Wikipedia

Tunisians

Tunisians(Arabic:تونسيونTūnisiyyūn,Tunisian Arabic:توانسةTwènsa[ˈtwɛːnsæ]) are the citizens and nationals of Tunisia in North Africa, who speakTunisian Arabicand share a commonTunisian culture and identity.In addition to the approximately 12 million residents in Tunisia, aTunisian diasporahas been established with modern migration, particularly in Western Europe, namelyFrance,Italyand Germany. The vast majority of Tunisians identify asArabswho adhere toSunni Islam.[21]

Tunisians
توانسة (Tawānisa,dialectalTweensa)
تونسيون (Tūnisiyyūn)
Total population
c. 15.2 million[a]
Regions with significant populations
Tunisia ~12,400,000
(2024 census)[1]
France1,389,000[2] [3][2][4][3]
Italy319,000 (includes ancestry)[4][5]
Germany195,000[4]
United States175,685[6][7]
Israel120,700 (includes ancestry)[8]
Libya68,952[4]
Canada25,650[4]
Belgium andLuxembourg24,810[4]
Turkey20,000
United Arab Emirates19,361[4]
Algeria18,796[4]
Saudi Arabia16,774[4]
Switzerland16,667[4][9]
Netherlands8,776[4]
Sweden8,704[4]
Qatar31,540[4]
United Kingdom andIreland10,797[4]
Austria,Croatia,Slovakia, andSlovenia7,921[4]
Oman5,693
Morocco4,570
Spain3,722
Kuwait3,500
Egypt3,413
Bahrain1,605
Norway1,540
Romania1,352
Poland1,340
Lebanon1,323
Brazil1,253[10]
Greece981
Jordan950
Japan757[11]
Australia514
Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore,Thailand, andPhilippines497
South Africa349
Languages
Majority:Arabic(Tunisian Arabic),French
Historically:
Phoenician,Punic,Canaanite,Latin,African Romance
Minority:Judeo-Tunisian Arabic,[12]andBerber[13][14][15][16]
Religion
PredominantlyIslam(Sunni Maliki)[17]
Minority:Judaism[18][19][20]
Related ethnic groups
Arabs,Berber,European Tunisians,Carthaginians,Roman Africans,Italian Tunisians,Turco-Tunisians,Maghrebisand otherAfroasiaticpeoples
aThe total figure is merely an estimation; sum of all the referenced populations.

History

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Dido
See also:History of Tunisia

Africa and Ifriqiya

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Main articles:History of early Tunisia,History of Carthage,History of Roman-era Tunisia,Roman Africans,History of early Islamic Tunisia,andHistory of medieval Tunisia

ThePhoenicians,aSemitic people,migrated and settledin the region of present-day Tunisia from the 12th to the 2nd century BC, establishing numerous settlements on the coast, includingancient Carthagewhich emerged as the most powerful by the 7th century BC.[22]The migrants brought with them their cultureand languagethat progressively spread from Tunisia's coastal areas to the rest of the coastal areas ofNorthwest Africa,as well as parts of theIberian Peninsulaand the Mediterranean islands.[23]The descendants of the Phoenician settlers came to be known as thePunic people.From the 8th century BC, most Tunisians werePunic.[24]Evidence fromSicilyshows that some western Phoenicians (Punic people) used the term "Phoinix,"[25]although it is not clear what term they self-identified with, as they may have self-identified themselves as 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍𐤌 (knʿnm,"Canaanites").[26]A passage fromAugustine's writings has frequently been understood as suggesting that they called themselvesCanaanites(ChananiinLatin).[27]ThePunic language,a variety of thePhoenician language,seems to have survived well past written use. Arab geographeral-Bakridescribed a people who lived inSirtewho spoke a language which was notBerber,Latin,orCoptic,well after theMuslim conquest of the Maghreb.Punic culture survived thedestruction of Carthagein 146 BC.[28]

When Carthage fell in 146 BC to theRomans,[29][30]the coastal population was mainly Punic, but that influence decreased away from the coast.[24]From theRoman perioduntil the Islamic conquest,Latins,GreeksandNumidiansfurther influenced the Tunisians, which prior to the modern era, Tunisians were known asAfāriqah,[31]from the ancient name of Tunisia,IfriqiyaorAfricain the antiquity, which gave the present-day name of the continent Africa.[32]

From theMuslim conquest of the Maghrebin 673, many Arabs settled with Arab tribes in Tunisia which was calledIfriqiya,[33][34]in places likeKairouanwhich soon became one of the purely Arab settlements in theUmayyad Caliphate.[33]This accelerated in the 11th century with the large migrations of the Arab tribes ofBanu HilalandBanu Sulaymto Ifriqiya and the rest of theMaghreb.[35]Some Persians and other Middle-Eastern populations also settled in Ifriqiya, which had its name from the ancient name, theRoman province of Africa.[36][37]In the early-11th century,Normansfrom theKingdom of Sicilytook over Ifriqiya and founded theKingdom of Africa,which lasted from 1135 to 1160.[38][39]Muslim refugees from Sicily and Malta were encouraged by the Normans to settle in Tunisia during this period.[40]

After theReconquistaand expulsion of non-Christians andMoriscosfrom Spain, many SpanishMuslimsand Jews also arrived. According to Matthew Carr, "As many as eighty thousand Moriscos settled in Tunisia, most of them in and around the capital, Tunis, which still contains a quarter known as Zu QAQ al-Andalus, or Andalusia Alley."[41]

Tunisians

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See also:Ottoman Tunisia

By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completelyArabized,establishingArabsas the demographic majority of the population.[42]

During the 17th to the 19th centuries, Ifriqiya came underSpanish,thenOttomanrule and hostedMoriscothenItalianimmigrants from 1609.[43][44]Tunis was officially integrated into theOttoman Empireas theEyalet of Tunis(province), eventually including all of theMaghrebexcept Morocco.

Under the Ottoman Empire, the boundaries of the territory inhabited by Tunisians contracted; Ifriqiya lost territory to the west (Constantine) and to the east (Tripoli). In the 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and socialreform in the Ottoman capital.The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy. Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces toestablish a Protectoratein 1881.

A remnant of the centuries of Turkish rule is the presence ofa population of Turkish origin,historically the male descendants were referred to as theKouloughlis.

French colonization

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See also:History of French-era TunisiaandFrench protectorate of Tunisia

Republic and Revolution

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See also:History of modern TunisiaandTunisian Revolution

Independence from France was achieved on 20 March 1956. The State was established as aconstitutional monarchywith theBey of Tunis,Muhammad VIII al-AminBey, as the king of Tunisia. In 1957, the Prime MinisterHabib Bourguibaabolished the monarchy and firmly established hisNeo Destour(New Constitution) party. In the 1970s the economy of Tunisia expanded at a very healthy rate. Oil was discovered and tourism continued. City and countryside populations drew roughly equal in number. Yet agricultural problems and urban unemployment led to increased migration to Europe.

The 84-year-old President Bourguiba was overthrown and replaced byBen Alihis Prime Minister on 7 November 1987.[45]However, the Ben Ali regime came to an end 23 years later on 14 January 2011, in the events of theTunisian Revolution,following nationwide demonstrations precipitated by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,[46][47]a lack ofpolitical freedomslikefreedom of speech[48]and poorliving conditions.

Following the overthrow of Ben Ali, Tunisians elected aConstituent Assemblyto draft a new constitution and an interim government known as theTroikabecause it was a coalition of three parties; the IslamistEnnahda Movementin the lead, with the centre-leftCongress for the Republicand the left-leaningEttakatolas minority partners.[49][50]Widespread discontent remained however, leading to the2013–14 Tunisian political crisis.[51][52]As a result of the efforts made by theTunisian National Dialogue Quartet,the Constituent Assembly completed its work, the interim government resigned, andnew electionswere held in 2014, completing the transition to a democratic state.[53]TheTunisian National Dialogue Quartetwas awarded the2015 Nobel Peace Prizefor "its decisive contribution to the building of a pluralistic democracy in Tunisia in the wake of the Tunisian Revolution of 2011".[54]

Beyond the political changes, which lead to Tunisia becoming a recognised democracy in 2014,[55]those events also brought important changes to thepost-2011 Tunisian culture.

Population

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Main article:Demographics of Tunisia

Ethnic groups

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The country's population is predominantly composed ofArabs98%.[56][57]Other ethnic groups include 1%Europeanwho settled in the country and 1% of other ethnic groups, including mainlyBerbers[58]and sub-Saharan migrants. While Ottoman influence was particularly important in the formation of aTurkish-Tunisiancommunity among the country's elites, other peoples also migrated to Tunisia over different periods of time, including but not limited to, sub-Saharans, Greeks, Romans, Phoenicians (Punics), Jews and French settlers.[59]Nevertheless, from 1870, the distinction between the Tunisian masses and the Turkish elite became blurred.[60]There is also a minority Berber population (1%)[58]mainly located in the Dahar mountains.

From the late 19th century to after World War II, Tunisia was home to large populations of French andItalians(255,000Europeansin 1956),[61]although nearly all of them, along with the Jewish population, left after Tunisia became independent. Thehistory of the Jews in Tunisiagoes back some 2,600 years. In 1948 the Jewish population was an estimated 105,000, but by 2013 only about 900 remained.[62]

Culture

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Main article:Culture of Tunisia

Cultural symbols

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Flag

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Main article:Flag of Tunisia

The nationalflag of Tunisiais predominantly red and consists of a white circle in the middle containing a redcrescentaround afive-pointed star.TheHafsid dynastyused a similar flag during the Middle Ages, it consisted of a white crescent pointing upwards and a white five-pointed star but instead of featuring the red color it featured the yellow color.[63]The crescent and star might also recall theOttoman flagas an indication of Tunisia's history as a part of theOttoman Empire.[64][65] Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state ofCarthage,located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries. The sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancientPunic religion,especially with theSign of Tanit.[66]

Coat of arms

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Main article:Coat of arms of Tunisia

As for the national coat of arms, they are officially adopted in 1861 and include revised versions on 21 June 1956, and 30 May 1963. The top has a Carthaginian galley sailing on the sea while the lower part is divided vertically and on the right depicts a black lion seizing a silver scimitar. A banner bears the national motto: "Liberty, Order, Justice".[citation needed]

Jasmine

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Tunisianhamsa

Imported by the Andalusians in the sixteenth century,jasminehas become the national flower of Tunisia.[67]The gathering takes place at dawn and then, upon nightfall, when young boys collect small bouquets, and later sell them to passersby on the street or to motorists stopped at intersections.[68]

Furthermore, jasmine is the subject of a specific sign language. A man who wears jasmine on his left ear indicates that he is single and in addition, offering white jasmine is seen as a proof of love while on the contrary, offering odorless winter jasmine is a sign of insolence.[69]

Hamsa

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Main article:Hamsa

The hamsa (Tunisian Arabic:خمسة,also romanized khamsa) is a palm-shapedamuletpopular in Tunisia and more generally in theMaghreb,and commonly used in jewelry and wall hangings.[70][71]Depicting the open right hand, an image recognized and used as a sign of protection in many times throughout history, the hamsa is believed to provide defense against theevil eye.It has been theorized that its origins lie inCarthage(modern-day Tunisia) and may have been associated with the GoddessTanit.[72]

Chechia

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Main article:Chechia

The Chechia is the national headgear of Tunisia. Supple and cylindrical in shape, the chechia was imported into Tunisia in its current form from Spain, by theMoorsexpelled after the capture ofGranadain 1492. Finding in Tunisia a second homeland, they establish thecraftof the chechia there. After the independence of Tunisia in 1956 and with the arrival of manufactured goods andcustomsfrom the Europe, the wearing of the chechia tends to be limited to holidays and religious festivals; it is often associated with the elderly.[73]

Language

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Main articles:Languages of Tunisia,Tunisian Arabic,andFrancophonie

Tunisian Arabic is a set ofdialectsofMaghrebi Arabicspoken in Tunisia. In addition to mastering French.[74]In theTunisian diasporamakes it common for Tunisians tocode-switch,mi xing Arabic with French, English or other languages in daily speech.[75]

Moreover, Tunisian Arabic is closely related to theMaltese language,[76]that descended fromMaghrebi ArabicandSiculo-Arabic.[77][78]

Gastronomy

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Main articles:Tunisian cuisineandTunisian wine
CouscouswithKerkennahfish

Tunisian cuisine is a blend ofMediterranean cuisineand traditions. Its distinctive spicy fieriness comes from neighbouring Mediterranean countries and the many civilizations who have ruled Tunisian land:Romans,Vandals,Byzantines,Arabs,Spanish,Turkish,Italians (Sicilians), French, and the nativePunics-Berber people.Tunisian food uses a variety of ingredients and in different ways. The main dish that is served in Tunisia isCouscous,made of minuscule grains that are cooked and usually served with meat and vegetables. In cooking they also use a variety of flavors such as:olive oil,aniseed,coriander,cumin,caraway,cinnamon,saffron,mint,orange,blossom,and rose water.

Like all Mediterranean cultures, Tunisian culture offers a "sun cuisine", based mainly on olive oil, spices, tomatoes, seafood (a wide range of fish) and meat from rearing (lamb).[citation needed]

Architecture

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Main article:Architecture of Tunisia

Tunisian architecture is traditionally expressed in various facets in Tunisia throughRoman architectureandIslamic architecture.Through many buildings,Kairouanforms the epicenter of an architectural movement expressing the relationship between buildings and spirituality with the ornamental decoration of religious buildings in the holy city. InDjerba,the architecture such as the fortress ofKefreflects the military and spiritual destiny of aSufiinfluence in the region.[citation needed]

The influential role of the various dynasties that ruled the country, particularly in building cities and princes of Raqqada Mahdia, illuminates the role of the geopolitical context in the architectural history of the country. Thus, many original fortresses that protected the coast from Byzantine invasions evolved into cities, likeMonastir,SousseorLamta.[citation needed]

Themedina of Tunis,isWorld Heritage Siteof UNESCO, and is a typical example of Islamic architecture. However, in the areas between the ports ofBizerteandGhar El Melh,settlements founded by theMoorsfleeing Andalusia were reconquered by Catholic sovereigns and has more of a Christian influence. Given the cosmopolitan nature of cities in Tunisia, they have retained a diversity and juxtaposition of styles. Many buildings were designed by many different architects, artisans and entrepreneurs during the French protectorate. Among the most famous architects of that time wereVictor Valensi,Guy Raphael,Henri Saladin,Joss EllenonandJean-Emile Resplandy.[79]Five distinct architectural and decorative styles are particularly popular: those of the eclectic style (neo-classical,baroque,etc..) Between 1881 and 1900 and then again until 1920 the style was neo-Mauresque, between 1925 and 1940 it was in theArt Decostyle and then the modernist style between 1943 and 1947.[79]

Music

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Main article:Music of Tunisia
TunisianBendir(frame drum) with snare

According toMohammed Abdel Wahab,Tunisian music has been influenced by old Andalusian songs injected with Turkish, Persian and Greek influences. Of major note in Tunisian classical music is the Malouf. Deriving from the reign of theAghlabidsin the 15th century, it is a particular type of Andalusian music. In urban areas it uses stringed instruments (fiddle,oudandKanun) and percussion (darbuka) while in rural areas, it may also be accompanied by instruments like themezoued,gasbaand thezurna.[80]

The emergence of new patterns of racial and improvised music since the late 1990s changed the musical landscape of Tunisia. At the same time, the majority of the population is attracted by the music of Levantine origin (Egyptian, Lebanese or Syrian). Popular western music has also had major success with the emergence of many groups and festivals, including rock music,hip hop,reggaeandjazz.

Among the major Tunisian contemporary artists includeHedi Habbouba,Saber Rebaï,Dhafer Youssef,Belgacem Bouguenna,Sonia M'barekandLatifa.Other notable musicians includeSalah El Mahdi,Anouar Brahem,Zied GharsaandLotfi Bouchnak.

Cinema

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Main article:Cinema of Tunisia

Tunisian cinema is today recognized as one of the most liberal, most inventive (and one of the most prize-winning) cinemas of Africa and the Middle-east. Since the 90s, Tunisia became an attractive place for filming and numerous companies emerged, serving the foreign film industry and became successful.[81]Tunisia also hosts theCarthage Film Festivalwhich has been taking place since 1966. The festival gives priority to films from African and Middle-eastern countries. It is the oldest film festival on the African continent.[82]

Theatre

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In over a century of existence, Tunisian theatre hosted or gave birth to big names, such asSarah Bernhardt,Pauline Carton,Gérard PhilipeandJean Maraisto mention a few.[83]On 7 November 1962,Habib Bourguiba,whose brother is a playwright, devoted his speech to this art,[84]which he considers "a powerful means of disseminating culture and a most effective means of popular education".[85]From this date, 7 November is regarded as the Tunisian National Day of drama.[86]

Dance

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Folklore troupe of Kerkennah

The variety of dances performed by the Tunisians probably reflects the migration flows that have traversed the country throughout the centuries. Thus, the earlyPhoeniciansbrought with them their songs and dances, whose traces are rooted in the region of Tunis, while the Romans have left few traces of art in relation to their architectural contribution.[87]Religious dances were influenced bySufismbut by the end of the 15th century, had progressively become Andalusian with their dances and urban music.

Oriental dance would arrive later with the Ottomans, although some experts in the history of Northwest African art have said it was brought to Tunisia by the first Turkish corsairs in the sixteenth century while others say that the origin of this dance goes back further to the era of matriarchy inMesopotamiaand founded by the early Phoenicians.[88]This form of oriental dance usually performed in Tunisia insists on the movements of thepelvisin rhythm, movement highlighted by the elevation of the arms to horizontal, and feet moving in rhythm and transferring weight onto the right leg or left.[89]

The Nuba, more rooted in popular practice, is linked to the dancers and the Kerkennah Djerba to a lesser extent.[90]Some experts say that their dress is of Greek origin. Structured into several scenes, the dance is often accompanied by acrobatic games with jars filled with water.[90]

Literature

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Main article:Tunisian literature
First page of a Tunisian book (1931) byMohamed Salah Ben Mrad(1881–1979)
Bust ofAboul-Qacem Echebbiin Ras El Aïn (Tozeur)

Among the Tunisian literary figures includeAli Douagi,who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays,[91]Khraief Bashir[91]and others such asMoncef Ghachem,Mohamed Salah Ben MradorMahmoud Messadi.As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such asAboul-Qacem Echebbi.As for literature, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism ofAlbert Memmi,who predicted that Tunisian literature was sentenced to die young,[92]a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad includingAbdelwahab Meddeb,Bakri Tahar,Mustapha Tlili,Hélé BéjiorMellah Fawzi.The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.

Thenational bibliographylists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia.[93]In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007.[94]Nearly a third of the books are published for children.[citation needed]

Tunisian Diaspora

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Main article:Tunisian diaspora

Statistics of the Office of Tunisians Abroad show more than 128,000 Tunisian families in Europe with a concentration in France and Germany. Young Tunisians (less than 16 years of age) represent 25% of the Tunisian community abroad.[95]Thus there is currently a rejuvenation of the Tunisian diaspora which is now in its third generation. Women represent nearly 26% of the total community.[95]In France, their percentage is estimated at 38.2%. The portion of the diaspora who are over 60 years old is around 7%.[citation needed]

Originally, the largest part of the Tunisians in Europe worked in sectors requiring minimal qualifications. In effect the migrants of the 1960s and 70s were less educated (mostly farmers or manual labourers).[96]

Subsequently, the majority of Tunisians settled in France have worked in the service sector (hotels, restaurants or retail) or have headed small businesses. In 2008, Tunisia became the first of the Maghreb countries to sign a management agreement concerning the flow of migrants, at the impetus of PresidentNicolas Sarkozy:it provides easy access for almost 9,000 Tunisian students enrolled in French institutions,[96]but also almost 500titres de séjour(residency permits) for highly qualified individuals so that they can acquire experience in France, valid for a maximum of six years.[96]

People of Tunisian Heritage

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Prominent Historical Figures

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Farhat Hached(1914–1952) was a Tunisian labor leader and nationalist activist who played a significant role in the struggle for Tunisia's independence from French colonial rule.

Aboul-Qacem Echebbi,Abu Zakariya Yahya,Ahmad I ibn Mustafa,Aisha Al-Manoubya,Ali Douagi,Ali ibn Ziyad,Asad ibn al-Furat,Aziza Othmana,Azzedine Alaïa,Bchira Ben Mrad,Beji Caid Essebsi,Carlos Marcello,Chokri Belaid,Farhat Hached,Habib Bourguiba,Hassan ibn al-Nu'man,Hayreddin Pasha,Ibn Abi Zayd,Ibn al-Jazzar,Ibn Khaldun,Ibn Rachik,Ibrahim II of Ifriqiya,Lamine Bey,Max Azria,Mohamed Bouazizi,Mohamed Brahmi,Moncef Bey,Moufida Bourguiba,Tewhida Ben Sheikh,Muhammad al-Tahir ibn Ashur,Radhia Haddad,Sahnun,Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet(Entity winner of the 2015 nobel peace prize) andVictor Perez

Modern International Figures

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Salah Mejri(United States),Bertrand Delanoë(France),Claude Bartolone(France),Dove Attia(France),M. Salah Baouendi(United States),Poorna Jagannathan(United States),Mustapha Tlili(United States),Ferrid Kheder(United States),Oussama Mellouli(United States),Leila Ben Youssef(United States),Mounir Laroussi(United States),Bushido (rapper)(Germany), Loco Dice(Germany),Sami Allagui(Germany),Claudia Cardinale(Italy),Änis Ben-Hatira(Germany),Mounir Chaftar(Germany), Sofian Chahed(Germany),Nejmeddin Daghfous(Germany),Marwan Kenzari(Netherlands),Rani Khedira(Germany),Sami Khedira(Germany),Ayman(Germany), Elyas M'Barek(Germany),Adel Tawil(Germany),Amel Karboul(Germany),Michel Boujenah(France),Tarak Ben Ammar(France),Lââm(France),Yoann Touzghar(France),Isleym(France), Hatem Ben Arfa(France),Sadek(France),Tunisiano(France),Afef Jnifen(Italy),Sana Hassainia(Canada),Hinda Hicks(England),Mohamed Hechmi Hamdi(England),Hend Sabry(Egypt),Ghassan bin Jiddo(Lebanon),Cyril Hanouna(France),Kev Adams(France), Sabrine Bentunsi (France),Moungi Bawendi(United States),Saïd Bouziri(France).

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In Tunisia, free courses of instruction inTunisian Arabicare organised during the summer holidays for the children of Tunisian residents abroad, who are heavily influenced by the culture of the countries in which they live. Trips are also organised for them to experience Tunisian culture, history and civilisation.[citation needed]

Genetic

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Further information:Genetic history of North Africa

Tunisians mainly carryE1b1 haplogroup(55%) andJ1 haplogroup(34.2%).[97][98]

Listed here are thehuman Y-chromosome DNA haplogroupsin Tunisia.[99]

Haplogroup n B E1a E1b1a E1b1b1 E1b1b1a3 E1b1b1a4 E1b1b1b E1b1b1c F G I J1 J2 K P,R R1a1 R1b1a R1b1b T
Marker M33 M2 M35 V22 V65 M81 M34 M89 M201 M172 V88 M269 M70
Tunisia 601 0.17 0.5 0.67 1.66 3 3.16 62.73 1.16 2.66 0.17 0.17 16.64 2.83 0.33 0.33 0.5 1.83 0.33 1.16

Elkamel, Sarra et al. (2021) wrote that: "Considering Tunisian populations as a whole, the majority part of their paternal haplogroups are of autochthonous Berber origin (71.67%), which co-exists with others assumedly from the Middle East (18.35%) and to a lesser extent from Sub-Saharan Africa (5.2%), Europe (3.45%) and Asia (1.33%)."[100]

See also

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References

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