Wikipedia

Ajuran Sultanate

This article is about the sultanate in the Horn of Africa. For the Somali clan, seeAjuran (clan).

TheAjuran Sultanate(Somali:Saldanadda Ajuuraan,Arabic:سلطنة الأجورانية), natively referred to asAjuuraan,[5]and often simplyAjuran,[6]was a medievalMuslimEmpirein theHorn of Africa.[7]Founded bySomaliSultans[8][9]it ruled over large parts of the Horn of Africa during theMiddle Agesvia control over water. Its rise to prominence began during the 13th and 14th century. By the 15th century, the Ajuran were Africa's only 'Hydraulicempire'.[10]Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Empire successfully resistedOromo invasionsfrom the west and fought againstPortuguese incursionsfrom the east.[11][5][12]

Ajuuraan Sultanate
Dawladdii Ajuuraan(Somali)
دولة الأجورانية(Arabic)
13th–14th century[1][2]–17th century
Flag of Ajuran Sultanate
Flag shown next to the Mogadishu area on a 1576Fernão Vaz Douradomap
Location of Ajuran Sultanate
Capital
Common languages
Religion
Sunni Islam(state)
GovernmentMonarchy
Sultan,Imam
History
• Established
13th–14th century[1][2]
16th century
16th century
• Decline
17th century
Currency
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Mogadishu Sultanate
Tunni Sultanate
Geledi Sultanate
Hiraab Imamate
Today part ofSomalia
Ethiopia

The Ajuran were among the great centres of commerce in the contemporary African world.[13]Trading routes dating from ancient and early medieval periods ofSomali maritime enterprisewere strengthened and re-established, foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and from kingdoms and empires in theNear East,East Asia,and the wider world.[14][15]The Ajuran are believed to be the first Africans to have contact withChina.[16]

Etymology

The Ajuran Empire traces its name back to the Arabic word; إيجار (Ījārā), which means to rent or tax. A name well deserved for the exorbitant tributes paid to the Empire.[17]

History

The Ajuran is regarded as a successor to its more influential predecessor, theAdal Sultanate.[5]The precise origins of the Ajuran vary as they are rooted in traditional Somali folklore. It was in the 13th century the Ajuran first appeared and began gaining power. For several centuries they exerted strong political influence on the inland pastoralists, while also embracing coastal trade and infrastructure.[18]The sultanate functioned for approximately three centuries.[11]

Origins and the House of Garen

The House of Garen was the ruling hereditarydynastyof the Ajuran Empire.[19][20]Its origin lies in the Garen Kingdom that during the 13th century ruled parts of theSomali RegionofEthiopia.[21]With the migration of Somalis from the northern half of the Horn region southwards, new cultural and religious orders were introduced, influencing the administrative structure of thedynasty.[22]

A system of governance began to evolve into an Islamic government. Through their genealogicalBaraka,which came from the saintBalad(who was known to have come from outside the Kingdom).[23][24][25]

Rise to prominence and dominance

The Ajuran gradually became a notable and respected empire.[5]Around 1500, they rose to dominance in the interior ofBanaadirregion, after which they maintained ahegemonyfor approximately 150 years. The introduction of a great variety of technological innovations to the Somali territories are attributed to the empire, such as systems of dykes and dams on theShabelle river,large homes and stone fortifications along with the creation of large stone wells, many of which were still in use well into the 20th century. Notably, the Ajuran were the first to impose a regular system oftributeon the surrounding population. The empire fielded a powerful army, which may have employed firearms towards the end of its dominant period around 1650.[26]As a 'water dynasty', the Ajuran monopolized theJubbaandShabellerivers through hydraulic engineering.[10]

Historically, theSultanate of Mogadishuwas confined by the Adal Sultanate in the north.[27][28]Throughout the Middle Ages, the Ajurans routinely aligned themselves politically with the Adalites.[29][30]Described as one country byIbn Battuta,a journey toMogadishufrom the town ofZeilatook him eight weeks to complete.[31][32]The Ajuran Empire's sphere of influence in theHorn of Africawas among the largest in the region.[33]

A 16th century map byJan Huyghen[34]

At the height of its reach, the empire covered most of southernSomaliaas well as easternEthiopia,[14][35]with its domain at one point extending fromHafunin the north toKismayoin the south, andQelafoin the west.[36][37][38]

Ajuran-Portuguese battles

Main article:Somali-Portuguese conflicts

TheEuropeanAge of Discoverybrought Europe's thensuperpowerthePortuguese Empireto the coast of East Africa, which enjoyed a flourishing trade with foreign nations. The southeastern city-states ofKilwa,Mombasa,Malindi,PateandLamuwere all systematically sacked and plundered by the Portuguese.[39]Tristão da Cunhathen set his eyes on Ajuran territory, where theBattle of Barawawas fought.[40]After a long period of engagement, the Portuguese soldiers burned the city and looted it.[41]Fierce resistance by the local populace and soldiers resulted in the failure of the Portuguese to permanently occupy the city, and the inhabitants who had fled to the interior eventually returned and rebuilt the city.[42][43][44]

The Ottomans regularly aided the Ajurans in their struggles with the Portuguese in theIndian Ocean.

AfterBarawa,Tristão set sail forMogadishu,the richest city on the East African coast.[45][46]Word had spread of what had happened in Barawa, and a large troop mobilization took place. Many horsemen, soldiers and battleships in defense positions were guarding the city. Nevertheless, Tristão opted to storm and attempt to conquer the city, although every officer and soldier in his army opposed this, fearing certain defeat if they were to engage their opponents in battle. Tristão heeded their advice and sailed forSocotrainstead.[47][48]

During theBattle of Barawa,Tristão da Cunhawas wounded and requested to beknightedbyAlbuquerque.[49]

Over the next decades tensions remained high and the increased contact between SomalisailorsandOttomancorsairsworried the Portuguese who sent a punitive expedition under João de Sepúlveda, where he bombarded Mogadishu and captured Turkish vessels, compelling its ruler to sign a peace deal with the Portuguese.Barawawould also sign peace with the Portuguese after being sacked.[50][51]The Ottoman-Somali cooperation against the Portuguese on theIndian Oceanreached a high point in the 1580s when Ajuran clients of the coastal cities began to cooperate with theArabsandSwahilisunder Portuguese rule and sent an envoy to the Turkish corsair Mir Ali Bey for a joint expedition against the Portuguese. He agreed and was joined by a Somalifleetin order to attack the Portuguese colonies inSoutheast Africa.[52] The Somali-Ottoman offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such asPate,MombasaandKilwa.However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys toPortuguese Indiarequesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu, securing the city's autonomy in the Indian Ocean.[53][54]The Ottoman Empire would remain an economic partner.[14]Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries the Ajurans successively defied Portuguese hegemony on theIndian Oceanby employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese.[55][56][57][58]

In 1698, thePortugueseinMombasasurrendered to a jointSomali-Omaniforce.[59]

Muslim migrations

The late 15th and 17th centuries saw the arrival of Muslim families fromArabia,Persia,IndiaandSpainto the Ajuran realm of territories, the majority of whom settled in the coastal provinces. Some migrated because of the instability in their respective regions, as was the case with theHadhramifamilies fromYemenand the Muslims from Spain fleeing theInquisition.[60][61]Others came to conduct business or for religious purposes. Due to their strong tradition in religious learning, the new Muslim communities also enjoyed high status among the Somali ruling elite and commoners.[62][63]

Bale

The most famous Somali scholar of Islam from the Ajuraan period isSheikh Hussein,who was born inMerca,one of the power jurisdiction and cultural centers of the Ajuran Empire.[64]He is credited with converting theSidamopeople living in the area of what is now theBale Province, EthiopiatoIslam.[65]He is also credited with establishing theSultanate of Bale.Despite the Bale Sultanate not being directly under Ajuran rule, the two kingdoms were deeply connected and Bale was heavily influenced by Ajuran.[66][67]

His tomb lies in the town ofSheikh Husseinin what is considered the most sacred place in the country for Ethiopian Muslims, in particular those ofOromoethnic descent.[68][69]

The tomb of Sheikh Hussein

Gaal Madow

In the mid-17th century, theOromo peoplecollectively began expanding from their homeland towards the southern Somali coast at a time when the Ajurans were at the height of their power.[70]The Garen rulers conducted several military expeditions known as theGaal MadowWarson the Oromo invaders, converting those that were captured toIslam.[71][72][73][74]

Decline

The Ajuran Empire slowly declined in power at the end of the 17th century. In this period the rulers of the empire abandonedSharia,became oppressive and enacted heavy taxation.[11]The dethronement of theMuzaffar clientsinMogadishuand other coastal cities by theAbgaalimamwho then established theHiraab Imamatetaking residence in Mogadishu was a significant setback,[75]and the defeat of theSilis Kingdomby a former Ajuran general in the interior of the state,Ibrahim Adeer,who established theGobroon dynasty.[76]

Taxation and the practice of primae noctis were the main catalysts for the revolts against Ajuran rulers.[77]The loss of port cities and fertile farms meant that much needed sources of revenue were lost to the rebels.[78]Somali maritime enterprise significantly declined after the collapse of the Ajuran Empire. However, other polities such as theIsaaq Sultanate,Geledi Sultanate,Majeerteen Sultanate,Sultanate of Hobyo,and theDervish statein a way ensured its continuity.[79]

By 1700, there was effectively no trace of Ajuran polity left inBaanadir.[26]

Administration

See also:Somali aristocratic and court titles
The city ofMercawas a prominentadministrative centerof the Ajurans

The Ajuran nobility used many of the typicalSomali aristocratic and court titles,with the Garen rulers styledImam.[80]These leaders were the empire's highest authority, and counted multipleSultans,Emirs,andKingsas clients orvassals.The Garen rulers also had seasonal palaces inMareeg,QelafoandMerca,important cities in the Empire wereMogadishuandBarawa.The state religion wasIslam,and thus law was based onSharia.[81][82][83]

  1. Imam– Head of State[84]
  2. Emir– Commander of the armed forces and navy
  3. Na'ibs– Viceroys[85]
  4. Wazirs– Tax and revenue collectors
  5. Qadis– Chief Judges
The House of Gareen
Known members
  • Ajuran
  • Baydan
  • Badbeydan
  • Walmuge
  • Sanle
  • Sanle Mage
  • Toore
  • Dhaqsoore

Citizenry

Through their control of the region's wells, the Garen rulers effectively held a monopoly over theirnomadicsubjects as they were the onlyhydraulic empirein Africa during their reign. Large wells made out oflimestonewere constructed throughout the state, which attractedSomaliandOromonomads with their livestock.[86]The centralized regulations of the wells made it easier for the nomads to settle disputes by taking their queries to government officials who would act as mediators. Long distance caravan trade, a long-time practice in the Horn of Africa, continued unchanged in Ajuran times. Today, numerous ruined and abandoned towns throughout the interior of Somalia and the Horn of Africa are evidence of a once-booming inland trade network dating from the medieval period.[87]

With the centralized supervision of the Ajuran, farms inAfgooye,Kismayoand other areas in theJubbaandShabellevalleys increased their productivity. A system of irrigation ditches known locally asKelliyofed directly from theShebelleandJubba riversinto the plantations wheresorghum,maize,beans, grain and cotton were grown during thegu(Springin Somali) andxagaa(Summerin Somali) seasons of theSomali calendar.This irrigation system was supported by numerousdikesand dams. To determine the average size of a farm, a land measurement system was also invented withmoos,taraabandguldeedbeing the terms used.[88]

TheJubba River

Military

The Ajuran State had a standing army with which the governors ruled and protected their subjects. The bulk of the army consisted of recruited soldiers who did not have any loyalties to the traditional Somali clan system, thereby making them more reliable.[89][90][91]The soldiers were recruited from the inter-riverine area; other recruits came from the surrounding nomadic region.Arab,PersianandTurkishmercenaries were at times employed as well.[92][93]

Almnara Somalia defensive tower

In the early period, the army's weapons consisted of traditional Somali weapons such asswords,daggers,spears,battle axes,andbows.The Empire received assistance from theOttoman Empire,and with the import offirearmsthrough the Muzzaffar port ofMogadishu,the army began acquiringmusketsandcannons.[94][95]

The Ottomans would also remain a key ally during theAjuran-Portuguese wars.Horses used for military purposes were raised in the interior, and numerous stone fortifications were erected to provide shelter for the army in the coastal districts.[96]In each province, the soldiers were under the supervision of a military commander known as anemir.[90]The coastal areas and the lucrative Indian Ocean trade were protected by anavy.[52]

Taxation

See also:Mogadishu currency
Mogadishan currency

The State collectedtributefrom the farmers in the form of harvested products likedurra,sorghum and bun, and from the nomads, cattle, camels and goats. The collecting of tribute was done by awazir.Luxury goods imported from foreign lands were also presented as gifts to the Garen rulers by the coastalsultansof the state.

A political device that was implemented by the Garen rulers in their realm was a form ofius primae noctis,[97]which enabled them to create marriages that enforced theirhegemonicrule over all the important groups of the empire. The rulers would also claim a large portion of the bride's wealth, which at the time was 100 camels.[98]

For trade, the Ajuran Empire minted its ownAjuran currency.[99]It also utilized theMogadishan currencyoriginally minted by theSultanate of Mogadishu,which later became incorporated into the Ajuran Empire.[53]Mogadishan coins have been found as far away as the present-day country of theUnited Arab Emiratesin theMiddle East.[100]

Urban and maritime centers

The urban centers ofMerca,Mogadishu,Barawa,and their respective ports became profitable trade outlets for commodities originating from the interior of the State.[101]The farming communities of the hinterland brought their products to the coastal cities, where they were sold to local merchants who maintained a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming fromArabia,India,Venice,Persia,Egypt,Portugal,and as far away asChina.[102][103][104][105]

Citadelruins ofGondershe

Vasco da Gama,who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century[106]noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical minarets.[107][108]In the 16th century,Duarte Barbosanoted that many ships from the Kingdom ofCambayasailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices for which they in return receivedgold,waxandivory.[109][110]Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.[111][112] Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known astoob benadir(specialized for the markets in Egypt andSyria),[113]together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops forSwahilimerchants fromMombasaandMalindiand for the gold trade fromKilwa.[114]There were Jewish merchants from theHormuzwho brought their Indian textile and fruits to the Somali coast in exchange forgrainand wood.[115][116]

The walled city ofMogadishuon the 16th centuryMiller Atlas.

Trading relations were established withMalaccain the 15th century,[117]with cloth,ambergrisandporcelainbeing the main commodities of the trade.[118]In addition, giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to theMing Empireof China.[119]Hindumerchants fromSuratand Southeast African merchants fromPateseeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade andOmaniinterference used the ports of Merca andBarawa(which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety.[120]

Major cities

The Ajuran Empire was an influential Somali kingdom that held sway over several cities and towns in central and southern Somalia during the Middle Ages.[121]With the fall of the Sultanate, a number of these settlements continued to prosper, eventually becomingmajor citiesin present-day Somalia.[122][123]A few of the cities and towns were abandoned or destroyed:

Medieval city ofBarawa
Capital
Port cities
Other cities

Economy

See also:Maritime history of Somalia

The Ajuran Empire relied on agriculture and trade for most of its income. Major agricultural towns were located on theShebelleandJubba rivers,includingKismayoandAfgooye.Situated at the junction of some of the busiest medieval trade routes, the Ajuran and its clients were active participants in the East Africangold trade,theSilk Road commerce,trade in the Indian Ocean,and commercial enterprise as far asEast Asia.[14][124]

Mogadishuimported valuable goldSequin coinsfrom theVenetian Empirein Europe.

The Ajuran Empire also minted its ownAjuran currency.Many medievalbronzecoins inscribed with the names of Ajuran Sultans have been found in the coastalBenadir province,in addition to pieces from Muslim rulers ofSouthern ArabiaandPersia.[99]

Through the use of commercial vessels, compasses, multiple port cities, light houses and other technology, the merchants of the Ajuran Empire did brisk business with traders from the following states:

Trading countries in Asia Imports Exports
Ming Empire celadon waresand their currency horses,exotic animals,andivory
Mughal Empire clothandspices gold,waxandwood
Malacca Sultanate ambergrisandporcelain clothandgold
Maldive Islands cowries muskandsheep
Kingdom of Jaffna cinnamonand their currency cloth
Trading countries in theNear East
Ottoman Empire musketsandcannons textiles
Safavid Persian Empire textilesandfruit grainandwood
Trading countries inEurope
Portuguese Empire gold cloth
Venetian Empire sequins –
Dutch Empire – –
Trading countries inAfrica
Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) – cloth
Adal Sultanate – –
Ethiopian Empire – –
Swahili Coast – –
Monomopata goldandivory spicesandcloth
Gonderine Ethiopian Empire goldandcattle cloth
Merina Kingdom – –

Diplomacy

TheAjuran Empiremaintained commercial ties with theMing dynasty[125]

With their maritime pursuits, the Ajuran Empire established trading and diplomatic ties across the old world, especially in Asia, from being close allies of the grand power of theOttomansto having cordial ties with the mightyMing Dynasty,paving the way for merchants from Ajuran to embark on great maritime expeditions, as far away asJavaandVietnam.[126][127]

The ruler of the Ajuran Empire sent ambassadors toChinato establish diplomatic ties, creating the first ever recorded African community in China and the most notableSomaliambassador in medieval China wasSa'id of Mogadishu[128]who was the first African man to set foot inChinain medieval history.[129]In return, Emperor Yongle, the third emperor of theMing Dynasty(1368–1644), dispatched one of the largest fleets in history to trade with the Somali nation. The fleet, under the leadership of the famed Hui MuslimZheng He,arrived atMogadishuwhile the city was at its peak in economic and social vibrancy. Along withgold,frankincenseandfabrics,Zheng brought back the first ever African wildlife to China, which includedhippos,giraffesandgazelles.[130][131][132][133]

Culture

See also:Somali architecture
14th centurySomali-Arabostone tablet

The Ajurans developed a very rich culture combining various forms ofSomali culturewith Islamicarchitecture,astronomy,and art. Society evolved and flourished during this period. The majority of the inhabitants were ethnicSomalibut there were alsoYemeni,Persian,andTurkishminorities.[134][135][136]The vast majority of the population adhered toSunniIslamwith aShiaminority. TheSomali languagewas the most commonly spoken language whileArabicwas prominently used for commercial and religious purposes.[137][138][139][140]

Example of a historic Somalifigureheadfrom Mogadishu

The traditional martial artIstunka,also known asDabshid,was born during the reign of Ajuran. An annual tournament is still held every year for it inAfgooye.[141]Carving, known in Somali asQoris,was practiced in the coastal cities of the state. Many wealthy urbanites in the medieval period regularly employed the finest wood and marble carvers in Somalia to work on their interiors and houses. The carvings on themihrabsandpillarsof ancient Somalimosquesare some of the oldest on the continent, withMasjid Fakhr al-Dinbeing one of the oldest mosques in Africa.[142]

Artistic carving was considered the craft of men similar to how the Somali textile industry was mainly a women's business. Amongst thenomads,carving, especiallywoodwork,was widespread and could be found on the most basic objects such as spoons, combs and bowls, but it also included more complex structures such as the portable nomadic tent, theaqal.[143]

In theMercaarea, various pillar tombs still exist, which local tradition holds were built in the 16th century, when the Ajuran Empire'snaa'ibsgoverned the district.[144][145]

Legacy

The empire left an extensivearchitectural legacy,being one of the major medieval Somali powers engaged in castle andfortressbuilding. Many of the ruined fortifications dotting the landscapes of southern Somalia today are attributed to the Ajuran Empire's engineers,[144]including a number of thepillar tombfields,necropolisesandruined citiesbuilt in that era. During the Ajuran period, many regions and people in the southern part of the Horn of Africa converted toIslambecause of thetheocraticnature of the government.[146]Theroyal family,the House of Garen, expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination ofwarfare,trade linkagesandalliances.[20][147]

In the fifteenth century, for example, the Ajuran Empire was the onlyhydraulic empirein Africa at the time.[148]As a water dynasty, the Ajuran state monopolized thewater resourcesof theShebelleandJubba rivers.[149]Throughhydraulic engineering,it constructed many of thelimestonewellsandcisternsof the state that remain in use til today.[150]The rulers developed new systems for agriculture and taxation, which continued to be used in parts of theHorn of Africaas late as the 19th century.[5]The rule of the later Ajuran rulers caused multiple rebellions to break out within the empire, and at the end of the 17th century, Ajuran disintegrated into several successor states, the most notable being theGeledi Sultanate.[151]

See also

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