Greek diacritics

Greek orthographyhas used a variety ofdiacriticsstarting in theHellenistic period.The more complexpolytonic orthography(Greek:πολυτονικό σύστημα γραφής,romanized:polytonikó sýstīma grafī́s), which includes five diacritics, notatesAncient Greek phonology.The simplermonotonic orthography(Greek:μονοτονικό σύστημα γραφής,romanized:monotonikó sýstīma grafī́s), introduced in 1982, corresponds toModern Greek phonology,and requires only two diacritics.

Polytonic orthography (fromAncient Greekπολύς(polýs)'much, many' andτόνος(tónos)'accent') is the standard system forAncient GreekandMedieval Greekand includes:

acute accent(´)
circumflexaccent (ˆ)
grave accent(`); these 3 accents indicate different kinds ofpitch accent
rough breathing(῾) indicates the presence of the/h/sound before a letter
smooth breathing(᾿) indicates the absence of/h/.

Since in Modern Greek the pitch accent has been replaced by adynamic accent (stress),and/h/was lost, most polytonic diacritics have no phonetic significance, and merely reveal the underlying Ancient Greeketymology.

Monotonic orthography (fromAncient Greekμόνος(mónos)'single' andτόνος(tónos)'accent') is the standard system forModern Greek.It retains two diacritics:

single accent ortonos(΄) that indicatesstress,and
diaeresis(¨), which usually indicates ahiatusbut occasionally indicates adiphthong:compare modern Greekπαϊδάκια(/paiˈðaca/,"lamb chops" ), with a diphthong, andπαιδάκια(/peˈðaca/,"little children" ) with asimple vowel.

Atonosand adiaeresiscan be combined on a single vowel to indicate a stressed vowel after a hiatus, as in the verbταΐζω(/taˈizo/,"I feed" ).

Although it is not a diacritic, thehypodiastole(comma) has in a similar way the function of a sound-changing diacritic in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishingό,τι(ó,ti,"whatever" ) fromότι(óti,"that" ).^[1]

History

TheLord's Prayerin a 4th-centuryuncialmanuscriptCodex Sinaiticus,before the adoption ofminusculepolytonic. Note spelling errors: elthatō ē basilia (ΕΛΘΑΤΩΗΒΑΣΙΛΙΑ) instead of elthetō ē basileia (ΕΛΘΕΤΩ Η ΒΑΣΙΛΕΙΑ).

The originalGreek Alpha betdid not have diacritics. The Greek Alpha bet is attested since the 8th century BC, and until 403 BC, variations of the Greek Alpha bet—which exclusively used what are now known ascapitals—were used in different cities and areas. From 403 on, the Athenians decided to employ a version of theIonianAlpha bet. With the spread ofKoine Greek,a continuation of theAtticdialect, the Ionic Alpha bet superseded the other Alpha bets, known asepichoric,with varying degrees of speed. The Ionian Alpha bet, however, also consisted only of capitals.

Introduction of breathings

An example of polytonic text withekphonetic neumesinred inkfrom aByzantine manuscript,of 1020 AD, displaying the beginning of theGospel of Luke(1:3–6)

Theroughandsmooth breathingswere introduced in classical times in order to represent the presence or absence of an/h/inAttic Greek,which had adopted a form of the Alpha bet in which the letter ⟨Η⟩ (eta) was no longer available for this purpose as it was used to represent thelong vowel/ɛː/.

Introduction of accents

During the Hellenistic period (3rd century BC),Aristophanes of Byzantiumintroduced the breathings—marks of aspiration (the aspiration however being already noted on certain inscriptions, not by means of diacritics but by regular letters or modified letters)—and the accents, of which the use started to spread, to become standard in the Middle Ages. It was not until the 2nd century AD thataccentsand breathings appeared sporadically inpapyri.The need for the diacritics arose from the gradual divergence between spelling and pronunciation.

Uncial script

Themajuscule,i.e., a system where text is written entirely incapital letters,was used until the 8th century, when theminusculepolytonic supplanted it.

Grave accent rule

By theByzantine period,the modern rule that turns anacute accent(oxeia) on the last syllable into agrave accent(bareia)—except before a punctuation sign or anenclitic—had been firmly established. Certain authors have argued that the grave originally denoted the absence of accent; the modern rule is, in their view, a purelyorthographicconvention. Originally, certainprocliticwords lost their accent before another word and received the grave, and later this was generalized to all words in the orthography. Others—drawing on, for instance, evidence fromancient Greek music—consider that the grave was "linguistically real" and expressed a word-final modification of the acute pitch.^[2]^[3]^[4]

Stress accent

In the later development of the language, the ancientpitch accentwas replaced by an intensity orstressaccent, making the three types of accent identical, and the/h/sound became silent.

Simplification

At the beginning of the 20th century (official since the 1960s), the grave was replaced by the acute, and theiota subscriptand the breathings on the rho were abolished, except in printed texts.^[5]Greektypewritersfrom that era did not have keys for the grave accent or the iota subscript, and these diacritics were also not taught in primary schools where instruction was inDemotic Greek.

Official adoption of monotonic system

Following the official adoption of thedemoticform of the language, the monotonic orthography was imposed by law in 1982. The latter uses only the acute accent (or sometimes avertical bar,intentionally distinct from any of the traditional accents) anddiaeresisand omits the breathings. This simplification has been criticized on the grounds that polytonic orthography provides a cultural link to the past.^[6]^[7]

Modern use of polytonic system

Some individuals, institutions, and publishers continue to prefer the polytonic system (with or without grave accent), though an official reintroduction of the polytonic system does not seem probable. TheGreek Orthodoxchurch, the daily newspaperEstia,as well as books written inKatharevousacontinue to use the polytonic orthography. Though the polytonic system was not used in Classical Greece, these critics argue that modern Greek, as a continuation ofByzantineand post-medieval Greek, should continue their writing conventions.

Some textbooks of Ancient Greek for foreigners have retained the breathings, but dropped all the accents in order to simplify the task for the learner.^[8]

Description

Polytonic Greek uses many different diacritics in several categories. At the time of Ancient Greek, each of these marked a significant distinction in pronunciation.

Monotonic orthography for Modern Greek uses only two diacritics, thetonosanddiaeresis(sometimes used in combination) that have significance in pronunciation, similar to vowels inSpanish.Initial/h/is no longer pronounced, and so the rough and smooth breathings are no longer necessary. The unique pitch patterns of the three accents have disappeared, and only astress accentremains. The iota subscript was a diacritic invented to mark anetymologicalvowel that was no longer pronounced, so it was dispensed with as well.

Acute	Acute, diaeresis	Diaeresis
Άά Έέ Ήή Ίί Όό Ύύ Ώώ	ΐ ΰ	Ϊϊ Ϋϋ

The transliteration of Greek names follows Latin transliteration of Ancient Greek; modern transliteration is different, and does not distinguish many letters and digraphs that have merged byiotacism.

Accents


Acute	Grave

Circumflex (alternative forms)

The accents (Ancient Greek:τόνοι,romanized:tónoi,singular:τόνος,tónos) are placed on an accented vowel or on the last of the two vowels of a diphthong (ά, but αί) and indicatedpitchpatterns in Ancient Greek. The precise nature of the patterns is not certain, but the general nature of each is known.

Theacute accent(ὀξεῖα,oxeîa,'sharp' or "high" ) – 'ά' – marked high pitch on a short vowel or rising pitch on a long vowel.

The acute is also used on the first of two (or occasionally three) successive vowels in Modern Greek to indicate that they are pronounced together as a stressed diphthong.

Thegrave accent(βαρεῖα,bareîa,'heavy' or "low", modernvaria) – 'ὰ' – marked normal or low pitch.

The grave was originally written on all unaccented syllables.^[9]By the Byzantine period it was only used to replace the acute at the end of a word if another accented word follows immediately withoutpunctuation.

Thecircumflex(περισπωμένη,perispōménē,'twisted around') – 'ᾶ' – marked high and falling pitch within one syllable. In distinction to the angled Latin circumflex, the Greek circumflex is printed in the form of either atilde(◌̃) or aninverted breve(◌̑). It was also known asὀξύβαρυςoxýbarys"high-low" or "acute-grave", and its original form (^) was from a combining of the acute and grave diacritics. Because of its compound nature, it only appeared on long vowels or diphthongs.

Breathings


Rough	Smooth

Combined with accents

The breathings were written over a vowel or ρ.

Therough breathing(Ancient Greek:δασὺ πνεῦμα,romanized:dasù pneûma;Latinspīritus asper)—'ἁ'—indicates a voiceless glottal fricative (/h/) before the vowel in Ancient Greek. In Greek grammar, this is known as aspiration. This is different fromaspirationinphonetics,which applies to consonants, not vowels.

Rho(Ρρ) at the beginning of a word always takes rough breathing, probably markingunvoicedpronunciation. In Latin, this wastranscribedasrh.
Upsilon(Υυ) at the beginning of a word always takes rough breathing. Thus, words from Greek begin withhy-,never withy-.

Thesmooth breathing(ψιλὸν πνεῦμα,psīlòn pneûma;Latinspīritus lēnis)—'ἀ'—marked the absence of/h/.

A double rho in the middle of a word was originally written with smooth breathing on the first rho and rough breathing on the second one (διάῤῥοια). In Latin, this was transcribed asrrh(diarrhoeaordiarrhea).

Coronis

Coronis, marking crasis in the wordκἀγώ = καὶ ἐγώ

Thecoronis(κορωνίς,korōnís,'curved') marks a vowel contracted bycrasis.It was formerly an apostrophe placed after the contracted vowel, but is now placed over the vowel and is identical to the smooth breathing. Unlike the smooth breathing, it often occurs inside a word.

Subscript



Different styles of subscript/adscript iotas in the wordᾠδῇ,( "ode",dative)

Theiota subscript(ὑπογεγραμμένη,hypogegramménē,'written under')—'ι'—is placed under the long vowelsᾱ,η,andωto mark the ancient long diphthongsᾱι,ηι,andωι,in which the ι is no longer pronounced.

Adscript

Next to a capital, the iota subscript is usually written as a lower-case letter (Αι), in which case it is callediota adscript(προσγεγραμμένη,prosgegramménē,'written next to').

Diaeresis

Diaeresis, used to distinguish the wordΑΫΛΟΣ(ἄϋλος,"immaterial" ) from the wordΑΥΛΟΣ(αὐλός"flute" )

In Ancient Greek, thediaeresis(Greek:διαίρεσιςorδιαλυτικά,dialytiká,'distinguishing') –ϊ– appears on the lettersιandυto show that a pair of vowel letters is pronounced separately, rather than as adiphthongor as adigraphfor a simple vowel.

In Modern Greek, the diaeresis usually indicates that two successive vowels are pronounced separately (as inκοροϊδεύω/ko.ro.iˈðe.vo/,"I trick, mock" ), but occasionally, it marks vowels that are pronounced together as an unstressed diphthong rather than as adigraph(as inμποϊκοτάρω/boj.koˈtar.o/,"I boycott" ). The distinction between two separate vowels and an unstressed diphthong is not always clear, although two separate vowels are far more common.

The diaeresis can be combined with the acute, grave and circumflex but never with breathings, since the letter with the diaeresis cannot be the first vowel of the word.^[10]

In Modern Greek, the combination of the acute and diaeresis indicates a stressed vowel after a hiatus.

Vowel length

In textbooks and dictionaries of Ancient Greek, themacron—'ᾱ'—andbreve—'ᾰ'—are often used overα,ι,andυto indicate that it is long or short, respectively.

Nonstandard diacritics

Caron

In some modern non-standard orthographies of Greek dialects, such asCypriot Greek,Griko,andTsakonian,acaron(ˇ) may be used on some consonants to show a palatalized pronunciation.^[11]^[12]They are not encoded as precombined characters in Unicode, so they are typed by adding theU+030C◌̌COMBINING CARONto the Greek letter. Latin diacritics on Greek letters may not be supported by many fonts, and as a fall-back a caron may be replaced by an iota ⟨ι⟩ following the consonant.

An example of a Greek letter with a combining caron and its pronunciation:τ̌/c/.

Dot above

A dot diacritic was used above some consonants and vowels inKaramanli Turkish,which was written with the Greek Alpha bet.^[13]

Position in letters

Diacritics are written above lower-case letters and at the upper left of capital letters. In the case of adigraph,the second vowel takes the diacritics. A breathing diacritic is written to the left of an acute or grave accent but below a circumflex. Accents are written above a diaeresis or between its two dots.

In uppercase (all-caps), accents and breathings are eliminated, in titlecase they appear to the left of the letter rather than above it. Unlike other diacritics, the dieresis is kept above letters also in uppercase. Different conventions exist for the handling of theiota subscript. Diacritics can be found above capital letters in medieval texts and in the French typographical tradition up to the 19th century. ^[14]

Example

TheLord's Prayer
Polytonic	Monotonic
Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς· ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου· ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου· γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ, καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς· τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον· καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφίεμεν τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν· καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν, ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. Ἀμήν.	Πάτερ ημών ο εν τοις ουρανοίς· αγιασθήτω το όνομά σου· ελθέτω η βασιλεία σου· γενηθήτω το θέλημά σου, ως εν ουρανώ, και επί της γης· τον άρτον ημών τον επιούσιον δος ημίν σήμερον· και άφες ημίν τα οφειλήματα ημών, ως και ημείς αφίεμεν τοις οφειλέταις ημών· και μη εισενέγκης ημάς εις πειρασμόν, αλλά ρύσαι ημάς από του πονηρού. Αμήν.

Computer encoding

There have been problems in representing polytonic Greek on computers, and in displaying polytonic Greek on computer screens and printouts, but these have largely been overcome by the advent ofUnicodeand appropriatefonts.

IETF language tag

TheIETF language tagshave registered subtag codes for the different orthographies:^[15]

el-monotonfor monotonic Greek.
el-polytonfor polytonic Greek.

Unicode

While thetónosof monotonic orthography looks similar to theoxeîaof polytonic orthography in most typefaces, Unicode has historically separate symbols for letters with these diacritics. For example, the monotonic "Greek small letter Alpha withtónos"is at U+03AC, while the polytonic" Greek small letter Alpha withoxeîa"is at U+1F71. The monotonic and polytonic accent however have beende jureequivalent since 1986, and accordingly theoxeîadiacritic in Unicode decomposes canonically to the monotonictónos—both are underlyingly treated as equivalent to the multiscript acute accent, U+0301, since letters withoxiadecompose to letters withtonos,which decompose in turn to base letter plus multiscript acute accent. Thus:

U+1F71άGREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA
U+03ACάGREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH TONOS
- U+03B1αGREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHAplusU+0301◌́COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT(shown for explanation only; in practice only the precomposed form is used)

Where a distinction needs to be made (in historic textual analysis, for example), the existence of individualcode pointsand a suitable distinguishing typeface (computer font) make this possible.

Upper case

Vowels by breathing and accent
Breathing, diaeresis, or length	Accent	—	—							Adscript			Rho
—	—		Α	Ε	Η	Ι	Ο	Υ	Ω	ᾼ	ῌ	ῼ	Ρ
	Acute	´	Ά	Έ	Ή	Ί	Ό	Ύ	Ώ
	Grave	`	Ὰ	Ὲ	Ὴ	Ὶ	Ὸ	Ὺ	Ὼ
Smooth	—	᾿	Ἀ	Ἐ	Ἠ	Ἰ	Ὀ		Ὠ	ᾈ	ᾘ	ᾨ
	Acute	῎	Ἄ	Ἔ	Ἤ	Ἴ	Ὄ		Ὤ	ᾌ	ᾜ	ᾬ
	Grave	῍	Ἂ	Ἒ	Ἢ	Ἲ	Ὂ		Ὢ	ᾊ	ᾚ	ᾪ
	Circumflex	῏	Ἆ		Ἦ	Ἶ			Ὦ	ᾎ	ᾞ	ᾮ
Rough	—	῾	Ἁ	Ἑ	Ἡ	Ἱ	Ὁ	Ὑ	Ὡ	ᾉ	ᾙ	ᾩ	Ῥ
	Acute	῞	Ἅ	Ἕ	Ἥ	Ἵ	Ὅ	Ὕ	Ὥ	ᾍ	ᾝ	ᾭ
	Grave	῝	Ἃ	Ἓ	Ἣ	Ἳ	Ὃ	Ὓ	Ὣ	ᾋ	ᾛ	ᾫ
	Circumflex	῟	Ἇ		Ἧ	Ἷ		Ὗ	Ὧ	ᾏ	ᾟ	ᾯ
Diaeresis	—	¨				Ϊ		Ϋ
Macron	—	ˉ	Ᾱ			Ῑ		Ῡ
Breve	—	˘	Ᾰ			Ῐ		Ῠ

Lower case

Lower case vowels by breathing and accent
Breathing, diaeresis, or length	Accent	—	—							Subscript			Rho
—	—		α	ε	η	ι	ο	υ	ω	ᾳ	ῃ	ῳ	ρ
	Acute	´	ά	έ	ή	ί	ό	ύ	ώ	ᾴ	ῄ	ῴ
	Grave	`	ὰ	ὲ	ὴ	ὶ	ὸ	ὺ	ὼ	ᾲ	ῂ	ῲ
	Circumflex	῀	ᾶ		ῆ	ῖ		ῦ	ῶ	ᾷ	ῇ	ῷ
Smooth	—	᾿	ἀ	ἐ	ἠ	ἰ	ὀ	ὐ	ὠ	ᾀ	ᾐ	ᾠ	ῤ
	Acute	῎	ἄ	ἔ	ἤ	ἴ	ὄ	ὔ	ὤ	ᾄ	ᾔ	ᾤ
	Grave	῍	ἂ	ἒ	ἢ	ἲ	ὂ	ὒ	ὢ	ᾂ	ᾒ	ᾢ
	Circumflex	῏	ἆ		ἦ	ἶ		ὖ	ὦ	ᾆ	ᾖ	ᾦ
Rough	—	῾	ἁ	ἑ	ἡ	ἱ	ὁ	ὑ	ὡ	ᾁ	ᾑ	ᾡ	ῥ
	Acute	῞	ἅ	ἕ	ἥ	ἵ	ὅ	ὕ	ὥ	ᾅ	ᾕ	ᾥ
	Grave	῝	ἃ	ἓ	ἣ	ἳ	ὃ	ὓ	ὣ	ᾃ	ᾓ	ᾣ
	Circumflex	῟	ἇ		ἧ	ἷ		ὗ	ὧ	ᾇ	ᾗ	ᾧ
Diaeresis	—	¨				ϊ		ϋ
	Acute	΅				ΐ		ΰ
	Grave	῭				ῒ		ῢ
	Circumflex	῁				ῗ		ῧ
Macron	—	ˉ	ᾱ			ῑ		ῡ
Breve	—	˘	ᾰ			ῐ		ῠ

Greek Extended^[1]^[2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart(PDF)
	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
U+1F0x	ἀ	ἁ	ἂ	ἃ	ἄ	ἅ	ἆ	ἇ	Ἀ	Ἁ	Ἂ	Ἃ	Ἄ	Ἅ	Ἆ	Ἇ
U+1F1x	ἐ	ἑ	ἒ	ἓ	ἔ	ἕ			Ἐ	Ἑ	Ἒ	Ἓ	Ἔ	Ἕ
U+1F2x	ἠ	ἡ	ἢ	ἣ	ἤ	ἥ	ἦ	ἧ	Ἠ	Ἡ	Ἢ	Ἣ	Ἤ	Ἥ	Ἦ	Ἧ
U+1F3x	ἰ	ἱ	ἲ	ἳ	ἴ	ἵ	ἶ	ἷ	Ἰ	Ἱ	Ἲ	Ἳ	Ἴ	Ἵ	Ἶ	Ἷ
U+1F4x	ὀ	ὁ	ὂ	ὃ	ὄ	ὅ			Ὀ	Ὁ	Ὂ	Ὃ	Ὄ	Ὅ
U+1F5x	ὐ	ὑ	ὒ	ὓ	ὔ	ὕ	ὖ	ὗ		Ὑ		Ὓ		Ὕ		Ὗ
U+1F6x	ὠ	ὡ	ὢ	ὣ	ὤ	ὥ	ὦ	ὧ	Ὠ	Ὡ	Ὢ	Ὣ	Ὤ	Ὥ	Ὦ	Ὧ
U+1F7x	ὰ	ά	ὲ	έ	ὴ	ή	ὶ	ί	ὸ	ό	ὺ	ύ	ὼ	ώ
U+1F8x	ᾀ	ᾁ	ᾂ	ᾃ	ᾄ	ᾅ	ᾆ	ᾇ	ᾈ	ᾉ	ᾊ	ᾋ	ᾌ	ᾍ	ᾎ	ᾏ
U+1F9x	ᾐ	ᾑ	ᾒ	ᾓ	ᾔ	ᾕ	ᾖ	ᾗ	ᾘ	ᾙ	ᾚ	ᾛ	ᾜ	ᾝ	ᾞ	ᾟ
U+1FAx	ᾠ	ᾡ	ᾢ	ᾣ	ᾤ	ᾥ	ᾦ	ᾧ	ᾨ	ᾩ	ᾪ	ᾫ	ᾬ	ᾭ	ᾮ	ᾯ
U+1FBx	ᾰ	ᾱ	ᾲ	ᾳ	ᾴ		ᾶ	ᾷ	Ᾰ	Ᾱ	Ὰ	Ά	ᾼ	᾽	ι	᾿
U+1FCx	῀	῁	ῂ	ῃ	ῄ		ῆ	ῇ	Ὲ	Έ	Ὴ	Ή	ῌ	῍	῎	῏
U+1FDx	ῐ	ῑ	ῒ	ΐ			ῖ	ῗ	Ῐ	Ῑ	Ὶ	Ί		῝	῞	῟
U+1FEx	ῠ	ῡ	ῢ	ΰ	ῤ	ῥ	ῦ	ῧ	Ῠ	Ῡ	Ὺ	Ύ	Ῥ	῭	΅	`
U+1FFx			ῲ	ῳ	ῴ		ῶ	ῷ	Ὸ	Ό	Ὼ	Ώ	ῼ	´	῾
Notes 1.^As of Unicode version 16.0 2.^Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points

References

^Nicolas, Nick. "Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation Archived2015-10-30 at theWayback Machine".2005. Accessed 7 Oct 2014.
^Probert, Philomen (2006).Ancient Greek accentuation.New York: Oxford University Press. p. 59.ISBN 9780199279609.
^Devine, Andrew M.; Stephens, Laurence D. (1994).The prosody of Greek speech.New York: Oxford University Press. p. 180.ISBN 0-19-508546-9.
^Allen, William S. (1987).Vox graeca.London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 124–130.
^Alkis K. Tropaiatis; Telis Peklaris; Philippos D. Kolovos (1976).Συγχρονισμένο ορθογραφικό λεξικό της νεοελληνικής (Contemporary Orthographic Dictionary of Modern Greek)(in Greek). Κέντρον Εκπαιδευτικών Μελετών και Επιμορφώσεως. p. 11.
^Χαραλάμπους, Γιάννης."Καλῶς ὁρίσατε στὸν ἱστοχῶρο τῆς Κίνησης Πολιτῶν γιὰ τὴν Ἐπαναφορὰ τοῦ Πολυτονικοῦ Συστήματος".polytoniko.gr.
^"Welcome to the Web site of the Citizens' Movement for the Re-introduction of the Polytonic System".polytoniko.org.Retrieved2022-02-05.
^Betts, G. (2004).Teach Yourself New Testament Greek.London: Teach Yourself Books.ISBN 0-340-87084-2.
^Smyth,par. 155
^Abbott, Evelyn; Mansfield, E. D. (1977).A Primer of Greek Grammar.London: Duckworth. p. 14.ISBN 0-7156-1258-1.
^"Cypriot Greek Lexicography: A Reverse Dictionary of Cypriot Greek"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2016-08-06.Retrieved2017-02-08.
^"Griko Alpha bets, pronunciation and language".omniglot.
^"Karamanli Turkish Alpha bet and language".omniglot.
^Nick Nicholas.Greek Unicode issues.https://opoudjis.net/unicode/unicode_gkbkgd.html#titlecase
^"Language subtag registry".IANA. 2021-03-05.Retrieved13 April2021.

External links

General information:

Accentuation history and tutorial
Citizens' Movement for the Reintroduction of the Polytonic System,in Greek and English
How the law to abandon polytonic orthography was passed in the Greek parliament,in Greek
Greek polytonic to monotonic converter(free online tool)
Program that converts (correct) written monotonic texts into polytonic texts

Polytonic Greek fonts:

Greek Font Society public domain polytonic fonts Archived2008-07-01 at theWayback Machine
Public domain Greek polytonic unicode fonts
Athena Archived2020-08-01 at theWayback Machine,public domain polytonic Greek font

How-to guides for polytonic keyboard layouts:

Google Docs guide for LinuxCovers installation of layouts, use of dead-keys etc. Updated to 2010.

[nicky-1] Nicolas, Nick. "Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation Archived2015-10-30 at theWayback Machine".2005. Accessed 7 Oct 2014.

[2] Probert, Philomen (2006).Ancient Greek accentuation.New York: Oxford University Press. p. 59.ISBN 9780199279609.

[3] Devine, Andrew M.; Stephens, Laurence D. (1994).The prosody of Greek speech.New York: Oxford University Press. p. 180.ISBN 0-19-508546-9.

[4] Allen, William S. (1987).Vox graeca.London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 124–130.

[5] Alkis K. Tropaiatis; Telis Peklaris; Philippos D. Kolovos (1976).Συγχρονισμένο ορθογραφικό λεξικό της νεοελληνικής (Contemporary Orthographic Dictionary of Modern Greek)(in Greek). Κέντρον Εκπαιδευτικών Μελετών και Επιμορφώσεως. p. 11.

[6] Χαραλάμπους, Γιάννης."Καλῶς ὁρίσατε στὸν ἱστοχῶρο τῆς Κίνησης Πολιτῶν γιὰ τὴν Ἐπαναφορὰ τοῦ Πολυτονικοῦ Συστήματος".polytoniko.gr.

[7] "Welcome to the Web site of the Citizens' Movement for the Re-introduction of the Polytonic System".polytoniko.org.Retrieved2022-02-05.

[8] Betts, G. (2004).Teach Yourself New Testament Greek.London: Teach Yourself Books.ISBN 0-340-87084-2.

[9] Smyth,par. 155

[10] Abbott, Evelyn; Mansfield, E. D. (1977).A Primer of Greek Grammar.London: Duckworth. p. 14.ISBN 0-7156-1258-1.

[11] "Cypriot Greek Lexicography: A Reverse Dictionary of Cypriot Greek"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2016-08-06.Retrieved2017-02-08.

[12] "Griko Alpha bets, pronunciation and language".omniglot.

[13] "Karamanli Turkish Alpha bet and language".omniglot.

[14] Nick Nicholas.Greek Unicode issues.https://opoudjis.net/unicode/unicode_gkbkgd.html#titlecase

[IETF-15] "Language subtag registry".IANA. 2021-03-05.Retrieved13 April2021.

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