Wikipedia

Altai people

TheAltai people(Altay:Алтай-кижи,romanized:Altay-kiji,pronounced[ɑltɑj-kidʒi]), also theAltaians(Altay:Алтайлар,romanized:Altaylar,pronounced[ɑltɑjlɑr]), are aTurkicethnic group ofindigenous peoples of Siberiamainly living in theAltai Republic,Russia.[6][7]Several thousand of the Altaians also live inMongolia(Altai Mountains) andChina(Altay Prefecture,Xin gian g) but arenot officially recognized as a distinct group[2]and listed under the name "Oirats" as a part of theMongols,as well as inKazakhstanwhere they number around 200.[8]For alternative ethnonyms see alsoTele,Black Tatar,andOirats.During theNorthern Yuan dynasty,they were ruled in the administrative area known as Telengid Province.

Altai people
Алтайлар (Altailar)
Алтай-кижи (Altai-kiji)

Top:Altai people in 1911.
Bottom:Altai people in theAltai Republicand neighboring areas
Total population
83,326
Regions with significant populations
Russia 83,125[1]
Mongoliaand
China		several thousand[2]
Kazakhstan201[3]
Languages
Northern Altai,Southern Altai,Russian
Religion
up to 86%[4]"Altai Faith" (modern synthesis ofBurkhanism,Shamanism,otherindigenous religions),[5]otherBaptistProtestantism,MongolianandTibetanBuddhism,Russian Orthodoxy,andSunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Kyrgyz,Teleuts,and otherTurkic peoples,especially otherSiberian Turkicpeoples
Flag of theAltai Republic

Ethnic groups and subgroups

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Altai horseman
Altai woman

The Altaians are represented by two ethnographic groups:[7][9][10]

The Northern and Southern Altaians formed in the Altai area on the basis of tribes ofKimek-Kipchaks.[11][12]

In theSoviet Unionuntil 1991 and theRussian Federationuntil 2000, the authorities considered the Northern Altaians and the Teleuts to be part of the Altai people.[13]Currently, according to theResolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 255 dated March 24, 2000,the Chelkans, Kumandins, Telengits, Teleuts, and Tubalars were recognized as separate ethnic groups as well as theindigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East.However, in the2010 Russian Census,the only recognized distinct ethnic groups are the Kumandins and Teleuts.

History

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The Altai region came within the sphere of influence of theScythians,Xiongnu,theRouran Khaganate,theTurkic Khanganate,theUyghur Empire,and theYenisei Kyrgyz.[14]

According to one study in 2016, the Altaians, precisely some Southern Altaians, assimilated localYeniseian peoplewhich were closely related to thePaleo-Eskimogroups.[15]

From the 13th to 18th century, the Altai people were dominated politically and culturally by theMongols.The origin of the Southern Altaians can be traced during this period from the result of the mi xing ofKipchakand Mongol tribes. Meanwhile, the Northern Altaians were a result of the fusion ofTurkic tribeswithSamoyeds,Kets,and otherindigenous Siberianethnic groups.[14]

The Altaians were annexed by theFour Oiratof Western Mongols in the 16th century.[citation needed]The Mongols called them "Telengid"or"Telengidaimag"in the period of theNorthern Yuan dynasty,with the region known as Telengid Province.[16]After the fall of theZunghar Khanatein the 18th century, the Altaians were subjugated by theQing dynasty,which referred to them asAltan Nuur Uriyangkhai.[17]Altaians are genetically related to theUriyangkhai,which is a common neighbouringOirat Mongolethnic group inMongolia.

The Altai people came into contact withRussiansin the 18th century. In theTsarist period,the Altai were also known asOirotorOyrot(this name means "Oirat"and would later be carried on for theOyrot Autonomous Oblast). The name was inherited from their being former subjects of the 17th-centuryOirat-ledDzungar Khanate.[18]The Altai report that many of them became addicted to the Russians'vodka,which they called "fire water".[19]

With regard to religion, some of the Altai remainedshamanistsand others (in a trend beginning in the mid-19th century) have converted to theRussian Orthodox Church.In 1904, amillenarianindigenistreligious movement calledAk-JangorBurkhanismarose among these people.[20][21]Prior to 1917, the Altai were considered to be made up of many different ethnic groups.[22]

With the rise of the1917 Russian revolution,Altai nationalists andSocialist-Revolutionariesattempted to make a separateBurkhanistrepubliccalled theConfederated Republic of Altai(Karakorum-Altai Region),[20]although only as part of the Russian Federation.[23]They also hoped to extend its territory to form a larger Oyrot republic that would include other former subjects of theDzungar Khanateor even all Turkic peoples of Siberia.[24]Many Altai leaders supported theMensheviksduring theCivil War.After theBolshevikvictory, a separateOyrot Autonomous Oblastwas established as a national home for the Altais.[25]In the 1940s, during World War II,Joseph Stalin's government accused Altai nationalists of beingpro-Japanese.After the war, the word "Oyrot" was declared to becounter-revolutionarydue to its associations with the idea of a larger Oyrot state that could secede from the USSR.[26]Because of that, the oblast was renamed toGorno-Altai Autonomous Oblast.By 1950,Soviet industrializationpolicies and development in this area resulted in considerable migration of Russians to this republic, reducing the proportion of Altai in the total population from 50% to 20%.[27]

In 1990, theGorno-Altai Autonomous Oblastwas declared an autonomous republic, theGorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic,which was renamed to theAltai Republicin 1992.[28]In the early 21st century, ethnic Altaians make up about 31% of the Altai Republic's population.[29]Today, the special interests of the Altaians are articulated and defended by the Association of Northern Ethnoses of Altai.[10]

Demographics

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AVoice of Americareporter tours the Altai region in 2012

According to the 2010 Russian census, there was a total of 69,963 Altaians who resided within the Altai Republic. This represented 34.5% of the total population of the republic, compared with 56.6% with a Russian background, Altaian families are the majority only in certain villages. However, Altaian culture is still the local culture between people and communities.

Culture

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Traditional lifestyle

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AltaishamaninKyzyl,Tuva

The Southern Altaians were mostly nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock holders. They raisedhorses,goats,sheep,andcattle.[14]The Northern Altaians mainly engaged inhuntingas their primary form of subsistence. Their main prey were animals from thetaiga(boreal forests). However, some Altaians also engaged insmall scale agriculture,gathering,andfishing.[14][30]

Dwellings

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Ail,the traditional wooden dwelling

Most of the Southern Altaians traditionally lived inyurts.Many Northern Altaians mainly built polygonal yurts with conic roofs made out of logs and bark. Some Altai-Kizhi also lived in mud huts with birch bark gable roofs and log or plank walling. The Teleuts and a few Northern Altaians lived in conic homes made out of perches or bark. With the influx of Russians near the homeland of the Altaians, there was an increase of the construction of large huts with two to four slope roofs in consequence of Russian influence.[14]Despite the many social and political changes the Altaians have endured, many modern and settled families still keep a yurt in their yards. These yurts are usually used as a summertime kitchen or extra room.[31]

Clothing

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Altai woman in national dress

Historically, the traditional clothing of Southern Altaian men and women was very similar with little differences between the two.[32]Average clothing consisted of long shirts with wide breeches, robes, and fur coats. Other apparel often included fur hats, high boots, and sheepskin coats.[32]Northern Altaians and some Teleuts traditionally wore short breeches, linen shirts, and single-breasted oriental robes. Despite the fact that most Altaians today wear modern clothes, traditional wear still remains in use.[10]

Cuisine

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Altai cuisine consists of soups of horseflesh ormutton.Dishes withgopher,badger,marmot,fermented milk,cream(from boiled milk), blood pudding, butter, fried barley flour, and certain vegetables are also staples of Altai cuisine. Popular drinks includearyki(hard liquor made fromkumis).[10][33]

Religion

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History

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Altai shaman with drum,Russian Empire,1908[34]
Altai shamanic drum

TraditionalAltai shamanismis rich withmythologyandsupernatural beings.Popular deities includedErlik,the god of the underworld, and Oyrot-Khan, a heroic figure who is a composite blend taken from historicalZungarian(Oirat) Khans and ancient legendary heroes. However, with many migrations, settlement changes, and the presence ofRussiansand their eventual union with theRussian Empire,the Altaians encountered three world religions:Buddhism,Christianity,andIslam.At first, the Altaians were indifferent and at times even hostile to these foreign faiths and their expansion in the region (modernAltai Republic). In 1829, aRussian Orthodoxmissionwas founded in the region soon after it became aprotectorate of the Russian Empire.[10]The mission and its missionaries were initiallyculturally sensitiveand tolerant to the Altaians and their customs. However, the rise ofRussian nationalismduring the late 19th century caused theRussificationof Orthodox Christianity in the country, and the mostly Russian clergy inSiberiaalso took up the ideology. This created intolerant views of the natives of Siberia (including the Altaians) and of their culture. This led to the rejection of Christianity by many Altaians, who saw it as a foreign Russian religion. However, Russian rule continued to grow increasingly strict both politically and religiously.[10]Russian Orthodox missionariesregularly confiscated land from Altaianswho refused to convert to Christianity.[35]Altaians were often forcefully converted to Christianity.[36][37]

MongolianandTibetanBuddhist missionariesattempted to spread the faith among the Altaians during the 19th century. The Buddhist missionaries also encouraged the Altaians to unite together against the Russians. However, their activities and preaching were suppressed both by the Russian state and Orthodox Christian missionaries. Buddhism made little headway among the Altaians but many Buddhist ideas and principles filtered into Altai spiritual beliefs.[35]However, some Altaians reportedly visited theBogd Khanate of Mongoliaand studied at Buddhist centers of learning before and after the rise of theBurkhanist movementin the early 20th century; indicating a significant Buddhist influence on the new religion.[38]

Around 1904, the development of Burkhanism among the Altaians was underway. Burkhanism is amonotheistic religionnamed after Ak-Burkhan, a deity who is believed and recognized by its adherents to have been the sole god. Burkhanism was opposed to both the Russians and the traditional Altai shamans. The hostility towards the shamans was so great that the shamans had to seek protection from Russian authorities. The rise of theBolsheviksin the first quarter of the 20th century also led to thebrutal repression of all religions,which included the indigenous faiths of the Altai people. For the next few decades, public expressions of religion severely declined with only shamanistic and ancientpolytheisticbeliefs surviving the chaos. This was believed to have occurred because ancient religious beliefs could be easily orally transmitted from generation to another. It's also likely that no Burkhanist texts survived the repression and main sources for the beliefs of the religion come from Russian missionaries, travellers, and scholars.[10]

Modern spirituality

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Recently, bothBurkhanismandtraditional Altai shamanismhave seen a revival in the Altai region, which is especially popular among Altaian youth. According to recent statistical studies, up to 70%[5]or 86 % (data of the Research State Institute of Altaic Studies)[4]of the Altaians continue to profess the "Altai Faith": Burkhanism, shamanism, and othernative religions.According toNatalia Zhukovskaia,traditional Altai shamanism is the supreme religion of the majority of the Altai people.[7]

At present, shamanism is practiced by many Telengits, although there is a large amount that also profess Orthodox Christianity. Burkhanism is the main religion of the Altai-Kizhi, the largest group of Altaians, but there is a significant number of Orthodox Christians. The majority of Kumandins, Tubalars, Teleuts, and Chelkans are Russian Orthodox, although there is a significant minority that practice shamanism.[10]A few Altaians areEvangelical Christians[6]andTibetan Buddhists.[31]

In principle, the division into the Burkhanists and shamanists has ceased to be relevant for the contemporary religiosity of the Altaians. According to a number of studies, by the beginning of the 21st century, there were practically no traditional shamans or classical Burkhanists anti-shamanists. The main one was the single "Altai Faith"(Altay:Алтай јаҥ,romanized:Altai jang)—a traditionalethnic religionin the form of a synthesis ofBurkhanismwith the remnants of Altai shamanism,MongolianandTibetanBuddhism,and other tribal beliefs and customs.[39][40]

Genetics

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Y Chromosome

Altai population can be divided into northern and southern clusters based on linguistics, culture, and genetics. According to a 2012 study that analyzedmtDNA(byPCR-RFLPanalysis andcontrol regionsequencing) and nonrecombinantY-DNA(by scoring more than 100 biallelic markers and 17Y-STRs) obtained from Altaian samples, northern Altaians are genetically more similar toYeniseian,Ugric,andSamoyedsto the north, while southern Altaians having greater affinities to other Turkic speaking populations of southern Siberia and Central Asia. The same study conducted a high-resolution analysis of Y chromosomeHaplogroup Q-M242that was found in Altaian samples and concluded that southern Altaians andindigenous peoples of the Americasshare a recentcommon ancestor.[41]

According to a new study by Russian geneticists, a genetic separation of the northern and southern Altaians is undeniable. The southern Altaians are dominated by such variants of the Y chromosome haplogroup as Q-M242 andR1a,and there are alsoI-M170andO-M175.Within the northern Altaians, the R1a haplogroup is dominant, Q-M242 is rarely found, and I-M170 and O-M175 are not found at all.[42]

Mitochondrial DNA

The maternal genetic ancestry of northern and southern Altaian populations was explored by characterizing coding region SNPs and control region sequences from 490 inhabitants of the Altai Republic. Differences in mtDNA haplogroup profiles were observed among northern Altaian ethnic groups and between northern Altaians and Altai-kizhi, with the Chelkans being extraordinarily distinct. Nevertheless, comparisons among other Altaian ethnic groups revealed some consistent patterns. mtDNA haplogroups B, C, D, and U4 were found in all Altaian populations, but at varying frequencies, whereas southern Altaians (Altai-kizhi, Telengits, and Teleuts) tended to have a greater variety of West Eurasian haplogroups at low frequencies. Shors, who have sometimes been categorized as northern Altaians,18 exhibited a similar haplogroup profile to other northern Altaian ethnic groups, including moderate frequencies of C, D, and F1, although they lacked others (N9a and U). Haplogroups C and D were the most frequent mtDNA lineages in the Altaians, consistent with the overall picture of the Siberian mtDNA gene pool.[43]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^"Оценка численности постоянного населения по субъектам Российской Федерации".Federal State Statistics Service.Retrieved31 August2024.
  2. ^abOlson, James S.(1998)."Altai".An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China.Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. pp.9–11.ISBN0-313-28853-4.
  3. ^Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan on statistics. 2009 CensusArchived2012-04-24 at theWayback Machine
  4. ^ab"Алтайцам следует принять буддизм"[The Altaians should accept Buddhism] (in Russian).Regnum.2015-09-20.Retrieved2021-10-23.
  5. ^abBourdeaux, Michael; Filatov, Sergey, eds. (2006).Современная религиозная жизнь России. Опыт систематического описания[Contemporary Religious Life of Russia. Systematic description experience] (in Russian). Vol. 4. Moscow:Keston Institute;Logos. p. 105.ISBN5-98704-057-4.
  6. ^abTishkov, Valery A.,ed. (1994). "Алтайцы" [Altaians].Народы России: Энциклопедия [Peoples of Russia: an Encyclopedia](in Russian). Moscow: Great Russian Encyclopedia Pub.ISBN5-85270-082-7.
  7. ^abcZhukovskaia, Natalia L.(2007) [1999]."Алтайцы"[Altaians]. In L.M. Mints (ed.).Народы мира: Энциклопедия [Peoples of the World: an Encyclopedia](in Russian). Moscow: OLMA Media Group. pp.34–35.ISBN978-5-373-01057-3.
  8. ^Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan on statistics. 2009 CensusArchived2012-04-24 at theWayback Machine
  9. ^Potapov, Leonid P.(1969).Этнический состав и происхождение алтайцев. Историко-этнографический очерк[Ethnic composition and origin of the Altaians. Historical ethnographical essay] (in Russian).Leningrad:Nauka. pp.16–17.
  10. ^abcdefghSkutsch, Carl, ed. (2005).Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities.New York: Routledge. pp.81–83.ISBN1-57958-468-3.
  11. ^Ethnic history, History of a region, Statistic information athttp://eng.altai-republic.ru/index.phpArchived2011-07-17 at theWayback Machine
  12. ^NUPI Centre for Russian Studieshttp://www2.nupi.no/cgi-win//Russland/etnisk_b.exe?AltaiArchived2007-09-30 at theWayback Machine
  13. ^"Northern Altai".ELPEndangered Languages Project.Retrieved2021-07-15.
  14. ^abcdeSkutsch, Carl, ed. (2005).Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities.Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. p. 82.ISBN1-57958-468-3.
  15. ^Flegontov, Pavel; Changmai, Piya; Zidkova, Anastassiya; Logacheva, Maria D.; Altınışık, N. Ezgi; Flegontova, Olga; Gelfand, Mikhail S.; Gerasimov, Evgeny S.; Khrameeva, Ekaterina E. (2016-02-11)."Genomic study of the Ket: a Paleo-Eskimo-related ethnic group with significant ancient North Eurasian ancestry".Scientific Reports.6:20768.arXiv:1508.03097.Bibcode:2016NatSR...620768F.doi:10.1038/srep20768.ISSN2045-2322.PMC4750364.PMID26865217.
  16. ^Altan, KH. (10 August 2018)."Ulaanbaatar hosts Altaic People International Conference".The UB Post.Retrieved25 February2021– via PressReader.Altains are presented by two ethnographic groups including the Northern Altains; the Tulbar, Chelkans, Kumandin, and the Shor. The Southern Altaians consist of Altaian (Altai-Kizhi), the Teleut, the Teles, and the Telengit. The history of Altains is deeply rooted to Mongolia as for a period of time they were ruled by Mongolia as Telengid Province during the Northern Yuan Dynasty.
  17. ^C.P.Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire,p.9
  18. ^Znamenski 2005, Power of Myth
  19. ^"People from Russia — Interviews on the Streets",Way To Russia, 24 September 2003
  20. ^abZnamenski 2005,pp. 44–47.
  21. ^Znamenski 2014.
  22. ^Kolga et al.,The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire,p. 29
  23. ^Znamenski 2005, Power of Myth, p.45-46
  24. ^Znamenski 2005, Power of Myth, p.46 and passim
  25. ^Znamenski 2005, Power of Myth
  26. ^"Как в СССР Ойрот-хана победили. 70 лет назад Ойрот-Туру переименовали в Горно-Алтайск".11 March 2021. Archived fromthe originalon 2022-02-27.
  27. ^"Altay"Archived2006-04-24 at theWayback Machine,Centre for Russian Studies,NUPI,retrieved 17 October 2006
  28. ^"О Переименовании Горно-Алтайской Советской Социалистической Республик…".
  29. ^"Altai Republic:: official portal".Archived fromthe originalon 2006-08-13.Retrieved2006-10-24.
  30. ^"The Altaics".eki.ee.The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire.Retrieved2022-10-08.
  31. ^abWinston, Robert, ed. (2004).Human: The Definitive Visual Guide.New York:Dorling Kindersley.p. 429.ISBN0-7566-0520-2.
  32. ^abHejzlarová, Tereza (2019)."Traditions and Innovations in the Clothing of Southern Altaians".Annals of the Náprstek Museum.40(1): 8.doi:10.2478/anpm-2019-0002.
  33. ^Vajda, Edward."The Altai Turks".Archived fromthe originalon May 6, 2017.RetrievedApril 21,2022.
  34. ^Hoppál, Mihály (2005).Sámánok Eurázsiában(in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.ISBN978-963-05-8295-7.pp. 77, 287;Znamensky, Andrei A. (2005). "Az ősiség szépsége: altáji török sámánok a szibériai regionális gondolkodásban (1860–1920)". In Molnár, Ádám (ed.).Csodaszarvas. Őstörténet, vallás és néphagyomány. Vol. I(in Hungarian). Budapest: Molnár Kiadó. pp.117–34.ISBN978-963-218-200-1.,p. 128
  35. ^abWest, Barbara A. (2010).Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania.Infobase Publishing. pp.39–42.ISBN978-1-4381-1913-7.
  36. ^Minahan, James B. (2014).Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia.ABC-CLIO. pp.11–13.ISBN9781610690188.
  37. ^Wood, Alan (2011).Russia's Frozen Frontier: A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East, 1581-1991.Bloomsbury Academic. p. 105.ISBN978-1-84966-025-9.
  38. ^Kos'min, V. K. (2007)."Mongolian Buddhism's Influence on the Formation and Development of Burkhanism in Altai".Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia.45(3):43–72.doi:10.2753/aae1061-1959450303.ISSN1061-1959.S2CID145805201.
  39. ^Halemba, Agniezka (2003). "Contemporary religious life in the Republic of Altai: the interaction of Buddhism and Shamanism".Sibirica.3(2).doi:10.1080/1361736042000245295.
  40. ^ Tadina, Nadezhda (2013)."Два взгляда на бурханизм у алтай-кижи"[Two views on Burkhanism among the Altai-Kizhi].Журнал социологии и социальной антропологии [Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology](in Russian).16(4):159–166.
  41. ^Dulik, Matthew C.; Zhadanov, Sergey I.; Osipova, Ludmila P.; Askapuli, Ayken; Gau, Lydia; Gokcumen, Omer; Rubinstein, Samara; Schurr, Theodore G. (2012-02-10)."Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosome Variation Provides Evidence for a Recent Common Ancestry between Native Americans and Indigenous Altaians".The American Journal of Human Genetics.90(2):229–246.doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.12.014.ISSN0002-9297.PMC3276666.PMID22281367.
  42. ^Lavriashina M. B.; et al."Коренные народы Алтае-Саян: соотношения генофондов по данным о ДНК маркерах — аутосомных и Y хромосомы"[Indigenous peoples of Altai-Sayan: Gene pool ratios according to data on DNA markers—autosomal and Y chromosomes].genofond.ru(in Russian). Лаборатория геногеографии/Genogeography laboratory.Retrieved2021-07-14.
  43. ^Dulik, Matthew C.; Zhadanov, Sergey I.; Osipova, Ludmila P.; Askapuli, Ayken; Gau, Lydia; Gokcumen, Omer; Rubinstein, Samara; Schurr, Theodore G. (10 February 2012)."Mitochondrial DNA and Y chromosome variation provides evidence for a recent common ancestry between Native Americans and Indigenous Altaians".American Journal of Human Genetics.90(2):229–246.doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.12.014.PMC3276666.PMID22281367.

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