Wikipedia

Acid rain

For other uses, seeAcid rain (disambiguation).

Acid rainisrainor any other form ofprecipitationthat is unusuallyacidic,meaning that it has elevated levels ofhydrogen ions(lowpH). Most water, including drinking water, has a neutral pH that exists between 6.5 and 8.5, but acid rain has a pH level lower than this and ranges from 4–5 on average.[1][2]The more acidic the acid rain is, the lower its pH is.[2]Acid rain can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions ofsulfur dioxideandnitrogen oxide,which react with thewater moleculesin theatmosphereto produce acids.

Processes involved in acid deposition (only SO2and NOx) play a significant role in acid rain
Acid clouds can grow on SO2emissions from refineries, as seen here inCuraçao.
External audio
audio icon"Whatever Happened to Acid Rain?",Science History Institute

Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests,freshwaters,soils, microbes, insects and aquatic life-forms.[3]Inecosystems,persistent acid rain reduces tree bark durability, leaving flora more susceptible to environmental stressors such as drought, heat/cold and pest infestation. Acid rain is also capable of detrimenting soil composition by stripping it of nutrients such as calcium and magnesium which play a role in plant growth and maintaining healthy soil. In terms of human infrastructure, acid rain also causes paint to peel,corrosionof steel structures such as bridges, andweatheringof stone buildings and statues as well as having impacts on human health.[4][5][6][7]

Some governments, including those inEuropeandNorth America,have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere through air pollution regulations. These efforts have had positive results due to the widespread research on acid rain starting in the 1960s and the publicized information on its harmful effects.[8][9]The main source of sulfur and nitrogen compounds that result in acid rain areanthropogenic,but nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally bylightningstrikes and sulfur dioxide is produced byvolcanic eruptions.[10]

Definition

"Acid rain" is rain with a pH less than 5.[11]"Clean" or unpolluted rain has a pH greater than 5 but still less than pH = 7 owing to the acidity caused by carbon dioxide acid according to the following reactions:

H2O + CO2⇌ H2CO3
H2O + H2CO3⇌ HCO−3+ H3O+

A variety of natural and human-made sources contribute to the acidity. For examplenitric acidproduced byelectric dischargein the atmosphere such aslightning.[12]The usual anthropogenic sources aresulfur dioxideandnitrogen oxide.They react with water (as does carbon dioxide) to give solutions with pH < 5.[2]Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2.4 have been reported in industrialized areas.[13]

History

Acid rain was first systematically studied in Europe in the 1960s and in the United States and Canada in the following decade.

In Europe

The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in the 17th century byJohn Evelyn,who remarked upon the poor condition of theArundel marbles.[14] Since theIndustrial Revolution,emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere have increased.[13][15]In 1852,Robert Angus Smithwas the first to show the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution inManchester,England.[16]Smith coined the term "acid rain" in 1872.[17]

In the late 1960s, scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon.[18]At first, the main focus in this research lay on local effects of acid rain.Waldemar Christofer Brøggerwas the first to acknowledge long-distance transportation of pollutants crossing borders from the United Kingdom to Norway – a problem systematically studied byBrynjulf Ottarin the 1970s.[19]Ottar's work was strongly influenced[20]by Swedish soil scientistSvante Odén,who had drawn widespread attention to Europe's acid rain problem in popular newspapers and wrote a landmark paper on the subject in 1968.[21][22][23]

In the United States

External audio
"Whatever Happened to Acid Rain?",DistillationsPodcast,Science History Institute
Since 1998,Harvard Universitywraps some of the bronze and marble statues on its campus, such as this "Chinese stele",with waterproof covers every winter, in order to protect them from corrosion caused by acid rain and acid snow[24]

The earliest report about acid rain in the United States came from chemical evidence gathered fromHubbard BrookValley; public awareness of acid rain in the US increased in the 1970s afterThe New York Timesreported on these findings.[25][26]

In 1972, a group of scientists, includingGene Likens,discovered the rain that was deposited atWhite Mountainsof New Hampshire was acidic. The pH of the sample was measured to be 4.03 at Hubbard Brook.[27]The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study followed up with a series of research studies that analyzed the environmental effects of acid rain. The alumina from soils neutralized acid rain that mixed with stream water at Hubbard Brook.[28]The result of this research indicated that thechemical reactionbetween acid rain and aluminium leads to an increasing rate of soil weathering. Experimental research examined the effects of increased acidity in streams on ecological species. In 1980, scientists modified the acidity of Norris Brook, New Hampshire, and observed the change in species' behaviors. There was a decrease in species diversity, an increase in community dominants, and a reduction in thefood webcomplexity.[29]

In 1980, the US Congress passed anAcid Deposition Act.[30]This Act established an 18-year assessment and research program under the direction of the National Acidic Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP enlarged a network of monitoring sites to determine how acidic precipitation was, seeking to determine long-term trends, and established a network for dry deposition. Using a statistically based sampling design, NAPAP quantified the effects of acid rain on a regional basis by targeting research and surveys to identify and quantify the impact of acid precipitation on freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. NAPAP also assessed the effects of acid rain on historical buildings, monuments, and building materials. It also funded extensive studies on atmospheric processes and potential control programs.

From the start, policy advocates from all sides attempted to influence NAPAP activities to support their particular policy advocacy efforts, or to disparage those of their opponents.[30]For the US Government's scientific enterprise, a significant impact of NAPAP were lessons learned in the assessment process and in environmental research management to a relatively large group of scientists, program managers, and the public.[31]

In 1981, theNational Academy of Scienceswas looking into research about the controversial issues regarding acid rain.[32]President Ronald Reagan dismissed the issues of acid rain[33]until his personal visit to Canada and confirmed that the Canadian border suffered from the drifting pollution from smokestacks originating in theUS Midwest.Reagan honored the agreement toCanadian Prime MinisterPierre Trudeau's enforcement of anti-pollution regulation.[34]In 1982, Reagan commissionedWilliam Nierenbergto serve on theNational Science Board.[35]Nierenberg selected scientists includingGene Likensto serve on a panel to draft a report on acid rain. In 1983, the panel of scientists came up with a draft report, which concluded that acid rain is a real problem and solutions should be sought.[36]White HouseOffice of Science and Technology Policyreviewed the draft report and sentFred Singer's suggestions of the report, which cast doubt on the cause of acid rain.[37]The panelists revealed rejections against Singer's positions and submitted the report to Nierenberg in April. In May 1983, the House of Representatives voted against legislation controlling sulfur emissions. There was a debate about whether Nierenberg delayed the release of the report. Nierenberg denied the saying about his suppression of the report and stated that it was withheld after the House's vote because it was not ready to be published.[38]

In 1991, the USNational Acid Precipitation Assessment Program(NAPAP) provided its first assessment of acid rain in the United States.[39]It reported that 5% of New England Lakes were acidic, with sulfates being the most common problem. They noted that 2% of the lakes could no longer supportBrook Trout,and 6% of the lakes were unsuitable for the survival of many minnow species. SubsequentReports to Congresshave documented chemical changes in soil and freshwater ecosystems, nitrogen saturation, soil nutrient decreases, episodic acidification, regional haze, and damage to historical monuments.

Meanwhile, in 1990, the US Congress passed a series of amendments to theClean Air Act.[40]Title IV of these amendments established acap and tradesystem designed to control emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.[41]Both these emissions proved to cause a significant problem for U.S. citizens and their access to healthy, clean air.[42]Title IV called for a total reduction of about 10 million tons of SO2emissions from power plants, close to a 50% reduction.[41]It was implemented in two phases. Phase I began in 1995 and limited sulfur dioxide emissions from 110 of the largest power plants to 8.7 million tons of sulfur dioxide. One power plant in New England (Merrimack) was in Phase I. Four other plants (Newington, Mount Tom, Brayton Point, and Salem Harbor) were added under other program provisions. Phase II began in 2000 and affects most of the power plants in the country.

During the 1990s, research continued. On March 10, 2005, theEPAissued the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR). This rule provides states with a solution to the problem of power plant pollution that drifts from one state to another. CAIR will permanently cap emissions of SO2and NOxin the eastern United States. When fully implemented[when?],CAIR will reduce SO2emissions in 28 eastern states and the District of Columbia by over 70% and NOxemissions by over 60% from 2003 levels.[43]

Overall, the program's cap and trade program has been successful in achieving its goals. Since the 1990s, SO2emissions have dropped 40%, and according to thePacific Research Institute,acid rain levels have dropped 65% since 1976.[44]Conventional regulation was used in the European Union, which saw a decrease of over 70% in SO2emissions during the same period.[45]

In 2007, total SO2emissions were 8.9 million tons, achieving the program's long-term goal ahead of the 2010 statutory deadline.[46]

In 2007 the EPA estimated that by 2010, the overall costs of complying with the program for businesses and consumers would be $1 billion to $2 billion a year, only one-fourth of what was initially predicted.[44]Forbes says: "In 2010, by which time the cap and trade system had been augmented by the George W. Bush administration's Clean Air Interstate Rule, SO2emissions had fallen to 5.1 million tons. "[47]

The termcitizen sciencecan be traced back as far as January 1989 to a campaign by theAudubon Societyto measure acid rain. ScientistMuki Haklaycites in a policy report for theWilson Centerentitled 'Citizen Science and Policy: A European Perspective' a first use of the term 'citizen science' by R. Kerson in the magazineMIT Technology Reviewfrom January 1989.[48][49]Quoting from the Wilson Center report: "The new form of engagement in science received the name" citizen science ". The first recorded example of using the term is from 1989, describing how 225 volunteers across the US collected rain samples to assist the Audubon Society in an acid-rain awareness-raising campaign. The volunteers collected samples, checked for acidity, and reported to the organization. The information was then used to demonstrate the full extent of the phenomenon."[48][49]

In Canada

Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a "dead" lake. In 1971, he and R. J. Beamish published a report, "Acidification of the La Cloche Mountain Lakes", documenting the gradual deterioration of fish stocks in 60 lakes inKillarney Parkin Ontario, which they had been studying systematically since 1966.[50]

In the 1970s and 80s, acid rain was a major topic of research at theExperimental Lakes Area (ELA)inNorthwestern Ontario, Canada.[51]Researchers addedsulfuric acidto whole lakes in controlled ecosystem experiments to simulate the effects of acid rain. Because its remote conditions allowed for whole-ecosystem experiments, research at the ELA showed that the effect of acid rain on fish populations started at concentrations much lower than those observed in laboratory experiments.[52]In the context of afood web,fish populations crashed earlier than when acid rain had direct toxic effects to the fish because the acidity led to crashes inpreypopulations (e.g.mysids).[52]As experimental acid inputs were reduced, fish populations and lake ecosystems recovered at least partially, althoughinvertebrate populationshave still not completely returned to the baseline conditions.[53]This research showed both that acidification was linked to declining fish populations and that the effects could be reversed if sulfuric acid emissions decreased, and influenced policy in Canada and the United States.[51]

In 1985, seven Canadian provinces (all exceptBritish Columbia,Alberta,andSaskatchewan) and thefederal governmentsigned the Eastern Canada Acid Rain Program.[54]The provinces agreed to limit their combined sulfur dioxide emissions to 2.3 million tonnes by 1994. The Canada-US Air Quality Agreement was signed in 1991.[54]In 1998, all federal,provincial, and territorialMinisters of Energy and Environment signed The Canada-Wide Acid Rain Strategy for Post-2000, which was designed to protect lakes that are more sensitive than those protected by earlier policies.[54]

In India

Increased risk might be posed by the expected rise in total sulphur emissions from 4,400 kilotonnes (kt) in 1990 to 6,500 kt in 2000, 10,900 kt in 2010 and 18,500 in 2020.[55]

Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification

The most important gas which leads to acidification is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which are oxidized to formnitric acidare of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2comes fromfossil fuelcombustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) fromwildfires,and 7–8 Tg(S) per year fromvolcanoes.[56]

Natural phenomena

Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein[57]
Food Types Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100g protein)
Beef
343.6
Cheese
165.5
Pork
142.7
Lamb and Mutton
139.0
Farmed Crustaceans
133.1
Poultry
102.4
Farmed Fish
65.9
Eggs
53.7
Groundnuts
22.6
Peas
8.5
Tofu
6.7

The principal naturalphenomenathat contribute acid-producing gases to theatmosphereare emissions from volcanoes.[58]Thus, for example,fumarolesfrom the Laguna Caliente crater ofPoás Volcanocreate extremely high amounts of acid rain and fog, with acidity as high as a pH of 2, clearing an area of any vegetation and frequently causing irritation to the eyes and lungs of inhabitants in nearby settlements. Acid-producing gasses are also created bybiologicalprocesses that occur on the land, inwetlands,and in theoceans.The major biological source of sulfur compounds isdimethyl sulfide.

Nitric acid inrainwateris an important source of fixednitrogenfor plant life, and is also produced by electrical activity in the atmosphere such aslightning.[59]

Acidic deposits have been detected inglacial icethousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.[60]

Human activity

See also:Nitrogen cycle,Human impact on the nitrogen cycle,andsulfur cycle
The coal-firedGavin Power PlantinCheshire, Ohio

The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such aselectricity generation,animal agriculture,factories, andmotor vehicles.[61]These also include power plants, which use electric power generators that account for a quarter of nitrogen oxides and two-thirds of sulfur dioxide within the atmosphere.[62]Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia[63][64]and areas downwind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containingcoalto generate heat and electricity.[65]

The problem of acid rain has not only increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce localpollutionhas contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation; dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage.[60][66]Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the greatest deposition (because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain which falls inScandinavia.Regarding low pH and pH imbalances in correlation to acid rain, low levels, or those under the pH value of 7, are considered acidic. Acid rain falls at a pH value of roughly 4, making it harmful to consume for humans. When these low pH levels fall in specific regions, they not only affect the environment but also human health. With acidic pH levels in humans comes hair loss, low urinary pH, severe mineral imbalances, constipation, and many cases of chronic disorders like Fibromyalgia and Basal Carcinoma.[67]

Chemical process

Combustion of fuels and smelting of some ores produce sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are converted into sulfuric acid and nitric acid.[68]

In thegas phasesulfur dioxide is oxidized tosulfuric acid:

SO2+ 0.5 O2+ H2O → H2SO4

Nitrogen dioxidereacts with hydroxyl radicals to form nitric acid:

This shows the process of the air pollution being released into the atmosphere and the areas that will be affected.
NO2+ OH· → HNO3

The detailed mechanisms depend on the presence water and traces ofironandmanganese.A number of oxidants are capable of these reactions aside from O2,these includeozone,hydrogen peroxide,andoxygen.[16]

Acid deposition

Wet deposition

Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, and so on) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosols are both of importance for wet deposition.[2]

Dry deposition

Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition.[69]This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.[2]

Adverse effects

Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human health.

Surface waters and aquatic animals

Further information:Water pollution
Not all fish, shellfish, or the insects that they eat can tolerate the same amount of acid; for example, frogs can tolerate water that is more acidic (i.e., has a lower pH) than trout.

Sulfuric acid and nitric acid have multiple impacts on aquatic ecosystems, including acidification, increased nitrogen and aluminum content, and alteration ofbiogeochemical processes.[70]Both the lower pH and higher aluminium concentrations in surface water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and other aquatic animals. At pH lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pH can kill adult fish. As lakes and rivers become more acidic,biodiversity is reduced.Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including thebrook troutin some lakes, streams, and creeks in geographically sensitive areas, such as the Adirondack Mountains of the United States.[71]

However, the extent to which acid rain contributes directly or indirectly via runoff from the catchment to lake and river acidity (i.e., depending on characteristics of the surrounding watershed) is variable. The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75% of the acidic lakes and about 50% of the acidic streams".[71]Lakes hosted by silicate basement rocks are more acidic than lakes within limestone or other basement rocks with a carbonate composition (i.e. marble) due to buffering effects by carbonate minerals, even with the same amount of acid rain.[72][citation needed]

Soils

Soil biologyand chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pH and are killed.[73]Theenzymesof these microbes aredenatured(changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid. The hydronium ions of acid rain also mobilizetoxins,such as aluminium, and leach away essential nutrients and minerals such asmagnesium.[5]

2 H+(aq) + Mg2+(clay) ⇌ 2 H+(clay) + Mg2+(aq)

Soil chemistry can be dramatically changed when base cations, such as calcium and magnesium, are leached by acid rain, thereby affecting sensitive species, such assugar maple(Acer saccharum).[74]

Soil acidification

Diagram of nutrient leaching in soil with high levels of Soil acidity.

Impacts of acidic water andsoil acidificationon plants could be minor or in most cases major. Most minor cases which do not result in fatality of plant life can be attributed to the plants being less susceptible to acidic conditions and/or the acid rain being less potent. However, even in minor cases, the plant will eventually die due to the acidic water lowering the plant's natural pH.[75]Acidic water enters the plant and causes important plant minerals to dissolve and get carried away; which ultimately causes the plant to die of lack of minerals for nutrition. In major cases, which are more extreme, the same process of damage occurs as in minor cases, which is removal of essential minerals, but at a much quicker rate.[6]Likewise, acid rain that falls on soil and on plant leaves causes drying of the waxy leaf cuticle, which ultimately causes rapid water loss from the plant to the outside atmosphere and eventually results in death of the plant.[76]Soil acidification can lead to a decline in soil microbes as a result of a change in pH, which would have an adverse effect on plants due to their dependence on soil microbes to access nutrients.[77][78][79]To see if a plant is being affected by soil acidification, one can closely observe the plant leaves. If the leaves are green and look healthy, thesoil pHis normal and acceptable for plant life. But if the plant leaves have yellowing between the veins on their leaves, that means the plant is suffering from acidification and is unhealthy.[80]Moreover, a plant suffering from soil acidification cannot photosynthesize; the acid-water-induced process of drying out of the plant can destroy chloroplast organelles.[81]Without being able to photosynthesize, a plant cannot create nutrients for its own survival or oxygen for the survival of aerobic organisms, which affects most species on Earth and ultimately ends the purpose of the plant's existence.[82]

Forests and other vegetation

Acid rain can have severe effects on vegetation. A forest in theBlack Trianglein Europe.

Adverse effects may be indirectly related to acid rain, like the acid's effects on soil (see above) or high concentration of gaseous precursors to acid rain. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by clouds and fog which are more acidic than rain.[83]

Plants are capable of adapting to acid rain. On Jinyun Mountain,Chongqing,plant species were seen adapting to new environmental conditions. The affects on the species ranged from being beneficial to detrimental. With natural rainfall or mild acid rainfall, the biochemical and physiological characteristics of plant seedlings were enhanced. Once the pH increases reaches the threshold of 3.5, the acid rain can no longer be beneficial and begins to have negative affects.[84]

Acid rain can negatively impact photosynthesis in plant leaves, when leaves are exposed to a lower pH, photosynthesis is impacted due to the decline in chlorophyll.[85]Acid rain also has the ability to cause deformation to leaves at a cellular level, examples include; tissue scaring and changes to the stomatal, epidermis and mesophyll cells.[86]Additional impacts of acid rain includes a decline in cuticle thickness present on the leaf surface.[85][86]Because acid rain damages leaves, this directly impacts a plants ability to have a strong canopy cover, a decline in canopy cover can lead plants to be more vulnerable to diseases.[77]

Dead or dying trees often appear in areas impacted by acid rain. Acid rain causes aluminum to leach from the soil, posing risks to both plant and animal life. Furthermore, it strips the soil of critical minerals and nutrients necessary for tree growth.

At higher altitudes, acidic fog and clouds can deplete nutrients from tree foliage, leading to discolored or dead leaves and needles. This depletion compromises the trees' ability to absorb sunlight, weakening them and diminishing their capacity to endure cold conditions.[87]

Other plants can also be damaged by acid rain, but the effect on food crops is minimized by the application of lime and fertilizers to replace lost nutrients. In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands. When calcium is leached from the needles of red spruce, these trees become less cold tolerant and exhibit winter injury and even death.[88][89]Acid rain may also affect crop productivity by necrosis or changes to soil nutrients, which ultimately prevent plants from reaching maturity.[90][91]

Ocean acidification

Main article:Ocean acidification

Acid rain has a much less harmful effect on oceans on a global scale, but it creates an amplified impact in the shallower waters of coastal waters.[92]Acid rain can cause the ocean's pH to fall, known asocean acidification,making it more difficult for different coastal species to create theirexoskeletonsthat they need to survive. These coastal species link together as part of the ocean's food chain, and without them being a source for other marine life to feed off of, more marine life will die.[93]Coral's limestone skeleton is particularly sensitive to pH decreases, because thecalcium carbonate,a core component of the limestone skeleton, dissolves in acidic (low pH) solutions.

In addition to acidification, excess nitrogen inputs from the atmosphere promote increased growth ofphytoplanktonand other marine plants, which, in turn, may cause more frequent harmfulalgal bloomsandeutrophication(the creation of oxygen-depleted "dead zones" ) in some parts of the ocean.[92]

Human health effects

Acid rain can negatively impact human health, especially when people breathe in particles released from acid rain.[1]The effects of acid rain on human health are complex and may be seen in several ways, such as respiratory issues for long-term exposure and indirect exposure through contaminated food and water sources.

Nitrogen Dioxide Effects

Exposure to air pollutants associated with acid rain, such asnitrogen dioxide(NO2), may have a negative impact on respiratory health.[3]Water-soluble nitrogen dioxide accumulates in the tiny airways, where it is transformed intonitricandnitrous acids.[4]Pneumoniacaused bynitric acidsdirectly damages the epithelial cells lining the airways, resulting inpulmonary edema.[8]Exposure to nitrogen dioxide also reduces the immune response by inhibiting the generation of inflammatorycytokinesbyalveolar macrophagesin response to bacterial infection.[10]In animal studies, the pollutant further reduces respiratory immunity by decreasingmucociliary clearancein the lower respiratory tract, which results in a reduced ability to remove respiratory infections.[12]

Sulfur Trioxide Effects

The effects ofsulfur trioxideandsulfuric acidare similar because they both produce sulfuric acid when they come into touch with the wet surfaces of your skin orrespiratory system.[94]The amount of SO3breath through the mouth is larger than the amount of SO3breath through the nose.[94]When humans breathe in sulfur trioxide, small droplets of sulfuric acid will form inside the body and enter therespiratory tractto the lungs depending on the particle size.[94]The effects of SO3on the respiratory system lead to breathing difficulty in people who haveasthmasymptoms. Sulfur trioxide also causes very corrosive and irritation on the skin, eye, andgastrointestinal tractswhen there is direct exposure to a specific concentration or long-term exposure.[94]Consuming concentrated sulfuric acid has been known to cause mortality, burn the mouth and throat, erode a hole in the stomach, burns skin when it comes into contact with skin, and make your eyes weep if it gets into them.[94]

Federal Government's recommendation

Nitrogen Dioxides

A 25 parts per million (ppm) maximum for nitric oxide in working air has been set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) for an 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek.[95]Additionally, OSHA has established a 5-ppm nitrogen dioxide exposure limit for 15 minutes in the workplace.[95]

Sulfur Trioxide

The not-to-exceed limits in the air, water, soil, or food that are recommended by regulations are often based on levels that affect animals before being modified to assist in safeguarding people. Depending on whether they employ different animal studies, have different exposure lengths (e.g., an 8-hour workday versus a 24-hour day), or for other reasons, these not-to-exceed values can vary between federal bodies.[94]

The amount of sulfur dioxide that can be emitted into the atmosphere is capped by the EPA. This reduces the quantity of sulfur dioxide in the air that turns into sulfur trioxide and sulfuric acid.[14]Sulfuric acid concentrations in workroom air are restricted by OSHA to 1 mg/m3.Moreover, NIOSH advises a time-weighted average limit of 1 mg/m3.[94]

When you are aware of NO2and SO3exposure, you should talk to your doctor and ask people who are around you, especially children.

Other adverse effects

Effect of acid rain on statues
Acid rain and weathering

Acid rain can damage buildings, historic monuments, and statues, especially those made of rocks, such aslimestoneandmarble,that contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then flakes off.

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ⇌ CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)

The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases thecorrosionrate of metals, in particulariron,steel,copperandbronze.[96][97]

Affected areas

Places significantly impacted by acid rain around the globe include most of eastern Europe from Poland northward into Scandinavia,[98]the eastern third of the United States,[99]and southeasternCanada.Other affected areas include the southeastern coast of China andTaiwan.[100]

Prevention methods

Technical solutions

Many coal-firingpower stationsuseflue-gas desulfurization(FGD) to remove sulfur-containing gases from their stack gases. For a typicalcoal-fired power station,FGD will remove 95% or more of the SO2in the flue gases. An example of FGD is thewet scrubberwhich is commonly used. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutralcalcium sulfatethat is physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates.

In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies asgypsumwhen the purity of calcium sulfate is high. In others, they are placed inlandfill.The effects of acid rain can last for generations, as the effects of pH level change can stimulate the continued leaching of undesirable chemicals into otherwise pristine water sources, killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and blocking efforts torestorenative life.

Fluidized bed combustionalso reduces the amount of sulfur emitted by power production.

Vehicle emissions controlreduces emissions of nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.

International treaties

Governmental action to combat the effects of acid rain

International treaties on the long-range transport of atmospheric pollutants have been agreed upon by western countries for some time now. Beginning in 1979, European countries convened in order to ratify general principles discussed during the UNECE Convention. The purpose was to combat Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.[101]The1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur Emissionsunder theConvention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollutionfurthered the results of the convention. Results of the treaty have already come to fruition, as evidenced by an approximate 40 percent drop in particulate matter in North America.[102]The effectiveness of the Convention in combatting acid rain has inspired further acts of international commitment to prevent the proliferation of particulate matter. Canada and the US signed theAir Quality Agreementin 1991. Most European countries and Canada signed the treaties. Activity of the Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention remained dormant after 1999, when 27 countries convened to further reduce the effects of acid rain.[103]In 2000, foreign cooperation to prevent acid rain was sparked in Asia for the first time. Ten diplomats from countries ranging throughout the continent convened to discuss ways to prevent acid rain.[104]Following these discussions, the Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia (EANET) was established in 2001 as an intergovernmental initiative to provide science-based inputs for decision makers and promote international cooperation on acid deposition in East Asia.[105]In 2023, the EANET member countries include Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Republic of Korea, Russia, Thailand and Vietnam.[106]

Emissions trading

Main article:Emissions trading
See also:Acid Rain Program

In this regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is given or may purchase on an open market an emissions allowance for each unit of a designated pollutant it emits. Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell portions of their emissions allowances they no longer need for their own operations, thereby recovering some of the capital cost of their investment in such equipment. The intention is to give operators economic incentives to install pollution controls.

The first emissions trading market was established in the United States by enactment of theClean Air Act Amendments of 1990.[107]The overall goal of the Acid Rain Program established by the Act[108]is to achieve significant environmental and public health benefits through reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost to society, the program employs both regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air pollution.

See also

References

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  3. ^abUS EPA, OAR (March 16, 2016)."Effects of Acid Rain".epa.gov.RetrievedMarch 29,2022.
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Further reading

  • Ritchie, Hannah,"What We Learned from Acid Rain: By working together, the nations of the world can solveclimate change",Scientific American,vol. 330, no. 1 (January 2024), pp. 75–76. "[C]ountries will act only if they know others are willing to do the same. With acid rain, they did act collectively.... We did something similar to restore Earth's protectiveozone layer.... [T]he cost of technology really matters.... In the past decade the price ofsolar energyhas fallen by more than 90 percent and that ofwind energyby more than 70 percent.Batterycosts have tumbled by 98 percent since 1990, bringing the price ofelectric carsdown with them....[T]he stance ofelected officialsmatters more than theirpartyaffiliation.... Change can happen – but not on its own. We need to drive it. "(p. 76.)
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