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Acala

For other uses, seeAcala (disambiguation).

AcalaorAchala(Sanskrit:अचल,"The Immovable",IPA:[ˈɐt͜ɕɐlɐ]), also known asAcalanātha(अचलनाथ,"Immovable Lord" ) orĀryācalanātha(आर्याचलनाथ,"Noble Immovable Lord" ), is awrathful deityanddharmapala(protector of theDharma) prominent inVajrayana BuddhismandEast Asian Buddhism.[1]

Acala
Statue ofFudō Myōō(Acala), from early 13th century (Kamakura period)Japan
Sanskrit
  • अचल(Acala)
  • अचलनाथ(Acalanātha)
  • आर्याचलनाथ(Āryācalanātha)
  • अचलवज्र(Acalavajra)
  • चण्डरोषण(Caṇḍaroṣaṇa)
  • चण्डमहारोषण(Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa)
  • महाचण्डरोषण(Mahācaṇḍaroṣaṇa)
Chinese
  • (Traditional) bất động minh vương
  • (Simplified) bất động minh vương
  • (Pinyin:Bùdòng Míngwáng)
  • Bất động kim cương minh vương / bất động kim cương minh vương (Bùdòng Jīngāng Míngwáng)
  • Bất động sứ giả / bất động sứ giả (Bùdòng Shǐzhě)
  • Bất động như đại sứ / bất động như đại sứ (Bùdòng Rúláishǐ)
  • Bất động tôn / bất động tôn (Bùdòng-zūn)
  • Vô động minh vương / vô động minh vương
    (Wúdòng Míngwáng)
  • Vô động tôn / vô động tôn (Wúdòng-zūn)
  • Vô động sứ giả / vô động sứ giả (Wúdòng Shǐzhě)
  • A che la / a che la (Āzhēluó)
  • A che la túi hắn / a che la túi hắn (Āzhēluónángtā)
  • A lê gia A Tả la túi nhiều đuôi nhi Hierro chọc / a lê gia A Tả la túi nhiều đuôi nhi Hierro chọc (Ālíyé Āzuǒluónángduō Wěinǐyéluórě)
Japanese
  • Bất động minh vương(Fudō Myōō)
  • Đại ngày đại thánh bất động minh vương (Dainichi Daishō Fudō Myōō)
  • Bất động tôn (Fudō-son)
  • Bất động sứ giả (Fudō Shisha)
  • Bất động như đại sứ (Fudō Nyoraishi)
  • Vô động minh vươngMudō Myōō)
  • Vô động tôn (Mudō-son)
  • Thánh vô động tôn (Shō-Mudō-son)
  • A che la (Ashara)
  • A che la túi hắn (Asharanōta)
  • A lê gia A Tả la túi nhiều đuôi 儞 Hierro chọc (Ariya Asharanōta Bijaranja)
  • お bất động さん (O-Fudō-san)
  • お bất động dạng / お bất động さま (O-Fudō-sama)
Korean부동명왕 (Budong Myeongwang)
MongolianХөдөлшгүй(Khödölshgüi)
Tibetanམི་གཡོ་བ་(Miyowa)
VietnameseBất Động Minh Vương
Information
Venerated byVajrayana Buddhism,Mahayana Buddhism,Shugendō
Attributesvajra,lasso(pāśa),khanda
iconReligion portal

Originally a minor deity described as a messenger or acolyte of thebuddhaVairocana,Acala later rose to prominence as an object of veneration in his own right as a remover of obstacles and destroyer of evil, eventually becoming seen as the wrathful manifestation of either Vairocana, the buddhaAkṣobhya,or thebodhisattvaMañjuśrī.In later texts, he is also calledCaṇḍaroṣaṇa(चण्डरोषण,"Violent Wrathful One",IPA:[t͜ɕɐɳɖɐˈroːʂɐɳɐ]) orCaṇḍamahāroṣaṇa(चण्डमहारोषण,"Violent One of Great Wrath",IPA:[t͜ɕɐɳɖɐmɐɦaːˈroːʂɐɳɐ]), the names by which he is more commonly known in countries likeNepalandTibet.[2][3][4]

InEast Asianesoteric Buddhism,Acala is classed among theWisdom Kings(Vidyārāja) and is preeminent among the five Wisdom Kings of theWomb Realm.Accordingly, he occupies an important hierarchical position in theMandala of the Two Realms.InChina,he is known asBùdòng Míngwáng( bất động minh vương, "Immovable Wisdom King", theChinesetranslation of SanskritAcala(nātha) Vidyārāja[5]), while in Japan, he is calledFudō Myōō,theon'yomireading of his Chinese name.[6]Acala (as Fudō) is one of the especially important and well-known divinities inJapanese Buddhism,being especially venerated in theShingon,Tendai,Zen,andNichirensects, as well as inShugendō.

Acala has been worshiped throughout the Middle Ages and into modern times in Nepal, Tibet, China and Japan, where sculptural and pictorial representations of him are most often found.[1][3]

Origins and development

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Acala first appears in theAmoghapāśakalparāja Sūtra( không không quyển tác thần 変 chân ngôn kinh,pinyin:Bùkōng juànsuǒ shénbiàn zhēnyán jīng,translated byBodhirucicirca 707-709 CE[7]), where he is described as a servant or messenger of thebuddhaVairocana:[8]

The first from the west in the northern quadrant is the acolyte Acala ( bất động sứ giả ). In his left hand he grasps a noose and in his right hand he holds a sword. He is seated in thehalf-lotus position.[8][9]

More well-known, however, is the following passage from theMahāvairocana Tantra(also known as theMahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhi Tantraor theVairocana Sūtra) which refers to Acala as one of the deities of theWomb Realm Mandala:

Below the mantra-lord (i.e., Vairocana), in the direction ofNairṛti(i.e., southwest),
Is Acala, the Tathāgata's servant ( bất động như đại sứ ): he holds a wisdom sword and a noose (pāśa),
The hair from the top of his head hangs down on his left shoulder, and with one eye he looks fixedly;
Awesomely wrathful, his body [is enveloped in] fierce flames, and he rests on a rock;
His face is marked with [a frown like] waves on water, and he has the figure of a stout young boy.[10][8][11]

The deity was apparently popular in India during the 8th-9th centuries as evident by the fact that six of the Sanskrit texts translated by the esoteric masterAmoghavajrainto Chinese are devoted entirely to him.[3]Indeed, Acala's rise to a more prominent position in the Esoteric pantheon in East Asian Buddhism may be credited in part to the writings of Amoghavajra and his teacherVajrabodhi.[12]

12th century Tibetan (Kadampaschool) painting of Acala stepping onVighnarāja,the "Lord of Obstacles"

the guardian deityVajrapanito be other, more likely prototypes for Acala. He notes: "one could theoretically locate Acala's origins in a genericŚiva,but only in the sense that all Tantric deities can in one way or another be traced back toŚiva."[8]Faure compares Acala to Vajrapani in that both were originally minor deities who eventually came to occupy important places in the Buddhist pantheon.[13]

Acala is said to be a powerful deity who protects the faithful by burning away all impediments (antarāya) and defilements (kleśa), thus aiding them towards enlightenment.[14]In a commentary on theMahāvairocana TantrabyYi Xing,he is said to have manifested in the world following Vairocana's vow to save all beings, and that his primary function is to remove obstacles to enlightenment.[8]Indeed, the tantra instructs the ritual practitioner to recite Acala's mantras or to visualize himself as Acala in order to remove obstacles.[15]

From a humble acolyte, Acala evolved into a powerful demon-subduing deity. In later texts such as theCaṇḍamahāroṣaṇa Tantra,Acala - under the nameCaṇḍaroṣaṇa( "Violent Wrathful One" ) orCaṇḍamahāroṣaṇa( "Violent One of Great Wrath" ) - is portrayed as the "frightener of gods,titans,and men, the destroyer of the strength of demons "who slays ghosts and evil spirits with his fierce anger.[3]

The five Wisdom Kings (Vidyarāja,Myōō) ofShingon Buddhism:Acala (Fudō, center),Trailokyavijaya(Gōzanze, lower right),Amṛtakuṇḍalin(Gundari, lower left),Yamāntaka(Daiitoku, upper left), andVajrayakṣa(Kongōyasha, upper right)

InTibetan Buddhism,Acala or Miyowa (མི་གཡོ་བ་,Wylie:mi g.yo ba) is considered as belonging to thevajrakula( "vajra family", Tibetan: དོ་རྗེའི་རིགས་,dorjé rik;Wylie:rdo rje'i rigs), one of theFive Buddha Families[broken anchor]presided over by the buddhaAkṣobhyaand may even be regarded, along with the other deities of thekula,as an aspect or emanation of the latter.[3][16][17][18]He is thus sometimes depicted in South Asian art wearing a crown with an effigy of Akṣobhya.[3][17][18]InNepal,Acala may also be identified as a manifestation of thebodhisattvaMañjuśrī.[19][20][21]He has a consort named Viśvavajrī in both the Nepalese and Tibetan traditions, with whom he is at times depicted inyab-yumunion.[20][4]

By contrast, thesanrinjin( tam luân thân, "bodies of the three wheels" ) theory, based on Amoghavajra's writings and prevalent inJapaneseesoteric Buddhism(Mikkyō), interprets Acala as an incarnation of Vairocana.[22]In this system, the five chiefvidyārājasor Wisdom Kings ( minh vương,Myōō), of which Acala is one, are interpreted as the wrathful manifestations ( sắc lệnh luân thân,kyōryōrin-shin,lit. "" embodiments of the wheel of injunction ") of theFive Great Buddhas,who appear both as gentlebodhisattvasto teach theDharmaand also as fierce wrathful deities to subdue and convert hardened nonbelievers.[23][24][25]Under this conceptualization,vidyārājasare ranked superior todharmapalas(Hộ pháp thiện thần,gohō zenshin),[26]a different class of guardian deities. However, this interpretation, while common in Japan, is not necessarily universal: inNichiren-shū,for instance, Acala andRāgarāja(Aizen Myōō), the twovidyārājaswho commonly feature in themandalasinscribed byNichiren,are seen as protective deities ( ngoại hộ thần,gegoshin) who respectively embody the two tenets ofhongaku( "original enlightenment" ) doctrine: "life and death (saṃsāra) are preciselynirvana"( sinh tử tức niết bàn,shōji soku nehan) and "worldly passions (kleśa) are precisely enlightenment (bodhi) "( phiền 悩 tức bồ đề,bonnō soku bodai).[27][28][29][30]

Iconography

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A 14th century (earlyMalla period) Nepalese depiction of a kneeling Acala
Seated statue of Acala with the Kurikara Sword and a noose atWaterloo Street,Singapore.

TheCaṇḍamahāroṣaṇa Tantra'sdescription of Acala is a good summary of the deity's depiction in South Asian Buddhist art.

"His right hand is terrifying with a sword in it,
His left is holding a noose;
He is making a threatening gesture with his index finger,
And bites his lower lip with his fangs.
"Kicking with his right foot,
He is smashing the fourMāras.
His left knee is on the ground.
Squint eyed, he inspires fear.
"He points a threatening gesture at Vasudhā [i.e. the earth],
Kneeling on the cap of his left knee.
He hasAkṣobhyafor his crest jewel;
He is of blue color and wears a jewel diadem.
"A princely youth, Wearing Five Braids of Hair,
Adorned with all the ornaments,
He appears to be sixteen years old,
And his eyes are red—he, the powerful one. "[31]

In Nepalese and Tibetan art, Acala is usually shown either kneeling on his left knee or standing astride, bearing a noose orlasso(pāśa) and an upraised sword. Some depictions portray him trampling on the elephant-headed Vighnarāja (lit. "Ruler of Hindrances", a Buddhist equivalent godVinyaka,albeit interpreted negatively as one who causes obstacles), signifying his role as the destroyer of impediments to enlightenment. He may also be shown wearing a tiger skin, with snakes coiled around his arms and body.[3][32]

Statue of Acala in the Lecture Hall (Kōdō) ofTō-jiinKyoto

By contrast, portrayals of Acala (Fudō) in Japan generally tend to conform to the description given in theAmoghapāśakalparāja Sūtraand theMahāvairocana Tantra:holding a lasso and a sword while sitting or standing on a rock ( tảng đá to tòa,banjakuza) or a pile of hewn stones ( lạnh run tòa,shitsushitsuza), with his braided hair hanging from the left of his head.[33][34][35]He may also be depicted with a lotus flower - a symbol of enlightenment - on his head ( đỉnh liên,chōren).[36]Unlike the South Asian Acala, whose striding posture conveys movement and dynamism, the Japanese Fudō sits or stands erect, suggesting motionlessness and rigidity.[8]The sword he wields may or may not be flaming and is sometimes described generically as a "jeweled sword"(Bảo kiếm,hōken)or "vajrasword "(Kim cương kiếm,kongō-ken),which is descriptive of the fact that the sword's pommel is in the shape of the talon-likevajra( kim cương xử,kongō-sho). It may also be referred to as a "three-pronged vajra sword"(Tam 鈷 kiếm,sanko-ken).[37]In some cases, he is seen holding the "Kurikara sword" ( đều lợi già la kiếm,Kurikara-ken),[38]a sword with the dragon (nāga) king Kurikara ( đều lợi già la; Sanskrit:Kulikāla-rājaorKṛkāla-rāja) coiled around it.[39]The flamingnimbusor halo behind Acala is commonly known in Japanese as the "Garudaflame "( Garuda viêm,karura-en) after the mythicalfire-breathing birdfrom Indian mythology.[14][40]

Acala with mismatched eyes (tenchigan,lit. "heaven-and-earth eyes" ) and fangs, byKatsushika Hokusai

There are two main variations in the iconography of Acala / Fudō in Japan. The first type (observable in the earliest extant Japanese images of the deity) shows him with wide open, glaring eyes, straight hair braided in rows and two fangs pointed in the same direction; a lotus flower rests above his head. The second type (which first appeared in the late 9th century and became increasingly common during the lateHeianandKamakuraperiods), by contrast, portrays Acala with curly hair, one eye wide open and/or looking upwards, with the other narrowed and/or looking downwards, an iconographic trait known as thetenchigan( thiên địa mắt ), "heaven-and-earth eyes". Similarly, one of his fangs is now shown as pointing up, with the other pointing down. In place of the lotus flower, images of this type may sport seven topknots.[35][41][42][43]

Although the squinting left eye and inverted fangs of the second type ultimately derives from the description of Acala given in theMahāvairocana Tantraand Yi Xing's commentary on the text ( "with his lower [right] tooth he bites the upper-right side of his lip, and with his left [-upper tooth he bites] his lower lip which sticks out" ), these attributes were mostly absent in Chinese and earlier Japanese icons.[44]

Acala's mismatched eyes and fangs were allegorically interpreted to signify both the duality and nonduality of his nature (and of all reality): the upward fang for instance was interpreted as symbolizing the process of elevation towards enlightenment, with the downward fang symbolizing the descent of enlightened beings into the world to teach sentient beings. The two fangs also symbolize the realms of buddhas and sentient beings,yin and yang,and male and female, with the nonduality of these two polar opposites being expressed by Acala's tightly closed lips.[45]

12th century painting of Yellow Acala ( hoàng bất động,Ki-Fudō) inManshu-ininKyoto,based on an image (not available to public view) kept atMii-derain Shiga Prefecture

Acala is commonly shown as having either black or blue skin (theSādhanamālādescribes his color as being "like that of theatasī(flax) flower, "which may be either yellow[46]or blue[47][48]), though he may be at times portrayed in other colors. In Tibet, for instance, a variant of the kneeling Acala depiction shows him as being white in hue "like sunrise on a snow mountain reflecting many rays of light".[49]In Japan, some images may depict Acala sporting a red ( xích bất động,Aka-Fudō) or yellow ( hoàng bất động,Ki-Fudō) complexion. The most famous example of theAka-Fudōportrayal is a painting kept atMyōō-inonMount Kōya(Wakayama Prefecture) traditionally attributed to theHeian periodTendaimonkEnchin.Legend claims that Enchin, inspired by a vision of Acala, painted the image using his own blood (thus explaining its red color), though recent analysis suggests that the image may have been actually created much later, during theKamakura period.[50][51][52]The most well-known image of theKi-Fudōtype, meanwhile, is enshrined inMii-dera(Onjō-ji) at the foot ofMount HieiinShiga Prefectureand is said to have been based on another vision that Enchin saw while practicing austerities in 838. The original Mii-deraKi-Fudōis traditionally only shown to esoteric masters (ācārya;A đồ lê,ajari) during initiation rites and is otherwise not shown to the public, though copies of it have been made. One such copy, made in the 12th century, is kept atManshu-ininKyoto.[53][54][55][56][57]

The deity is usually depicted with one head and two arms, though a few portrayals show him with multiple heads, arms or legs.[58]In Japan, a depiction of Acala with four arms is employed in subjugation rituals and earth-placating rituals ( an trấn pháp,anchin-hō); this four-armed form is identified in one text as "the lord of the various categories [ofgods]. "[59]An iconographic depiction known as the "Two-HeadedRāgarāja"( lạng đầu ái nhiễm,Ryōzu AizenorRyōtō Aizen) shows Acala combined with the wisdom kingRāgarāja(Aizen).[60][61][62]

Acolytes

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The 'Blue Acala' ( thanh bất động,Ao-Fudō) ofShōren-inin Kyoto, showing Acala with his two attendants Kiṃkara (Kongara, right) and Ceṭaka (Seitaka, left)

Acala is sometimes described as having a retinue of acolytes, the number of which vary between sources, usually two or eight but sometimes thirty-six or even forty-eight. These represent the elemental, untamed forces of nature that the ritual practitioner seeks to harness.[1][63]

The two boy servants ordōji( đồng tử ) most commonly depicted in Japanese iconographic portrayals areKiṃkara(Căng yết la đồng tử,Kongara-dōji)andCeṭaka(Tra già đồng tử,Seitaka-dōji),who also appear as the last two of the list of Acala's eight greatdōji.[1][14][63]Kiṃkara is depicted as white in color, withhis hands joined in respect,while Ceṭaka is red-skinned and holds a vajra in his left hand and a vajra staff in his right hand. The two are said to symbolize bothDharma-essenceand ignorance, respectively, and is held to be in charge of good and evil.[63]

Sculpture of four of Acala's eight acolytes byUnkei(Kongōbu-ji,Mount Kōya). From left: Ceṭaka (Seitaka), Kiṃkara (Kongara), Matijvala (Ekō), and Matisādhu (Eki).

Kiṃkara and Ceṭaka are also sometimes interpreted as transformations or emanations of Acala himself. In a sense, they reflect Acala's original characterization as an attendant of Vairocana; indeed, their servile nature is reflected in their names (Ceṭakafor instance means "slave" ) and their topknots, the mark of banished people and slaves. In other texts, they are also described as manifestations ofAvalokiteśvara(Kannon) and Vajrapāṇi or as transformations of the dragon Kurikara, who is himself sometimes seen as one of Acala's various incarnations.[63]

Two other notabledōjiare Matijvala ( huệ quang đồng tử,Ekō-dōji) and Matisādhu ( huệ hỉ đồng tử,Eki-dōji), the first two of Acala's eight great acolytes. Matijvala is depicted as white in color and holds a three-pronged vajra in his right hand and a lotus topped with a moon disk on his left, while Matisādhu is red and holds a trident in his right hand and a wish-fulfilling jewel (cintāmaṇi) on his left. The eight acolytes as a whole symbolize the eight directions, with Matijvala and Matisādhu representing east and south, respectively.[63]

Texts

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Amandalagohonzoninscribed byNichirenin 1280. On thegohonzon'sright-hand side (inSiddhaṃ script) ishāṃ(हां), Acala'sbījaor seed syllable;Rāgarāja's seed syllable,hūṃ(हूं), is on the left.

As noted above, Acala appears in theAmoghapāśakalparāja Sūtraand theVairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra.As Caṇḍaroṣaṇa or Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa, he is the primary deity of theCaṇḍamahāroṣaṇa Tantraand is described in theSādhanamālā.

The Japanese esoteric Buddhist tradition andShugendōalso make use of the followingapocryphal sutrason Acala:

  • Sūtra of the Great Wrathful King Āryācala's Secret Dhāraṇī( thánh vô động tôn đại uy giận vương bí mật Đà La ni kinh,Shō-Mudō-son daiifunnuō himitsu darani kyō)
A sūtra consisting of a discourse on Acala given by the bodhisattvaVajrasattva(identified here withSamantabhadra) to Mañjuśrī, set in "Vairocana's great assembly." The sutra describes Acala as being identical with the all-pervadingdharmakāya,"[having] no fixed abode, but [dwelling] within the hearts of sentient beings" ( vô này sở cư, nhưng trụ chúng sinh nghĩ thầm bên trong ).[64][65]
  • Āryācala Sūtra( phật nói thánh bất động kinh,Bussetsu Shō-Fudō kyō)
A summarized version of the above sutra.[66][67]Translated into English, it runs as follows:

At that time, in the great assembly [of Vairocana], there was a great wisdom king.
This great wisdom king possesses great majestic power ( đại uy lực,daiiriki).
Having the virtue of greatcompassion( đại bi đức,daihi toku), he appears in a blue-black form.
Having the virtue of greatstillness( đại định đức,daijō toku), he sits in anadamantinerock.
Having great wisdom ( đại trí tuệ,daichie), he manifests great flames.
He wields the great sword of wisdom to destroygreed, ignorance and hatred.
He holds the snare of samādhi to bind those who are hard to tame.
Because he is the formlessDharmakāyaidentical withspace,he has no fixed abode;
his only dwelling is within the hearts of sentient beings.
Although the minds and inclinations of sentient beings differ from each other,
in accordance with each one's desires, he bestows blessings (Ích lợi,riyaku) and provides whatever is being sought.
At that time, the great assembly, having heard this sūtra, rejoiced greatly, faithfully accepted it, and put it into practice.

To this text is often appended two litanies of the names of Acala's young acolytes ( đồng tử,dōji), the 'thirty-sixdōji'( 36 đồng tử,sanjuroku dōji) and the 'eight greatdōji'( tám đại đồng tử,hachi daidōji).[66][67]
  • Sūtra on Reverencing the Secret Dhāraṇī of Āryācala( chắp tay thánh vô động tôn bí mật Đà La ni kinh,Keishu Shō-Mudō-son himitsu darani kyō)[68][69]

Bīja and mantra

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हाँ (hāṃ), Acala's seed syllable (bīja) written inSiddhaṃ script

Thebījaor seed syllables used to represent Acala in Japanese Buddhism arehāṃ(हां/हाँ) andhāmmāṃ(हाम्मां/हाम्माँ), the latter being a combination of the two finalbījain his mantra:hāṃ māṃ(हां मां).[70][71]Hāṃis sometimes confounded with the similar-lookinghūṃ(हूं), prompting some writers to mistakenly identify Acala with other deities.[72]The syllables are written using theSiddham scriptand is conventionally read askān(カーン) andkānmān(カーンマーン).[70][73][74]

Threemantrasof Acala are considered to be the standard in Japan. The most widely known one, derived from theMahāvairocana Tantraand popularly known as the "Mantra of Compassionate Help" ( từ cứu chú,jikushuorjikuju), goes as follows:[75][76]

Sanskrit Shingonpronunciation Tendaipronunciation English translation
Namaḥ samanta vajrānāṃ caṇḍa-mahāroṣaṇa sphoṭaya hūṃ traṭ hāṃ māṃ[71] Nōmaku sanmanda bazarada(n) senda(n) makaroshada sowataya un tarata kan man[77][78] Namaku samanda basaranan senda makaroshana sowataya un tarata kan man[79][80] Homage to the all-encompassing Vajras! O violent one of great wrath (caṇḍa-mahāroṣaṇa), destroy!hūṃ traṭ hāṃ māṃ.
The seed syllable(s) हाम्माँ (hāmmāṃ) in Siddhaṃ script

The "Short Mantra" ( tiểu chú,shōshu) of Acala - also found in theMahāvairocana Tantra[81]- is as follows:

Sanskrit Shingon pronunciation Tendai pronunciation English translation
Namaḥ samanta vajrānāṃ hāṃ[71] Nōmaku sanmanda bazaradan kan[82][83] Namaku samanda basaranan kan[84] Homage to the all-encompassing Vajras!hāṃ.

The longest of the three is the "Great Mantra" of Acala, also known as the "Fire Realm Mantra" ( hỏa giới chú,kakaishu/kakaiju):[85]

Sanskrit Shingon pronunciation Tendai pronunciation English translation
Namaḥ sarva-tathāgatebhyaḥ sarva-mukhebhyaḥ sarvathā traṭ caṇḍa-mahāroṣaṇa khaṃ khā he khā he(orkhāhi khāhi[86])sarva-vighnaṃ hūṃ traṭ hāṃ māṃ[87] Nōmaku saraba tatagyateibyaku saraba bokkeibyaku sarabata tarata senda makaroshada ken gyaki gyaki saraba bikin(n)an un tarata kan man[78][82][83] Namaku saruba tatagyateibyaku saruba mokkeibyaku sarubata tarata senda makaroshana ken gyaki gyaki saruba bikinan un tarata kan man[84] Homage to allTathāgatas,the omnipresent doors, who are in all directions!traṭ.O violent one of great wrath!khaṃ.Root out, root out every obstacle!hūm traṭ hām mām.[88]

Another mantra associated with the deity isOṃcaṇḍa-mahā­roṣaṇa hūṃ phaṭ,found in theSiddhaikavīra Tantra.The text describes it as the "king of mantras" that dispels all evil and grants "whatever the follower of Mantrayāna desires".[89]

Worship

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Painting of Red Acala (Aka-Fudō) in Myōō-in temple onMount Kōya,traditionally attributed toHeian periodmonkEnchin

Japan

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Five variant depictions of Acala, from a 12th centuryhandscroll

Fudō Myōō(Acala), was never popular in Indian, Tibetan or even Chinese Buddhism, but in Japan it became the object of a flourishing cult with esoteric overtones.[90]

The cult of Acala was first brought to Japan by the esoteric masterKūkai,the founder of the Shingon school, and his successors, where it developed as part of the growing popularity of rituals for the protection of the state. While Acala was at first simply regarded as theprimus inter paresamong the five wisdom kings, he gradually became a focus of worship in his own right, subsuming characteristics of the other fourvidyarājas (who came to be perceived as emanating from him), and became installed as themain deity(honzon) at many temples and outdoor shrines.[1][91]

Acala, as a powerful vanquisher of evil, was regarded both as a protector of the imperial court and the nation as a whole (in which capacity he was invoked during state-sponsored rituals) and the personal guardian of ritual practitioners. Many eminent Buddhist priests like Kūkai,Kakuban,Ennin,Enchin, andSōōworshiped Acala as their patron deity, and stories of how he miraculously rescued his devotees in times of danger were widely circulated.[92]

At temples dedicated to Acala, priests perform theFudō-hō(Bất động pháp),or ritual service to enlist the deity's power of purification to benefit the faithful. This rite routinely involves the use of theHoma ritual(Hộ ma,goma)[1]as a purification tool.

Lay persons or monks inyamabushigear who go into rigorous training outdoors in the mountains often pray to small Acala statues or portable talismans that serve as hishonzon.[1]This element of yamabushi training, known asShugendō,predates the introduction of Acala to Japan. At this time, figures such as Zaō Gongen(Tàng vương 権 hiện),who appeared before the sect's founder,En no Gyōja,or Vairocana, were commonly worshiped.[1]Once Acala was added to list of deities typically enshrined by the yamabushi monks, his images were either portable, or installed inhokora(outdoor shrines).[1]These statues would often be placed near waterfalls (a common training ground), deep in the mountains and in caves.[35]

ThedaimyoTakeda Shingenis known to have taken Fudō Myōō as his patron (particularly when he transitioned to being a lay monk in his later years), and has commissioned a statue of Fudō that is supposedly modelled after his face.[93][94]

Acala also tops the list ofThirteen Buddhas.[95]ThusShingon Buddhistmourners assign Fudō to the first seven days of service.[95]The first week is an important observance, but perhaps not as much as the observance of "seven times seven days" (i.e. 49 days) signifying the end of the "intermediate state" (bardo).

Literature on Shingon Buddhist ritual will explain that Sanskrit "seed syllables",mantrasandmudrasare attendant to each of the Buddhas for each observance period. But the scholarly consensus seems to be that invocation of the "Thirteen Buddhas" had evolved later, around the 14th century[96][97]and became widespread by the following century,[96]so it is doubtful that this practice was part of Kūkai's original teachings.

China

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Acala ( bất động minh vương,Bùdòng míngwáng) atBuddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum(Chinatown,Singapore).

Bùdòng Míngwáng(Acala) worship in China was first introduced into China during theTang dynastyafter the translation of esoteric tantras associated with him by monks such as Amoghavajra and Vajrabodhi.[98]Iconography of Acala has been depicted infrequently in some temples and grottoes from the Tang through to contemporaneous times, usually as part of a set depicting theEight Wisdom KingsorTen Wisdom Kings,[99]In modern times, he is revered as one of the eight Buddhist guardians of theChinese zodiacand specifically considered to be the protector of those born in the year of the Rooster. He is also frequently invoked during Chinese Buddhist repentance ceremonies, such as theLiberation Rite of Water and Land,along with the other Wisdom Kings where they are given offerings and intreated to expel evil from the ritual platform.[100][101]

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  • Gary Snyder's 1969 poemSmokey the Bear SutraportraysSmokey Bear(the mascot of theU.S. Forest Service) as an incarnation of Vairocana (the "Great Sun Buddha" ) in a similar vein as Acala. Indeed, Acala's Mantra of Compassionate Help is presented in the text as Smokey's "great mantra."[102]
  • Sailor Marsfrom theSailor Moonseries invokes Acala through the Sanskrit chant of the Mantra of Compassionate Help during her "Fire Soul Bird"attack. Acala is flashed multiple times as a shadowed figure in flames, consistent with Japanese iconography, and in line with Sailor Mars's element of fire.
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See also

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References

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  2. ^Weston, David (2018)."The Bayer Collection — University of Glasgow"(PDF).The Bayer Collection.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 23 August 2021.Retrieved18 December2019.
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  4. ^abHugo Kreijger (1999).Kathmandu Valley painting: the Jucker collection.Shambhala. p. 123.ISBN978-1-57062-454-4.
  5. ^Goble, Geoffrey C. (2019).Chinese Esoteric Buddhism: Amoghavajra, the Ruling Elite, and the Emergence of a Tradition.Columbia University Press. p. 65.ISBN978-0-231-55064-2.
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Bibliography

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