Wikipedia

Fraternities and sororities

(Redirected fromSororities)
This article is about the student social organizations. For other types, seeProfessional fraternities and sororitiesandHonor society.For other uses, seeFraternity (disambiguation).For other uses, seeSisterhood (disambiguation).

InNorth America,fraternitiesandsororities(Latin:fraternitasandsororitas,'brotherhood' and 'sisterhood') aresocial organizationsatcollegesanduniversities.They are sometimes collectively referred to asGreek life.Generally, membership in afraternityor sorority is obtained as anundergraduatestudent but continues thereafter for life. Some acceptgraduatestudents as well.[1][2]Individual fraternities and sororities vary in organization and purpose, but most share five common elements:

  1. Secrecy
  2. Single-sexmembership
  3. Selection of new members based on a two-part vetting and probationary process known asrushingandpledging
  4. Ownership and occupancy of aresidential propertywhere undergraduate members live
  5. A set of complex identification symbols that may includeGreek letters,armorial achievements,ciphers, badges, grips, hand signs, passwords, flowers, and colors

Fraternities and sororities engage inphilanthropic activities,host parties, provide "finishing" training for new members such as instruction on etiquette, dress, and manners, and create networking opportunities for their newly graduated members.

Fraternities and sororities can be tax-exempt501(c)(7) organizationsin the United States.

Fraternities and sororities have been criticized for practicingelitismandfavoritism,discriminatingagainst non-white studentsand other marginalized groups, conducting dangeroushazing rituals,and facilitatingalcohol abuse.Many colleges and universities[which?]have sought to reform or eliminate them due to these concerns, but these efforts have typically been met with intense controversy.[3][4][5][6][further explanation needed]

History

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Further information:Fraternity § History,andPhilhellenism

Establishment and early history

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The fraternity system inNorth Americabegan at theCollege of William and MaryinWilliamsburg, Virginia,wherePhi Beta Kappawas founded in 1776.
TheLambda Chi Alphafraternity house atSyracuse UniversityinSyracuse, New York

The first fraternity inNorth Americato incorporate most of the elements of modern fraternities wasPhi Beta Kappa,founded at theCollege of William and Maryin 1775. The founding of Phi Beta Kappa followed the earlier establishment of two other secret student societies that had existed on that campus as early as 1750. In 1779 Phi Beta Kappa expanded to include chapters at Harvard and Yale. By the early 19th century, the organization transformed itself into a scholastic honor society and abandoned secrecy.[7]

In 1825,Kappa Alpha Society,the first fraternity to retain its social characteristic, was established atUnion CollegeinSchenectady, New York.In 1827,Sigma PhiandDelta Phiwere also founded at the same institution,[8]creating theUnion Triad.The further birthing ofPsi Upsilon(1833),Omicron Kappa Epsilon(1834),Chi Psi(1841), andTheta Delta Chi(1847) collectively established Union College as theMother of Fraternities.

The social fraternityChi Phi,officially formed in 1854, traces its roots to a short-lived organization founded atPrinceton UniversityinPrinceton, New Jersey,in 1824 bearing the same name.[9]

Fraternities represented the intersection betweendining clubs,literary societies,and secret initiatory orders such asFreemasonry.Their early growth was widely opposed by university administrators, though the increasing influence of fraternity alumni, as well as several high-profile court cases, succeeded in largely muting opposition by the 1880s.[8]The first fraternity meeting hall, or lodge, seems to have been that of the Alpha Epsilon chapter of Chi Psi at theUniversity of MichiganinAnn Arbor, Michigan,in 1845, leading to a tradition in that fraternity to name its buildings "lodges". As fraternity membership was punishable by expulsion at many colleges at this time, the house was located deep in the woods.[10]

The first residential chapter home, built by a fraternity, is believed to have beenAlpha Delta Phi'schapter atCornell University,with groundbreaking dated to 1878.[11]Alpha Tau Omegabecame the first fraternity to own a residential house in the South when, in 1880, its chapter at theUniversity of the Southacquired one.[12]Chapters of many fraternities followed suit, purchasing and, less often, building them with support of alumni.Phi Sigma Kappa'schapter home at Cornell, completed in 1902, is the oldest such house still occupied by its fraternal builders.[13]

Sororities

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TheKappa Kappa Gammahouse at theUniversity of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
Wesleyan CollegeinMacon, Georgia,pictured c. 1877, was the birthplace ofAlpha Delta PiandPhi Musororities

Sororities, originally called women's fraternities, began to develop in 1851 with the formation of the Adelphean SocietyAlpha Delta Pi,[14]though fraternity-like organizations for women didn't take their current form until the establishment ofPi Beta Phiin 1867 andKappa Alpha ThetaandKappa Kappa Gammain 1870. The term sorority was used by a professor ofLatinatSyracuse University,Frank Smalley, who felt the word "fraternity" was inappropriate for a group of ladies.[15]The word comes from Latinsoror,meaning "sister," "cousin, daughter of a father's brother," or "female friend."[16]The first organization to use the term "sorority" wasGamma Phi Beta,established in 1874.[17]

The development of fraternities for women during this time was a major accomplishment in the way of women's rights and equality. By mere existence, these organizations were defying the odds; the founding women were able to advance their organizations despite many factors working against them. The first "Women's Fraternities" not only had to overcome "restrictive social customs, unequal status under the law and the underlying presumption that they were less able than men,"[18]but at the same time had to deal with the same challenges as fraternities with college administrations.

Today, both social and multicultural sororities are present on more than 650 college campuses across the United States and Canada. TheNational Panhellenic Conference(NPC) serves as the umbrella organization for 26 international sororities. Founded in 1902, NPC is one of the oldest and largest women's membership organizations, representing more than four million women at 655 college and university campuses and 4,500 local alumni chapters in the U.S. and Canada.[19]

Internationalization

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In 1867, theChi Phifraternity established its Theta chapter at theUniversity of EdinburghinScotland,marking the first foray of the American social fraternity outside the borders of the United States. At the time, many students from theAmerican Southwere moving to Europe to study because of the disrepair southern universities fell into during theAmerican Civil War.One such group of Americans organized Chi Phi at Edinburgh; however, during the Theta chapter's existence, it initiated no non-American members. With declining American enrollment at European universities, Chi Phi at Edinburgh closed in 1870.[17]

Nine years following Chi Phi's abortive colonization of the University of Edinburgh, a second attempt was made to transplant the fraternity system outside the United States. In 1879,Zeta Psiestablished a chapter at theUniversity of Toronto.Zeta Psi's success in Toronto prompted it to open a second Canadian chapter atMcGill University,which it chartered in 1883. Other early foundations wereKappa Alpha Societyat Toronto in 1892 and at McGill in 1899, andAlpha Delta Phiat Toronto in 1893 and at McGill in 1897.[20]

The first sorority [outside the United States],Kappa Alpha Theta,was established in Toronto in 1887. By 1927 there were 42 fraternity and sorority chapters at the University of Toronto and 23 at McGill University. A few chapters were also reported at theUniversity of British Columbia,Carleton University,Dalhousie University,University of Manitoba,Queen's University,University of Western Ontario,Wilfrid Laurier University,University of WaterlooandBrock University.[20]

The arrival of the fraternity system in Asia accompanied the introduction of the American educational system in thePhilippines.The first fraternities were established in theUniversity of the Philippines.The now-defunct Patriotic and Progressive Rizal Center Academic Brotherhood (Rizal Center Fraternity), a brotherhood of Jose Rizal followers, was founded in 1913.[21]This was followed by the Rizal Center Sorority. The first Greek-letter organization and fraternity in Asia, theUpsilon Sigma Phi,was founded in 1918.[22]The first Greek-letter sorority, UP Sigma Beta Sorority, was recognized in 1932.[22]

Religion

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Main articles:Christian fraternity (fraternities and sororities),Christian sorority,andList of Jewish fraternities and sororities
Alpha Phi Alphafraternity members assist theGeorgia Air National Guardduring aGeorge Floyd protestinAtlantain June 2020

Many early fraternities referred toChristian principlesor to aSupreme Beingin general, as is characteristic offraternal orders.[23]Some, such asAlpha Chi Rho(1895) andAlpha Kappa Lambda(1907), only admittedChristians,[23]while others, such asBeta Sigma Psi(1925) andPhi Kappa Theta(1959), catered to students belonging with certain denominations of Christianity, such asLutheranismandCatholicism.[23]

Due to their exclusion from Christian fraternities in the United States,Jewishstudents began to establish their own fraternities in 1895 and 1920, with the first one beingZeta Beta Tau,founded in 1898.[23]

Although many of the religion-specific requirements for many fraternities and sororities have been relaxed or removed, there are some today that continue to rally around their faith as a focal point, such asBeta Upsilon Chi(1985) andSigma Alpha Omega(1998).[23][24]

Multiculturalism

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See also:Cultural interest fraternities and sororities,List of Latino Greek-letter organizations], andList of LGBT and LGBT-friendly fraternities and sororities

Numerous Greek organizations in the past have enacted formal and informal prohibitions on pledging individuals of differentracesand cultural backgrounds. This began with historically White fraternities and sororities excluding African Americans due to racism.Historically Black fraternities and sororitieswere spearheaded thereafter in response.

Racist policies have since been abolished by theNorth American Interfraternity Conference,and students of various ethnicities have come together to form a council of multicultural Greek organizations. TheNational Multicultural Greek Council,officially formed in 1998, is a coordinating body of 19 Greek organizations, including nine fraternities, and ten sororities with cultural affiliations.[25]

The first multicultural sorority,Mu Sigma Upsilon,was established in November 1981 atRutgers UniversityinNew Brunswick, New Jersey.[26]The formation of this Greek organization allowed for the emergence of a multicultural fraternity and sorority movement, giving birth to a multicultural movement.

Structure and organization

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Gender exclusivity

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Fraternities and sororities traditionally have been single-sex organizations, with fraternities consisting exclusively of men and sororities consisting exclusively of women. In the United States, fraternities and sororities have a statutory exemption fromTitle IXlegislation prohibiting this type of gender exclusion within student groups, and organizations such as theFraternity and Sorority Political Action Committeelobby to maintain it.[27][28]

Since the mid-20th century, a small number of fraternities, such asAlpha Theta,Lambda Lambda Lambda,andAlpha Phi Omegahave opted to become co-educational and admit female members; however, these generally represent a minority of Greek-letter organizations and no such fraternity is currently a member of the North American Interfraternity Conference, the largest international association of fraternities.[27][28]The first coed fraternity was Pi Alpha Tau (1963–1991) at theUniversity of Illinois at Chicago.[29]

Much more commonly, coed fraternities exist in the form of service fraternities, such asAlpha Phi Omega,Epsilon Sigma Alpha,Alpha Tau Muand others.These organizations are similar to social fraternities and sororities, except they are coed and non-residential. Similarly, in the United States, professional fraternities, such asAlpha Kappa Psi,Delta Sigma Pi,andPhi Gamma Nuare required to be co-ed under theTitle IXamendments, as are any fraternities that are not social fraternities.

In 2014,Sigma Phi Epsilonbecame the first fraternity in theNorth American Interfraternity Conferenceto accept transgender members, or those identifying as male, to join the social fraternity.[30]Several sororities have adjusted their policies to confirm that transgender prospective members are allowable.

Importantly, all these variants have stemmed from a process of self-determination, without challenge by other Greeks. In abellwethercase in 2016,Harvard Universitychanged its student conduct code to bar members of single-sex groups from leading campus groups, serving as captains of sports teams, or participating in valuable academic fellowships. This is being contested vigorously in U.S. federal court by several affected fraternities and sororities.[31][32]

Governance

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Individual chapters of fraternities and sororities are largely self-governed by their active (student) members; however, alumni members may retain legal ownership of the fraternity or sorority's property through an alumni chapter or alumni corporation. All of a single fraternity or sorority's chapters are generally grouped in a national or international organization that sets standards, regulates insignia and ritual, publishes a journal or magazine for all of the chapters of the organization, and has the power to grant and revoke charters to chapters. These federal structures are largely governed by alumni members of the fraternity, though with some input from the active (student) members.[33][34][35]

Rushing and pledging

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"Rush week" redirects here. For other uses, seeRush week (disambiguation).
See also:Sorority recruitment
TheAlpha Delta Phihouse atCornell UniversityinIthaca, New York
TheAlpha Sigma Phihouse at theUniversity of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Before 1900, the expansion of fraternal housing and competition among fraternities led to increasingly aggressive recruitment among the social fraternities, which had hitherto followed the methodical process of tapping and individualized invitations that are still present among honorary and professional fraternities. In an introductory article about the nature and history of Fraternal life,Baird's Manual[a]indicates that the term "Rushing"and later,"Rush week"hearken to the effort to rush to meet incoming trains filled with new classmates and delegations of freshmen students, where bids were offered and lapel pins then" spiked "the new fellow to mark him as a new member of the fraternity which he opted to join. Baird's further indicates that the tradition was adopted from English boarding schools, similarly jostling to recruit incoming prospects, which the aggressive fraternities found to be" handy to imitate ". Variations of Rush Week continued to evolve, some offering immediate recruitment and some deferred until the second half of freshman year, or even into the second year. Formal recruitment on all, or virtually all campuses continues as a defined Rush week, while many campuses and most chapters offer ongoing" informal rush "to welcome potential members, amounting to hundreds of thousands of new members every year.[36]

Today, most Greek letter organizations select potential members through a two-part process of vetting and probation, called rushing and pledging, respectively. During rush (recruitment), students attend designated social events, and sometimes formal interviews, hosted by the chapters of fraternities and sororities in which they have particular interests. Usually, after a potential new member has attended several such events, officers or current members meet privately to vote on whether or not to extend an invitation, known as a "bid", to the prospective applicant.

Those applicants who receive a bid, and choose to accept it, are considered to have "pledged" the fraternity or sorority, thus beginning the pledge period (new member period). Students participating in rush are known as "rushees", Potential New Members "PNMs", while students who have accepted a bid to a specific fraternity or sorority are known as "new members" or in some cases "pledges".[37]

A new member period may last anywhere from one weekend to several months. During this time, new members might participate in almost all aspects of the life of the fraternity or sorority, but most likely not be permitted to hold office in the organization. After the new member period, a second vote of members may sometimes be taken, often, but not always, using ablackballsystem. New members who pass this second vote are invited to a formal and secret ritual of initiation into the organization, advancing them to full membership.[8]

Many Greek-letter organizations give preferential consideration for pledging to candidates whose parent or sibling was a member of the same fraternity or sorority. Such prospective candidates are known as "legacies".[38][39]

Membership in more than one fraternity or sorority is acceptable, but only in accordance within specific Greek councils. Recently, some Greek-letter organizations have replaced the term "pledge" with that of "associate member" or "new member".Sigma Alpha Epsilon,in 2014, abolished pledging altogether. Potential members are now immediately initiated into the fraternity upon accepting a bid.[37][40]

Residency

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Main article:North American fraternity and sorority housing

Unique among most campus organizations, members of social Greek letter organizations usually congregate and sometimes live together in large houses generally privately owned by the organization itself, or by the organization's alumni association. Often fraternities and sorority houses, called lodges or chapter houses, are located on the same street or in close quarters within the same neighborhood, which may be colloquially known as "Greek row", "frat row", or "sorority row". Often, chapter houses are uniquely designed, highly elaborate, and very expensive to operate and maintain.[41]

Usually, the more expensive the house the higher the annual organization dues. The features and size of Greek houses play a major role in chapters remaining competitive in recruiting and retaining members on many campuses.[41]At some, often small colleges, fraternities and sororities occupy a specific section of university-owned housing provided to them. Some fraternities and sororities are un-housed, with members providing their accommodations. In many of these cases, the fraternity or sorority owns or rents a non-residential clubhouse on or off campus to use for meetings and other activities.

Secrecy and ritual

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Members ofPhi Kappa SigmaatWashington & Jefferson CollegeinWashington, Pennsylvaniain 1872
A model chapter room ofKappa Sigma

With a few exceptions, most fraternities and sororities aresecret societies.While the identity of members or officers is rarely concealed, fraternities and sororities initiate members following the pledge period through sometimes elaborate private rituals, frequently drawn or adopted from Masonic ritual practice or that of the Greek mysteries.[8]

After an initiation ritual, the organization's secret motto, secret purpose, and secret identification signs, such as handshakes and passwords, are usually revealed to its new members. Some fraternities also teach initiates an identity search device used to confirm fellow fraternity members.[42]

Julian Hawthorne,the son ofNathaniel Hawthorne,wrote in his posthumously publishedMemoirs[43]of his initiation intoDelta Kappa Epsilon:[44]

I was initiated into a college secret society—a couple of hours of grotesque and good-humoredrodomontadeand horseplay, in which I cooperated as in a kind of pleasant nightmare, confident, even when branded with a red-hot iron or doused head-over-heels in boiling oil,[45]that it would come out all right. The neophyte is effectively blindfolded during the proceedings, and at last, still sightless, I was led down flights of steps into a silent crypt and helped into a coffin, where I was to stay until the Resurrection...Thus it was that just as my father passed from this earth, I was lying in a coffin during my initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon.

Meetings and rituals are sometimes conducted in what is known as a chapter room located inside the fraternity's house. Entry into chapter rooms is often prohibited to all but the initiated. In one extreme case, the response of firefighters to a blaze signaled by an automated alarm at theSigma Phichapter house at theUniversity of Wisconsinin 2003 was hampered in part because fraternity members refused to disclose to emergency responders the location of the hidden chapter room, where the conflagration had erupted.[46]

Symbols and naming conventions

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The fraternity or sorority badge is an enduring symbol of membership in a Greek letter organization. Most fraternities also have assumed heraldic achievements. Members of fraternities and sororities address members of the same organization as "brother" (in the case of fraternities) or "sister" (in the case of sororities). The names of almost all fraternities and sororities consist of a sequence of two or three Greek letters, for instance,Delta Delta Delta,Sigma Chi,Chi Omega,orPsi Upsilon.There are a few exceptions to this general rule, as in the case of the fraternitiesTriangle,Acacia,andSeal and Serpent.[8]

Membership profile

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Demographics

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FormerPresident of the United StatesRonald Reaganwas initiated intoTau Kappa EpsilonatEureka CollegeinEureka, Illinoisand his successor,George H. W. Bush,was a member ofDelta Kappa EpsilonatYale University.

There are approximately nine million student and alumni members of fraternities and sororities inNorth America,or about three percent of the total population.[47][48]Roughly 750,000 of the current fraternity and sorority members are students who belong to an undergraduate chapter.[citation needed]

A 2007 survey conducted byPrinceton Universityfound that white and higher-income Princeton students are much more likely than other Princeton students to be in fraternities and sororities.[49]Senior surveys from the classes of 2009 and 2010 showed that 77 percent of sorority members and 73 percent of fraternity members were white.[49]

Notable fraternity and sorority members

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Since 1900, 63 percent of members of theUnited States cabinethave been members of fraternities and sororities, and the currentchief executive officersof five of the ten largestFortune 500companies are members of fraternities and sororities. In addition, 85 percent of all justices of theU.S. Supreme Courtsince 1910 have been members of fraternities.U.S. presidentssinceWorld War IIwho have been initiated into fraternities areGeorge W. Bush,George H. W. Bush,Bill Clinton,Ronald Reagan,Gerald Ford,andFranklin Roosevelt.ThreePrime Ministers of Canadahave been members of fraternities.[50][51][52][53][54]

In 2013, about 25 percent of members of theU.S. House of Representativesand 40 percent of members of theU.S. Senatewere members of fraternities or sororities.[55]

Academic performance

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Studies have found that university graduation rates are 20 percent higher among members of Greek-letter organizations than among non-members, and students who are members of fraternities and sororities typically have higher-than-averagegrade point averages.One reason for this may be that many chapters require their members to maintain a certain academic standard,[56][dubious–discuss]while a more well-supported reason is that Greek-letter organizations often maintaintest and homework banksfilled with test and homework answers from past members.

Each organization requires its members to maintain a minimumGPAto continue their membership. Greek members who maintain high GPAs are invited to join notable Greek honor societies. The two most notable Greek honor societies are:Gamma Sigma AlphaandOrder of Omega.Gamma Sigma Alpha acknowledges Greek members who hold a 3.5 GPA in upper-division classes.[57]Order of Omega recognizes the top 3% of Greek members who exemplify leadership qualities.[57]Greek honor societies provide lifetime membership with opportunities such as scholarships and networking.

Professional advancement

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There is a high representation of former Greek life members among certain elites in the United States. Greek members "are more likely to be thriving in their well-being and engaged at work than college graduates who did not go Greek," according to a study done by Gallup and Purdue University.[58]Not only that, but researchers at Union College studied the effects of Greek life membership on the incomes of those who participated when attending university versus those who did not. Researchers found that those that had participated had incomes higher than their non-Greek peers by as much as 36%.[59]

Personal fulfillment

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A 2014Gallupsurvey of 30,000 university alumni found that persons who said they had been members of Greek-letter organizations while undergraduates reported having a greater sense of purpose, as well as better social and physical well-being, than those who had not.[60]

Criticism

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Homogeneous membership and elitism

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Greek letter organizations have often been characterized as elitist or exclusionary associations, organized for the benefit of a largely white, upper-class membership base. Members of fraternities and sororities disproportionately come from certain socio-economic demographics.[49]Fraternities specifically have been criticized for what is perceived as their promotion of an excessively alcohol-fueled, party-focused lifestyle.

New York TimescolumnistFrank Bruniquestioned the existence of exclusive clubs on campuses that are meant to facilitate independence, writing "Colleges should be cultivating the kind of sensibility that makes you a better citizen of a diverse and distressingly fractious society. How is that served by retreating into an exclusionary clique of people just like you?"[61]

Some colleges and universities have banned Greek letter organizations, with the reasoning that they are, by their nature and structure, elitist and exclusionary. The oldest ban was atPrinceton University,though Princeton has now had fraternities since the 1980s.[62]Oberlin Collegebanned "secret societies" (fraternities and sororities) in 1847,[63]and the prohibition continues to the present.[64]Quakeruniversities, such asGuilford CollegeandEarlham College,often ban fraternities and sororities because they are seen as a violation of the Quaker principle of equality.[65][66]Brandeis Universityhas never permitted fraternities or sororities as it maintains a policy that all student organizations have membership open to all.[67]Hamilton Collegedid not prohibit fraternities, but to improve campus social conditions, in 1995 mandated that all students would be required to live and eat on campus; the college also bought the fraternity houses.[68]

Alcohol use

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OneHarvard Universitystudy found that "4 out of 5 fraternity and sorority members arebinge drinkers.In comparison, other research suggests 2 out of 5 college students overall are regular binge drinkers. "[69]There is also a higher rate of alcohol-related deaths and injuries among fraternities, which has resulted in many lawsuits and suspensions.[70][71][72]

Drug use

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Studies have shown that fraternity and sorority members are more likely than the average college student to use or abuse drugs. Since the 1990s, fraternity members have experienced an increase of over 400% in the recreational use of prescriptionbenzodiazepineslikeXanaxandValium.Amphetamineuse with drugs likeRitalinandAdderallis more common among fraternity members than other college students. Fraternity members also abuse amphetamines at double the rate than their non-college peers.Marijuanause is also more prevalent among fraternity and sorority members compared to college men and women not in fraternities or sororities.[73][74]

Hazing

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See also:Hazing in Greek letter organizations
An illustration depicting fraternityhazingfrom the early 20th century

Fraternities, and to a lesser extent sororities, have been criticized forhazing,sometimes committed by active undergraduate members against their chapter's pledges. Hazing during the pledge period can sometimes culminate in an event commonly known as "Hell Week" in which a week-long series of physical and mental torments are inflicted on pledges.

Common hazing practices include sleep deprivation, sensory deprivation,paddlingand other types of spanking, use ofstress positions,forced runs,busy work,forced drinking, andmind games.Rarer incidents involvingbranding,enemas,urination on pledges, and the forced consumption ofspoiled foodhave been reported. Hazing, in many cases, has been reported and has led to the permanent disposal of particular chapters of fraternities and sororities across the country.

Supporters of fraternities note that national fraternity organizations almost universally prohibit hazing, and the occurrence of hazing in undergraduate fraternity chapters goes against official policy. Others say that hazing is not unique to Greek-letter organizations and is often reported in other student organizations, such as athletic teams.

In 2007, an anti-hazing hotline was set up to report incidents of hazing on college campuses. Currently, 46 national fraternity and sorority organizations support the toll-free number, which generates automatic email messages regarding hazing and sends them to the national headquarters directly from the National Anti-Hazing Hotline.[75]Every year, the last week of September is considered to be National Hazing Prevention Week (NHPW).[76]

Several hazing incidents resulted in deaths in 2017 including thedeath of Tim Piazzain which three members ofBeta Theta Piwere sentenced to prison after pleading guilty to charges related to the hazing. Other incidents included thedeath of Maxwell Gruver,Andrew Coffey,andMatthew Ellis.[77]

Nepotism and networking

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Critics of Greek-letter organizations assert that they create a culture ofnepotismin later life, while supporters have applauded them for creating networking opportunities for members after graduation. A 2013 report byBloombergfound that fraternity connections are influential in obtaining lucrative employment positions at topWall Streetbrokerages. According to the report, recent graduates have been known to exchange the secret handshakes of their fraternities with executives whom they know are also members to obtain access to competitive appointments.[78][79]

Sexism and sexual violence

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Studies show that fraternity men are three times more likely to commitrapethan other men on college campuses.[80][81][82]Fraternity pledges are at a higher likelihood to commit rape orsexual assaultbecause of the pressure to meet the hyper-masculine standards that fraternities expect of their members.[83]Overall, fraternity men are shown to have more rape-supportive attitudes than non-fraternity men.[84]

Fraternities have often been accused of fostering rape-supportive attitudes by promoting male dominance and brotherhood, and fraternity affiliation has been found to be a significant predictor of sexually predatory behavior in retrospective research.[82][85]Sexual assault is such a common occurrence among fraternity organizations that one fraternity,Sigma Alpha Epsilon,is commonly referred to by the nickname, "Sexual Assault Expected".[86]

Attitudes towards women learned in fraternity life can perpetuate fraternity men's lifelong attitudes, leading to the potential to commit sexual assault and rape after college life.[87]Studies show that women in sororities are almost twice as likely to experience rape than other college women.[88][89]A research article studied campus demographics and reported rapes and found that campuses that report more rapes have more fraternity men, athletes and liquor violations.[90]

Researchers have found that in predominantly male environments, such as fraternities, athletics, and military groups, men feel pressure to meet the group's standard of masculinity, which may contribute to men being more accepting of sexual violence.[91]Nicholas Syrett, a professor of history at theUniversity of Northern Colorado,has been a vocal critic of the evolution of fraternities in the 20th century. In 2011, Syrett stated that "fraternal masculinity has, for at least 80 years, valorized athletics, alcohol abuse, and sex with women."[92]

Timemagazine columnistJessica Bennetthas denounced fraternities as breeding "sexism and misogyny that lasts long after college". In her column, Bennett recounts that, while she was an undergraduate student at theUniversity of Southern California,doormen at fraternity parties "often ranked women on a scale of 1 to 10, with only 'sixes' and up granted entry to a party".[79]

To protect their fraternity's brotherhood, fraternity men and athletes may not confront or report sexual assault when it happens.[90]Perpetrators have often received little to no consequences for their actions.[93]

Test and homework banks

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It is common for members of Greek-letter organizations to have higher-than-average GPAs due to test and homework banks filled over the years by members of their organization. There is much backlash condemning the test and homework banks asacademic dishonesty.[94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101]

Racism and minority discrimination

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Further information:Racism in United States college fraternities and sororities

Researchers, such asMatthew W. Hughey,have linkedracismin Greek life to persons experiencingmicroaggressions,fewer opportunities to use the networking system built into Greek life, and the use of harmful stereotypes.[102]In response to experiencing racism and exclusion from solely or predominantly white GLOs, black and multicultural GLOs were founded.[102]

Additionally,homophobia,transphobia,antisemitism,andxenophobiaare issues with many college Greek systems across the US.[103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112]

Glossary

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Members ofSigma ChiatMiami UniversityinOxford, Ohio,including foundersBenjamin Piatt Runkleand Daniel William Cooper and an unidentified woman at a 1909 reunion
  • Active– an initiated, undergraduate student member of a fraternity or sorority.[113]
  • Alumni/Alumna/Alumnus– a member of a sorority or fraternity who is no longer an undergraduate student and no longer resides in the house.[114]
  • Anauxiliary group(also "sweetheart" or "little brother/sister" group) is an unofficial, unsanctioned partner organization to a fraternity or sorority, usually for members of the opposite sex. The two largestGreek umbrella organizationsfor social fraternities and sororities, theNorth American Interfraternity Conferenceand theNational Panhellenic Conference,ban the formation of or discourage membership in auxiliary groups.[115][116]Some fraternities and sororities outside of these conferences also ban auxiliaries, includingPhi Mu Alpha Sinfonia[117]andSigma Alpha Iota.[118]Part of the rationale behind banning auxiliary groups is that such groups could jeopardize the host organizations'Title IXexemptions, citing theUnited States Supreme Court's ruling inRoberts v. United States Jaycees.[116][118]
  • Badge –a pin worn by an initiated member of a fraternity or sorority. In the 19th and early 20th century, badges were also worn as awatch fob.See also pledge pin.
  • Bid– an offer to become a pledge (see below) of a fraternity or sorority.[113]
  • Blacklist– an official or unofficial list of people not allowed inside the house or to any events of the fraternity or sorority.
  • Blackballed– in this context used as a definition of expelling from a community or group. This means that a person may not be accepted by any fraternity or sorority because of the negative reputation they gained at a particular group. This is usually an informal discussion made by the presidents or rush chairs of the fraternities or sororities.
  • Chapter room– a room inside a fraternity house, often secret or hidden, where meetings or actives occur and where rituals are performed.[114]
  • Colony– a newly established chapter of a national/international fraternity or sorority in the process of organization.[114]
  • Fracket– a disposable coat wore to a fraternity party, coined from the words "fraternity" and "jacket".[119][120]
  • Frat Boy– a member of a fraternity characterized by a way of dressing[121]and a homogeneous behavior as other members of that fraternity.
  • Legacy– a rushee who is related to a member of the same fraternity or sorority they are rushing is almost always offered a bid. Traditionally a legacy has a parent or sibling that is a member, but some organizations have expanded on their definition of a legacy's relation to members.[122][123]
  • Local– a fraternity or sorority with only one chapter.[114]
  • National/international– a fraternity or sorority with two or more chapters, both of which are in the same nation (in the case of a national), or at least one of which is in a different nation from the others (in the case of an international).[114]
  • Pledge– a probationary member of a fraternity or sorority, sometimes also called "associate member."[113]
  • Pledge pin– a pin worn by pledges for the duration of the pledging period. It is usually given to a pledge following a ceremony when they are first offered membership in the organization and can be worn until their initiation. With some organizations, especially those that no longer have a pledge process, it may be called a new member pin. See also badge.
  • Potential new member– Abbreviated PNM, one who is in the process of seeking a bid.[113]
  • Rush– the process of recruitment to a fraternity or sorority.[113]
  • Rushee– one who is in the process of seeking a bid.[113]

See also

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Further reading

edit
  • Caitlin Flanagan, "The Dark Power of Fraternities,"The Atlantic,March 2014, pp. 72–91.
  • John Hechinger (2017).True Gentlemen: The Broken Pledge of America's Fraternities.PublicAffairs.ISBN978-1610396820.

Notes

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  1. ^Baird Manualis the name of the seminal reference for the Greek Letter Organization world, published in twenty successive volumes over 140 years. It lists national organizations and their chapters, American and Canadian schools and their chapters, and provides extensive introductory material and appendices to list, for example, politicians, entertainers, and sports leaders who have a Greek Letter affiliation. Today theManualhas been replaced by an online Archive maintained by the University of Illinois.

References

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edit
  • Caitlin Flanagan, "The Dark Power of Fraternities,"The Atlantic,March 2014, pp. 72–91.
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