gets other countries to want what it wants might be called co-optive or soft power in contrast with the hard or command power of ordering others to do what it wants".[2]He further developed the concept in his 2004 book,Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics.[3]

Description

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Joseph Nye's 2004 book describing the concept of "soft power"

TheOxford English Dictionaryrecords the phrase "soft power" (meaning "power (of a nation, state, alliance, etc.) deriving from economic and cultural influence, rather than coercion or military strength" ) from 1985.[4] Joseph Nyepopularized the concept of "soft power" in the late 1980s.[5] For Nye, power is the ability to influence the behavior of others to get the outcomes you want. There are several ways one can achieve this: one can coerce others with threats; one can induce them with payments; or one can attract and co-opt them to want what one wants. This soft power – getting others to want the outcomes one wants – co-opts people rather than coerces them.[2]

Soft power contrasts with "hard power"- the use of coercion and payment. Soft power can be wielded not just by states but also by all actors in international politics, such asNGOsor international institutions.[3]It is also considered by some an example of the "second face of power"[6] that indirectly allows one to obtain the outcomes one wants.[7][8] A country's soft power, according to Nye, rests on three resources: "its culture (in places where it is attractive to others), its political values (when it lives up to them at home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when others see them as legitimate and having moral authority)."[9]

"A country may obtain the outcomes it wants in world politics because other countries – admiring its values, emulating its example, aspiring to its level of prosperity and openness – want to follow it. In this sense, it is also important to set the agenda and attract others in world politics, and not only to force them to change by threatening military force or economic sanctions. This soft power – getting others to want the outcomes that you want – co-opts people rather than coerces them."[3]

Soft power resources are the assets that produce attraction, which often leads to acquiescence.[3]Nye asserts that, "Seduction is always more effective than coercion, and many values like democracy, human rights, and individual opportunities are deeply seductive."[10]Angelo Codevillaobserved that an often overlooked essential aspect of soft power is that different parts of populations are attracted or repelled by different things, ideas, images, or prospects.[11]Soft power is hampered when policies, culture, or values repel others instead of attracting them.

In his book, Nye argues that soft power is a more difficult instrument for governments to wield than hard power for two reasons: many of its critical resources are outside the control of governments, and soft power tends to "work indirectly by shaping the environment for policy, and sometimes takes years to produce the desired outcomes."[10][12]The book identifies three broad categories of soft power: "culture", "political values", and "policies."

InThe Future of Power(2011), Nye reiterates that soft power is a descriptive, rather than a normative, concept.[13]Therefore, soft power can be wielded for nefarious purposes. "Hitler,Stalin,andMaoall possessed a great deal of soft power in the eyes of their acolytes, but that did not make it good. It is not necessarily better to twist minds than to twist arms. "[13]Nye also claims that soft power does not contradict the international relations theory ofrealism."Soft power is not a form of idealism or liberalism. It is simply a form of power, one way of getting desired outcomes."[14]

Limitations of the concept

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Soft power has been criticized as being ineffective by authors such asNiall Fergusonin the preface toColossus.[citation needed]Neorealistand other rationalist and neorationalist authors (with the exception ofStephen Walt) dismiss soft power out of hand as they assert that actors in international relations respond to only two types of incentives: economic incentives and force.[citation needed]

As a concept, it can be difficult to distinguish soft power from hard power. For example, Janice Bially Mattern argues thatGeorge W. Bush's use of the phrase "you are either with us or with the terrorists" was in fact an exercise of hard power. Though military and economic force was not used to pressure other states to join its coalition, a kind of force – representational force – was used. This kind of force threatens the identity of its partners, forcing them to comply or risk being labeled as evil. This being the case, soft power is therefore not so soft.[15]

There are also recent articles about the concept's neglect of its defensive use. Since Nye's approach "mainly focuses on how to get others to do your bidding", some researchers argued that rising powers, such as China, are creating new approaches to soft power, thus using it defensively.[16]

Additionally, others have argued that more attention needs to be paid towards locating and understanding how actors' attempts at soft power can backfire, leading to reputational damage or loss, or what has been termed 'soft disempowerment'.[17]

Amit Kumar Gupta has written on what he regards as a flaw in the definition provided by Nye,[18]and has made an effort to redefine the concept. Citing Nye's definition, the author writes that, "a country's behaviour in the international platform is not in the least determined by the other parties' attraction in soft power terms. Every country weighs its interest and follows its convictions before taking any decision."[19]Gupta proposes the terms "positive soft power" and "negative soft power" to replace Nye's definition.[19]

Measurement

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An initial undertaking to measure soft power through a composite index was published by theInstitute for Government(IfG) and the media companyMonoclein 2010.[20]The IfG-Monocle Soft Power Index, created by then IfG senior researcher Jonathan McClory, combined a range of statistical metrics and subjective panel scores to measure the soft power resources of 26 countries. The metrics were organized according to a framework of five sub-indices including culture, diplomacy, education, business/innovation, and government. The index is said to measure the soft power resources of countries, and does not translate directly into ability influence.Monoclehas published an annualSoft Power Surveysince then. As of 2016/17, the list is calculated using around 50 factors that indicate the use of soft power, including the number of cultural missions (primarily language schools),Olympic medals,the quality of a country'sarchitectureand business brands.[21]

The Soft Power 30,which includes a foreword by Joseph Nye, is a ranking of countries' soft power produced and published by the media companyPortlandin 2015. The ranking is based on "the quality of a country's political institutions, the extent of their cultural appeal, the strength of their diplomatic network, the global reputation of their higher education system, the attractiveness of their economic model, and a country's digital engagement with the world."[22][23][24]

TheElcano Global Presence Reportscores the EU first for soft presence.[25]Soft power, then, represents the third behavioral way of getting the outcomes you want. Soft power is contrasted with hard power, which has historically been the predominant realist measure of national power, throughquantitative metricssuch aspopulationsize, concretemilitaryassets, or a nation'sgross domestic product.But having such resources does not always produce the desired outcomes, as the United States discovered in the Vietnam War.

The success of soft power heavily depends on the actor'sreputationwithin theinternational community,as well as the flow of information between actors. Thus, soft power is often associated with the rise ofglobalizationandneoliberal international relations theory.Popular cultureandmass mediaare regularly identified as a source of soft power,[26]as is the spread of a national language or a particular set ofnormativestructures. More particularly,international newswas found crucial in shaping the image and reputation of foreign countries. The high prominence of the US in international news, for example, has been linked to its soft power.[27]Positive news coverage was associated with positive international views, while negative news coverage with negative views.[28]

Brand Finance's
Global Soft Power 2024[29] 		ISSF's
World Soft Power Index 2023[30] 		Monocle's
Soft Power Survey 2022[31][32] 		Portland's
The Soft Power 30 Report 2019[33]
Rank Country
1 United States
2 United Kingdom
3 China
4 Japan
5 Germany
6 France
7 Canada
8 Switzerland
9 Italy
10 United Arab Emirates
Rank Country
1 United States
2 France
3 United Kingdom
4 Japan
5 Germany
6 Switzerland
7 South Korea
8 Spain
9 Canada
10 China
Rank Country
1 United States
2 Denmark
3 France
4 South Korea
5 Switzerland
6 Japan
7 Germany
8 United Kingdom
9 Italy
10 Ukraine
Rank Country
1 France
2 United Kingdom
3 Germany
4 Sweden
5 United States
6 Switzerland
7 Canada
8 Japan
9 Australia
10 Netherlands

Research

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Academics have engaged in several debates around soft power. These have included:

  • Its usefulness (Giulio Gallarotti, Niall Ferguson, Josef Joffe, Robert Kagan, Ken Waltz, Mearsheimer vs Nye, Katzenstein, Janice Bially Mattern, Jacques Hymans, Alexander Vuving, Jan Mellisen)
  • How soft power and hard power interact (Giulio Gallarotti, Joseph Nye)
  • Whether soft power can be coercive or manipulative, (Janice Bially Mattern, Katzenstein, Duvall & Barnet vs Nye, Vuving)
  • How the relationship betweenstructure and agencywork (Hymans vs Nye)
  • Whether soft balancing is occurring (Wohlforth & Brooks vs Waltet al..)
  • Soft power and normative power in Europe (Ian Manners, A Ciambra, Thomas Diez, A Hyde Pryce, Richard Whitman)
  • Howcivil resistance(i.e., non-violent forms of resistance) can often involve certain uses of soft power, but remains a distinct concept (Adam Roberts, Timothy Garton Ash)

Examples

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Worldwide

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The Soviet Union competed with the U.S. for influence throughout theCold War.The Soviets were engaged in a broad campaign to convince the world of the attractiveness of its Communist system. In 1945, the Soviet Union was very effective in attracting many in Europe from its resistance toHitler,and in colonized areas around the world because of its opposition toEuropean imperialism.[34]The Soviets also employed a substantially largepublic diplomacyprogram that included: promoting their high culture, broadcasting, disseminating information about the West, and sponsoring nuclear protests, peace movements, and youth organizations. Despite all of this, the Soviets' closed system and lack of popular culture impeded the ability of the Soviet Union to compete with the U.S. in terms of soft power.[35]

Umm Kulthum,example of Egypt's soft power in the 20th century Arab World

A number ofnon-democratic governmentshave attempted to usemigrationas an instrument of soft power:Egyptunder the rule ofGamal Abdel Nassertrained and dispatched thousands of teachers across theArab worldin an effort to spread ideas ofanti-colonialismandanti-Zionism.[36]InCuba,theFidel Castroregime'smedical internationalismprogramme has dispatched thousands of medical professionals abroad forcultural diplomacypurposes.[37]The Chinese-sponsoredConfucius Institutesacross the world rely on Chinese teachers in order to strengthen the country's soft power abroad.[38]

The United States and Europe have consistently been sources of influence and soft power.[39]European culture's art, literature, music, design, fashion, and even food have been global magnets for some time.[34]Europe and the U.S. have often claimed to supporthuman rightsandinternational lawthroughout the world. In 2012, theEuropean Unionwas awarded theNobel Peace Prize"for over six decades [it has] contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and human rights in Europe."[40][41]In 2019, the U.S. has the second largest diplomatic network in the world,[42][43]the largest number of foreign journalists based in the country,[44]and is the most popular destination for international students.[45]American films,television, music, advertising, fashion, food, economic models, political culture, and literature have contributed to theAmericanizationof other cultures.[46]

Asia and more recently China have been working to use the potential soft power assets that are present in the admiration of their ancient cultures, arts, fashion and cuisine.[47]China is presenting itself as a defender of national sovereignty,[48]which became an issue after theNATOair campaign to oust Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and NATO's support of the rebels in Libya.[49]The Chinese are also competing with the United States to gain influence throughout the South Pacific, however some commentators have said their recent assertiveness in this region has created an appeal for nations in this region to align with the United States thus increasing U.S. soft power in this area.[50]

Soft power extends beyond the operations of government, to the activities of the private sector and to society and culture at large.[51]Soft power has gained more influence because it addresses the underlying dispositions of the people who have increasingly become more active in their governments.[11]This is true even in authoritarian countries where people and institutions are increasingly able to shape the debate.[52]

Australia

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According to theDepartment of Foreign Affairs and Tradeof the Commonwealth Government, Australia maintains a good reputation thanks to “its democracy, rule of law, strong economy, quality education, cutting-edge science, multiculturalism and environmental protections”, enabling to its citizens and institutions to “speak with confidence and credibility in the world stage”.[53]Education has remained central to Australia's soft power,[53][54]being one of the most recognized education powerhouses in the world with more than 700,000 international students enrolled.[55]In 2023, Australia'snation brandingwas ranked as the world's ninth strongest according to the Nation Brand Index, which positions Australia as an attractive place for tourism and foreign investment:[56]it perceives the world's eighth largest tourism receipts[57]and it is the 16th largestFDIreceptor.[58]

Middle East

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The Middle East has been an area in which soft power has been employed by both regional and outside actors. Small states, such asQatar,frequently employ soft-power strategies, including the use ofal-Jazeeraand the hosting of sports events, in their foreign policymaking.[59]Outside powers, such as the United States or China, also employ soft power in terms of expanding their influence across the Middle East.[60][61]Competition amongst states of the Middle East often involves the use of soft power, as in the case ofEgyptian-Israelirivalry over Africa,[62]orSaudi-Iranianrelations.[63]

Iran

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Iran’ssoft power, driven by itsShia Islamic ideology,Iranian-Persian background, civilization and history,the legacy of the1979 Iranian RevolutionandAnti-Zioniststance exerts significant influence in the Middle East, the broaderIslamic world,Central Asia,Africaand even the West.[64]Central to this influence is the promotion ofanti-imperialist,Islamic,andShiaideologies likeKhomeinismandpolitical interpretation of Shia Islam,which have fostered strong ties with theMuslim world,especially countries in the "Axis of Resistance"such asIraq,Syria,Lebanon,andYementhat have led to the foundation of many Islamic and Shia groups such asHezbollahinLebanon,Islamic Resistance groupsinIraq,Islamic JihadinPalestineand many others across the region.Iranalso promotes the idea of a "Greater Iran,"connecting culturally and ideologically withPersian-speaking nations likeTajikistan,Afghanistan,andPakistan,where thePersian languageplays a unifying role.[65][66][67]

In theIslamic world,Iran’s influence extends beyond its borders, particularly in countries of theAxis of Resistanceand other countries likeBahrain,Saudi Arabia,and the Muslim world, whereShiacommunities often look toIranfor religious guidance and political inspiration, and someSunnissupport theAxis of Resistanceand are attracted by Iran'santi-Israelipolicies in countries likePalestine,QatarandSyria.Iran's cultural and religious outreach, includingmedia,educational exchanges, and religiousdiplomacy,strengthens its ties with Shia and Islamic populations worldwide. Iran'santi-imperialistandanti-colonialstance, rooted in the1979 Islamic Revolution,is attractive to many. By positioning itself as a defender of sovereignty againstU.S. influence,Iran resonates withanti-globalization movementsand intellectuals critical ofWestern interventionism.[67][68]

InLatin America,Iran’s solidarity withanti-imperialistgovernments, likeVenezuela,strengthens ties based on mutual resistance to U.S. domination, promoting a shared vision of self-determination.Iran’s ideological message,combininganti-imperialism,Islamic and Shia values, Iranian-Persian cultural and historical roots, and cultural diplomacy, has made it a significant actor on the regional and world stage, inspiring and fostering relations with a diverse range of countries committed to challenging Western domination and promoting an alternative vision ofglobal order.[67][68][69][70]

China

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Main article:Soft power of China

China's traditional culture has been a source of attraction, building on which it has created several hundredConfucius Institutesaround the world to teach its language and culture. The enrollment of foreign students in China has increased from 36,000 a decade before to at least 240,000 in 2010.[71]China is the most popular country in Asia for international students,[72]the leading destination globally for Anglophone African students,[73]and the second most populareducation powerhousein the world.[74]China'sAsian Infrastructure Investment Bankhas attracted many Western countries to join.[75]China has thelargest diplomatic networkin the world, overtaking the US in 2019.[43][42]The provision of Chinese medical aid during theCOVID-19 pandemichas been dubbed "facemask diplomacy".[76][77]

The supersonic jetConcordearrives inIvory Coast,a former French colony, in 1978. Concorde was often used as a symbol of French prestige and a vessel of soft power.[78]

France

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According to a 2018 study in theAmerican Sociological Review,France had greater influence on Europeangeopoliticsthan Britain in the 18th century because of its cultural and symbolic power.[79]

Germany

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The annual soft power rankings byMonoclemagazine and the Institute for Government ranks 30 countries which "best attract favor from other nations through culture, sport, cuisine, design, diplomacy and beyond."Monoclemagazine said: "Merkelmay be painted as a stern taskmaster but it seems she has a softer side, or the country she leads does. "It said Germany's rise as a soft power should not come as a surprise." The country is traditionally excellent at pursuing its ideas, values and aims using diplomatic, cultural and economic tools, "it said." By quietly doing the simple things well it is a country that has become a global power and the rest of us can feel comfortable with that. "Germans had been understandably wary about depicting a dominant image abroad, the magazine added, but it said that the country's rise should not make everyone else feel uncomfortable.[80][81][82]In 2017, Germany had the eighth largest diplomatic network in the world.[42]

India

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YogaPractice in Tanzania

The five pillars of India's soft power—dignity, dialogue, shared prosperity, regional and global security, and cultural and civilizational links—are strategically employed to enhance its global influence.[83]On May 21, 2021, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) announced plans to use Indian cuisine as a form of soft power, emphasizing its role in showcasing India's cultural heritage.[84] Additionally, thesoft power of India in Africahas been reflected in cultural exchanges, including the influence of Bollywood movies, the spread of yoga practices, and the involvement of the Indian diaspora.[85]

Italy

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The elements of Italian soft culture are itsart,music,fashion,design,andfood.Italy was the birthplace ofopera,[86]and for generations the language of opera wasItalian.Popular tastes in drama in Italy have long favored comedy; the improvisational style known as theCommedia dell'artebegan in Italy in the mid-16th century[87]and is still performed today. Before being exported to France and Russia,Balletalso originated in Italy. The country boasts several world-famous cities:Romewas the ancient capital of theRoman Empireand seat of thePopeof theCatholic Church.Rome is generally considered one of the "cradles ofWestern civilizationandChristian culture".[88][89][90]Florencewas the heart of theRenaissance,a period of great achievements inthe arts[91]which marked the transition from theMiddle Agestomodernity.Other important cities includeTurin,one of the world's great centers ofautomobile engineering.Milanis one of the "Big Four"fashion capitals.Venice,with its intricate canal system and history of seafaring, attracts tourists from all over the world especially during theVenetian Carnivaland theVenice Biennale. Italy is home to the greatest number ofUNESCOWorld Heritage Sites(59) to date.[92]In 2019, Italy had the ninth largest diplomatic network in the world.[42]Italy is the fifth most visited country in the World.

Japan

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Main article:Cool Japan

"Cool Japan"is a concept coined in 2002 as an expression ofJapan's popular culture.The concept has been adopted by the Japanese government as well as trade bodies seeking to exploit the commercial capital of the country's culture industry.[93][94]It has been described as a form of soft power, "the ability to indirectly influence behavior or interests through cultural or ideological means."[95]In a 2002 article in the journalForeign Policytitled "Japan's Gross National Cool", Douglas McGray wrote of Japan "reinventing superpower" as its cultural influence expanded internationally despite the economic and political problems of the "lost decade." Surveying youth culture and the role ofJ-pop,manga,anime,video game,fashion,film,automobiles,consumer electronics,architecture,andcuisine,McGray highlighted Japan's considerable soft power, posing the question of what message the country might project. He also argued that Japan's recession may even have boosted its national cool, due to the partial discrediting of erstwhile rigid social hierarchies and big-business career paths.[96]In 2015, during remarks welcoming Japanese Prime MinisterShinzo Abeto the White House, PresidentBarack Obamathanked Japan for its cultural contributions to theUnited Statesby saying:

This visit is a celebration of the ties of friendship and family that bind our peoples. I first felt it when I was 6 years old when my mother took me to Japan. I felt it growing up in Hawaii, like communities across our country, home to so many proud Japanese Americans... Today is also a chance for Americans, especially our young people, to say thank you for all the things we love from Japan. Likekarateandkaraoke.Manga and anime. And, of course,emojis.[97]

In 2017, Japan had the fifth largest diplomatic network in the world.[42]Anime, manga and Japanese films are considered to be soft power. In April 2023, theJapan Business Federationlaid out a proposal aiming to spur the economic growth ofJapanby further promoting the contents industry abroad, primarily anime, manga andvideo games,for measures to invite industry experts from abroad to come to Japan to work, and to link with thetourism sectorto help foreign fans of manga and anime visit sites across the country associated with particular manga stories. The federation seeks on quadrupling the sales of Japanese content in overseas markets within the upcoming 10 years.[98][99]Today, theculture of Japanstands as one of the most influential cultures around the world, mainly because of the global reach of its popular culture.[100][101][102][103][104][105]

Russia

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Russia has been developing its soft power by investing in various public diplomacy instruments throughout the 2000s[106]but the term was first used in an official document in 2010 asPresident Medvedevapproved an Addendum to the national Foreign Policy Concept. The term was not defined but it was described as related tocultural diplomacy.[107]In 2013, the term appeared in a new version of the Foreign Policy Concept where the soft power was defined as "a comprehensive toolkit for achieving foreign policy objectives building on civil society potential, information, cultural and other methods and technologies alternative to traditional diplomacy."[108]In 2007, Russian PresidentVladimir Putinwas namedTimePerson of the Year.In 2013, he was named most powerful person by Forbes magazine.[109]In 2015, Russia led the creation of theEurasian Economic Union.[110]In 2017, Russia had the fourth largest diplomatic network in the world.[42]In the wake of thepoisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripalin 2018, the BBC reported that "Its extensive diplomatic network reflects both its imperial history as agreat powerin the 19th Century, as well as its Cold War posture. It has a multitude of posts in Eastern Europe and former communist allies including China, Vietnam, Cuba and Angola, as well as legacies of the former USSR in Africa and Asia. The size of its network reflects the extent of its undiminished global ambition. "[111]

South Korea

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Main article:Korean Wave
U.S. PresidentBarack Obama:"...And of course, around the world, people are being swept up by Korean culture -- theKorean Wave"[112]
As is clear with the recent rise of Psy's "Gangnam Style",
theHallyu-wave andKorean popmusic, Korean culture
is making its mark on the world.
—United Nations Secretary GeneralBan Ki-moon[113]

"Hallyu",also known as the"Korean Wave",is aneologismreferring to the spread of South Korean culture since the late 1990s. According to aWashington Postreporter, the spread of South Korean entertainment has led to higher sales of other goods and services such as food, clothing, andKorean languageclasses.[114]Besides increasing the amount of exports, theKorean Waveis used by the government as a soft power tool to engage with the masses of young people all over the world.[115][116]

In the 21st century, culture is power.

— Former South Korean presidentPark Geun-hye.[117]

In 2012, theBBC's country rating poll revealed that public opinion ofSouth Koreahas been improving every year since the first rating poll for the country was conducted in 2009. In several countries such asTaiwan,India,FranceandJapan,public opinion about South Korea is generally positive. The report cited culture and tradition as among the most important factors contributing to positive perceptions of South Korea.[118]This comes alongside a rapid growth in the total value of cultural exports which rose to US$4.2 billion in 2011.[119][120]And as of 2021, South Korea's cultural content industry has exports of $12.45 billion.[121]

First driven by the spread ofKorean dramastelevised acrossEast,SouthandSoutheast Asiaduring its initial stages, theKorean Waveevolved from a regional development into a global phenomenon due to the proliferation of Korean pop (K-pop) music videos onYouTube.[122][123]Developed far beyond YouTube, the most successful K-pop band,BTS,is valued to be worth US$5 billion, generating impressive revenue for South Korea.[124]Currently, the spread of theKorean Waveto other regions of the world is most visibly seen among teenagers and young adults inEast Asia,North American,theMiddle East,Latin America,andimmigrantenclavesof theWestern world.[125][126][127]

Spain

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Main articles:Spanish EmpireandHispanophone

The main power of theAge of Discovery,Spain began the conquest of theNew Worldin 1492, giving rise to theSpanish Empire.Controlling vast portions of theAmericas,parts ofAfrica,various territories inAsia,Oceania,as well as territory in other parts of Europe, the Spanish Empire became, in conjunction with the Portuguese, the first empire to achieve a global scale andone of the largest empires in history.TheHispanic cultureis the legacy of the vast and prolonged Spanish Empire, whose cultural background is primarily associated withSpain,regardless of racial or geographical differences. The whole sense of identity of the Hispanic population and theHispanophonesis sometimes referred by the termHispanidad(Hispanicity).

Since the so-calledSiglo de Oro,a period of flourishing in arts and literature in Spain coinciding with the political rise of the Spanish Empire under theCatholic Monarchsand theSpanish Habsburgs,the Spanishart,architecture,music,literature,poetry,painting,andcuisinehave been influential worldwide, particularly inWestern Europeand theAmericas.As a reflection of its largecultural wealth,Spain has one of the world's largest numbers ofWorld Heritage Sitesand is the world'ssecond-most visited country.Its cultural influence extends over 600 millionHispanophones,makingSpanish languagethe world'ssecond-most spoken native languageand the world's most widely spokenRomance language.[128]

United Kingdom

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Main articles:Anglosphere,Anglophones,andPax Britannica

Since the 1814–1914 century ofPax Britannicatheforeign relations of the United Kingdomhas held a significant soft power component.[129][130][131]

British influence can be observed in the legal and political systems of many of itsformer colonies,and theUK's cultureremains globally influential, particularly inlanguage,literature,musicandsport.[132]English is the most widely spokenGermanic languageas well as theworld's most widely spoken languageand thethird-most spoken native language.It is aco-official language of the United Nations,theEuropean Union,and many other international and regional organisations. It has also become thede factolanguage ofdiplomacy,science,international trade,tourism,aviation,entertainmentand theinternet.[133]

United States

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Main articles:American imperialismandCulture of the United States

Theforeign relations of the United Stateshas long had a great deal of soft power.[134]Examples of the impact includeFranklin D. Roosevelt'sfour freedomsin Europe to motivate the Allies inWorld War II;people behind theIron Curtainlistening to the government's foreign propaganda armRadio Free Europe;newly liberated Afghans in 2001 asking for a copy of theBill of Rightsand young Afghans today surreptitiously watching banned American videos and satellite television broadcasts in the privacy of their homes.[10]America's early commitment toreligious toleration,for example, was a powerful element of its overall appeal to potential immigrants; and American aid in the reconstruction of Europe after World War II was a propaganda victory to show off the prosperity and the generosity of the people of the United States.

American culturehas been embraced around the world for many decades. Due to America's superpower status, American culture is often seen as "hegemonic". American dominance and the popularization of American media largely contributed to the English language (particularly American English) becoming the global lingua franca. American music has had a wide influence over the development of music around the globe. American architecture and urban planning, American political and economic philosophy, and American film and television have played strong roles in shaping both western and non-western culture. American cuisine, fashion trends, literature, theatre, and dance have also widely influenced global culture of the modern era, and various subcultures that were born in the United States, such as thehippie,hip-hop,punk rock,rock and roll,greaser,grunge,andBeatnikmovements (among others), have influenced mainstream culture of the 20th and 21st centuries. American technology and social media companies hold a monopoly over the world's digital space.

Studies of American broadcasting into theSoviet bloc,and testimonials from Czech presidentVáclav Havel,Polish presidentLech Wałęsa,and Russian presidentBoris Yeltsin,support that soft power efforts of the United States and its allies during the Cold War were ultimately successful in creating the favorable conditions that led to the collapse of theSoviet Union.[135]

Satellite TV is actively promoting American soft power in the Arab world in ways that the United States has been incapable of doing. The launch of the Arabic-languageAlhurrasatellite channel in early 2004 to provide news and entertainment in ways more beneficial to the U.S., marked an important turning point in U.S. public diplomacy development. Though it calls itself the largest Arabic-language news organization in the world, the Virginia-based Alhurra lacks the cachet and brand recognition ofAl Jazeera,but its balanced presentation of news has earned it a small but significant viewership. Controversial innovations in radio broadcasting that target young mass audiences through a mix of light news and mild American popular music –Radio SawainArabicandRadio FardainPersian– have captured a substantial market share in their target regions.[12]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Nye, Joseph(8 May 2012)."China's Soft Power Deficit To catch up, its politics must unleash the many talents of its civil society".The Wall Street Journal.Retrieved6 December2014.
  2. ^abcNye 1990.
  3. ^abcdNye 2004a.
  4. ^ "soft power".Oxford English Dictionary(Online ed.).Oxford University Press.(Subscription orparticipating institution membershiprequired.)- "S. Boonyapratuang Mil. Control in S.E. Asia iii. 72 Musjawarah (decision by discussion) and 'soft power' became the stances of his control."
  5. ^ Nye, Joseph S.(16 March 2004).Soft Power: The Means To Success In World Politics.New York: PublicAffairs. p. ix, xi.ISBN9781586482251.Retrieved16 March2023.[...] I had coined the term 'soft power' a decade or so earlier. [...] I first developed the concept of 'soft power' inBound to Lead,a book I published in 1990 [...].
  6. ^ Parlak, Bekir, ed. (15 October 2022).The Handbook of Public Administration, Vol. 2.Livre de Lyon. p. 346.ISBN9782382363003.Retrieved16 March2023.The second face of power is soft power.
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  10. ^abcNye 2004a,p. x.
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Bibliography

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Further reading

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  • Chitty, Naren, Lilian Ji, and Gary Rawnsley, eds. (2023).The Routledge Handbook of Soft Power 2nd Edition,NY: Routledge.
  • Fraser, Matthew(2005).Weapons of Mass Distraction: Soft Power and American Empire,St. Martin's Press.Analysis is focused on thepop cultureaspect of soft power, such as movies, television,pop music,Disneyland,and Americanfast-foodbrands includingCoca-ColaandMcDonald's.
  • Gallarotti, Giulio (2010).Cosmopolitan Power in International Relations: A Synthesis of Realism, Neoliberalism, and Constructivism,NY: Cambridge University Press. How hard and soft power can be combined to optimize national power.
  • Kurlantzick, Joshua(2007).Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power Is Transforming the World,Yale University Press. Analysis of China's use of soft power to gain influence in the world's political arena.
  • Lukes, Steven (2007). "Power and the Battle For Hearts and Minds: On the Bluntness of Soft Power", in Berenskoetter, Felix and M.J. Williams, eds. (2007),Power in World Politics,Routledge.
  • Manners, Ian (2002)."Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?"(PDF).JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies.40(2): 235–258.doi:10.1111/1468-5965.00353.S2CID145569196.
  • Mattern, Janice Bially (2006). "Why Soft Power Isn't So Soft", in Berenskoetter & Williams (see under "Lukes" )
  • McCormick, John(2007).The European Superpower,Palgrave Macmillan. Argues that the European Union has used soft power effectively to emerge as an alternative and as a competitor to the heavy reliance of the US on hard power.
  • Nye, Joseph (2007). "Notes For a Soft Power Research Agenda", in Berenskoetter & Williams (see under "Lukes" )
  • Nye, Joseph (2008).The Powers to Lead,NY Oxford University Press.
  • Nye, Joseph S. (2 January 2021). "Soft power: the evolution of a concept".Journal of Political Power.14(1): 196–208.doi:10.1080/2158379X.2021.1879572.
  • Onuf, Nicholas (2 January 2017). "The power of metaphor/the metaphor of power".The Journal of International Communication.23(1): 1–14.doi:10.1080/13216597.2016.1231699.
  • Soft Power.Global Power Shift. 2020.doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29922-4.ISBN978-3-030-29921-7.
  • Parmar, Inderjeet and Michael Cox, eds. (2010).Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives,Routledge.
  • Rothman, Steven B. (2011). "Revising the soft power concept: what are the means and mechanisms of soft power?".Journal of Political Power.4(1): 49–64.doi:10.1080/2158379X.2011.556346.
  • Surowiec, Paweł; Long, Philip (2 January 2020)."Hybridity and Soft Power Statecraft: The 'GREAT' Campaign"(PDF).Diplomacy & Statecraft.31(1): 168–195.doi:10.1080/09592296.2020.1721092.
  • O'Loughlin, Ben (22 October 2020)."H-Diplo Article Review 989".Archived(PDF)from the original on Apr 22, 2023.
  • Cho, Young Nam; Jeong, Jong Ho (June 2008). "China's Soft Power: Discussions, Resources, and Prospects".Asian Survey.48(3): 453–472.doi:10.1525/as.2008.48.3.453.JSTOR10.1525/as.2008.48.3.453.
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