Absorbed dose

Absorbed doseis a dose quantity which is the measure of theenergydeposited inmatterbyionizing radiationper unitmass.Absorbed dose is used in the calculation of dose uptake in living tissue in bothradiation protection(reduction of harmful effects), andradiology(potential beneficial effects, for example in cancer treatment). It is also used to directly compare the effect of radiation on inanimate matter such as inradiation hardening.

Absorbed dose of ionizing radiation
Common symbols	D
SI unit	Gray
Other units	Rad
InSI base units	J⋅kg−1

TheSI unitof measure is thegray(Gy), which is defined as oneJouleof energy absorbed perkilogramof matter.The older, non-SICGSunitrad,is sometimes also used, predominantly in the USA.

Deterministic effects

Conventionally, in radiation protection, unmodified absorbed dose is only used for indicating the immediate health effects due to high levels of acute dose. These are tissue effects, such as inacute radiation syndrome,which are also known as deterministic effects. These are effects which are certain to happen in a short time. The time between exposure and vomiting may be used as a heuristic for quantifying a dose when more precise means of testing are unavailable.

Effects of acute radiation exposure

Phase	Symptom	Whole-bodyabsorbed dose(Gy)
		1–2Gy	2–6Gy	6–8Gy	8–30Gy	> 30Gy
Immediate	Nauseaandvomiting	5–50%	50–100%	75–100%	90–100%	100%
	Time of onset	2–6 h	1–2 h	10–60 min	< 10 min	Minutes
	Duration	< 24 h	24–48 h	< 48 h	< 48 h	— (patients die in < 48 h)
	Diarrhea	None	None to mild (< 10%)	Heavy (> 10%)	Heavy (> 95%)	Heavy (100%)
	Time of onset	—	3–8 h	1–3 h	< 1 h	< 1 h
	Headache	Slight	Mild to moderate (50%)	Moderate (80%)	Severe (80–90%)	Severe (100%)
	Time of onset	—	4–24 h	3–4 h	1–2 h	< 1 h
	Fever	None	Moderate increase (10–100%)	Moderate to severe (100%)	Severe (100%)	Severe (100%)
	Time of onset	—	1–3 h	< 1 h	< 1 h	< 1 h
	CNSfunction	No impairment	Cognitive impairment 6–20 h	Cognitive impairment > 24 h	Rapid incapacitation	Seizures,tremor,ataxia,lethargy
Latent period		28–31 days	7–28 days	< 7 days	None	None
Illness		Mild to moderateLeukopenia Fatigue Weakness	Moderate to severeLeukopenia Purpura Hemorrhage Infections Alopeciaafter 3Gy	Severeleukopenia High fever Diarrhea Vomiting Dizzinessanddisorientation Hypotension Electrolyte disturbance	Nausea Vomiting Severe diarrhea High fever Electrolyte disturbance Shock	— (patients die in < 48h)
Mortality	Without care	0–5%	5–95%	95–100%	100%	100%
	With care	0–5%	5–50%	50–100%	99–100%	100%
	Death	6–8 weeks	4–6 weeks	2–4 weeks	2 days – 2 weeks	1–2 days
Table source

Radiation therapy

Main article:radiation therapy

Dose computation

The absorbed dose is equal to the radiation exposure (ions orC/kg) of the radiation beam multiplied by the ionization energy of the medium to be ionized.

For example, the ionization energy of dry air at 20 °C and 101.325kPaof pressure is33.97±0.05 J/C.(33.97 eV per ion pair) Therefore, an exposure of2.58×10⁻⁴C/kg(1roentgen) would deposit an absorbed dose of8.76×10⁻³J/kg(0.00876 Gy or 0.876 rad) in dry air at those conditions.

When the absorbed dose is not uniform, or when it is only applied to a portion of a body or object, an absorbed dose representative of the entire item can be calculated by taking a mass-weighted average of the absorbed doses at each point.

More precisely,

$${\overline {D_{T}}}={\frac {\displaystyle \int _{T}D(x,y,z)\,\rho (x,y,z)\,dV}{\displaystyle \int _{T}\rho (x,y,z)\,dV}}$$

Where

• ${\overline {D_{T}}}$is the mass-averaged absorbed dose of the entire item$T$;
• $T$is the item of interest;
• $D(x,y,z)$is the absorbed dose density (absorbed dose per unit volume) as a function of location;
• $\rho (x,y,z)$is the density (mass per unit volume) as a function of location;
• $V$is volume.

Stochastic risk - conversion to equivalent dose

External dose quantities used in radiation protection and dosimetry

Graphic showing relationship of "protection dose" quantities inSIunits

Forstochasticradiation risk, defined as theprobabilityof cancer induction and genetic effects occurring over a long time scale, consideration must be given to the type of radiation and the sensitivity of the irradiated tissues, which requires the use of modifying factors to produce a risk factor insieverts.One sievert carries with it a 5.5% chance of eventually developing cancer based on thelinear no-threshold model.This calculation starts with the absorbed dose.

To represent stochastic risk the dose quantitiesequivalent doseH_Tandeffective doseEare used, and appropriate dose factors and coefficients are used to calculate these from the absorbed dose.Equivalent and effective dose quantities are expressed in units of thesievertorremwhich implies that biological effects have been taken into account. The derivation of stochastic risk is in accordance with the recommendations of theInternational Committee on Radiation Protection(ICRP) andInternational Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements(ICRU). The coherent system of radiological protection quantities developed by them is shown in the accompanying diagram.

For whole body radiation, withGamma raysorX-raysthe modifying factors are numerically equal to 1, which means that in that case the dose in grays equals the dose in sieverts.

Development of the absorbed dose concept and the gray

Using earlyCrookes tubeX-Ray apparatus in 1896. One man is viewing his hand with afluoroscopeto optimise tube emissions, the other has his head close to the tube. No precautions are being taken.

The Radiology Martyrs monument, erected 1936 at St. Georg hospital in Hamburg, more names added in 1959.

Wilhelm Röntgenfirst discoveredX-rayson November 8, 1895, and their use spread very quickly for medical diagnostics, particularly broken bones and embedded foreign objects where they were a revolutionary improvement over previous techniques.

Due to the wide use of X-rays and the growing realisation of the dangers of ionizing radiation, measurement standards became necessary for radiation intensity and various countries developed their own, but using differing definitions and methods. Eventually, in order to promote international standardisation, the first International Congress of Radiology (ICR) meeting in London in 1925, proposed a separate body to consider units of measure. This was called theInternational Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements,or ICRU,and came into being at the Second ICR in Stockholm in 1928, under the chairmanship ofManne Siegbahn.

One of the earliest techniques of measuring the intensity of X-rays was to measure their ionising effect in air by means of an air-filledion chamber.At the first ICRU meeting it was proposed that one unit of X-ray dose should be defined as the quantity of X-rays that would produce oneesuof charge in onecubic centimetreof dry air at 0°Cand 1standard atmosphereof pressure. This unit of radiation exposure was named theroentgenin honour of Wilhelm Röntgen, who had died five years previously. At the 1937 meeting of the ICRU, this definition was extended to apply togamma radiation.This approach, although a great step forward in standardisation, had the disadvantage of not being a direct measure of the absorption of radiation, and thereby the ionisation effect, in various types of matter including human tissue, and was a measurement only of the effect of the X-rays in a specific circumstance; the ionisation effect in dry air.

In 1940,Louis Harold Gray,who had been studying the effect of neutron damage on human tissue, together withWilliam Valentine Mayneordand the radiobiologist John Read, published a paper in which a new unit of measure, dubbed the"gram roentgen"(symbol: gr) was proposed, and defined as "that amount of neutron radiation which produces an increment in energy in unit volume of tissue equal to the increment of energy produced in unit volume of water by one roentgen of radiation".This unit was found to be equivalent to 88 ergs in air, and made the absorbed dose, as it subsequently became known, dependent on the interaction of the radiation with the irradiated material, not just an expression of radiation exposure or intensity, which the roentgen represented. In 1953 the ICRU recommended therad,equal to 100 erg/g, as the new unit of measure of absorbed radiation. The rad was expressed in coherentcgsunits.

In the late 1950s, the CGPM invited the ICRU to join other scientific bodies to work on the development of theInternational System of Units,or SI.It was decided to define the SI unit of absorbed radiation as energy deposited per unit mass which is how the rad had been defined, but inMKS unitsit would be J/kg. This was confirmed in 1975 by the 15th CGPM, and the unit was named the "gray" in honour of Louis Harold Gray, who had died in 1965. The gray was equal to 100 rad, the cgs unit.

Other uses

Absorbed dose is also used to manage the irradiation and measure the effects of ionising radiation on inanimate matter in a number of fields.

Component survivability

Absorbed dose is used to rate the survivability of devices such as electronic components in ionizing radiation environments.

Radiation hardening

The measurement of absorbed dose absorbed by inanimate matter is vital in the process ofradiation hardeningwhich improves the resistance of electronic devices to radiation effects.

Food irradiation

Absorbed dose is the physical dose quantity used to ensureirradiated foodhas received the correct dose to ensure effectiveness. Variable doses are used depending on the application and can be as high as 70 kGy.

Radiation-related quantities

The following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units:

Ionizing radiation related quantities

Quantity	Unit	Symbol	Derivation	Year	SIequivalent
Activity(A)	becquerel	Bq	s−1	1974	SI unit
	curie	Ci	3.7×1010s−1	1953	3.7×1010Bq
	rutherford	Rd	106s−1	1946	1000000Bq
Exposure(X)	coulombperkilogram	C/kg	C⋅kg−1of air	1974	SI unit
	röntgen	R	esu/0.001293gof air	1928	2.58×10−4C/kg
Absorbed dose(D)	gray	Gy	J⋅kg−1	1974	SI unit
	ergper gram	erg/g	erg⋅g−1	1950	1.0×10−4Gy
	rad	rad	100 erg⋅g−1	1953	0.010 Gy
Equivalent dose(H)	sievert	Sv	J⋅kg−1×WR	1977	SI unit
	röntgen equivalent man	rem	100 erg⋅g−1×WR	1971	0.010 Sv
Effective dose(E)	sievert	Sv	J⋅kg−1×WR×WT	1977	SI unit
	röntgen equivalent man	rem	100 erg⋅g−1×WR×WT	1971	0.010 Sv

Although the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission permits the use of the unitscurie,rad,andremalongside SI units,theEuropean UnionEuropean units of measurement directivesrequired that their use for "public health... purposes" be phased out by 31 December 1985.

See also

• Kerma (physics)
• Mean glandular dose
• Category:Units of radiation dose

Literature

• ICRP (2007)."The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection".Annals of the ICRP.ICRP publication 103.37(2–4).ISBN978-0-7020-3048-2.Retrieved17 May2012.

External links

• Specific Gamma-Ray Dose Constants for Nuclides Important to Dosimetry and Radiological Assessment,Laurie M. Unger and D. K. Trubey, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, May 1982- contains gamma-ray dose constants (in tissue) for approximately 500 radionuclides.