Wikipedia

Protectorate

(Redirected fromAmical protectorate)
For the 17th-century British protectorate, seeThe Protectorate.
Not to be confused withProtecting power.

Aprotectorate,in the context of international relations, is astatethat is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law.[1]It is adependent territorythat enjoysautonomyover most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing thesuzeraintyof a more powerfulsovereign statewithout being a possession.[2][3][4]In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement.[4]Usually protectorates are establishedde jureby atreaty.[2][3]Under certain conditions—as withEgypt under British rule(1882–1914)—a state can also be labelled as ade facto protectorateor aveiled protectorate.[5][6][7]

A protectorate is different from acolonyas it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiencescolonizationby the suzerain state.[8][9]A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its "international personality" is called a "protected state", not a protectorate.[10][a]

History

edit

Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to theRoman Empire.Civitates foederataewere cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In theMiddle Ages,Andorrawas a protectorate ofFranceandSpain.Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century.[11]

Typology

edit

Foreign relations

edit

In practice, a protectorate often has directforeign relationsonly with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter.[12][4][2][3]Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct fromannexation,in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.

Protectorates differ fromLeague of Nations mandatesand their successors,United Nations trust territories,whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by theinternational community.A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without ade factoadministering power.

Protected state

edit
See also:List of sovereign states without armed forces

A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy.[10][13]

For political and pragmatic reasons, the protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state.[14]A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.[a]

International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.[15]

Colonial protection

edit

Multiple regions—such as theColony and Protectorate of Nigeria,theColony and Protectorate of Lagos,and similar—were subjects of colonial protection.[16][17]Conditions of protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to ade factocondition similar to a colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent ofindirect rule.Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: achartered company,which becomes ade factostate in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces.[citation needed]

In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by the state supposedly being protected, or only agreed to by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, without being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate's status and integrity. TheBerlin agreementof February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates inBlack Africa(the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as theScramble for Africa.A similar case is the formal use of such terms ascolonyandprotectoratefor an amalgamation—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held (de facto) sway by protective or "raw" colonial power.[citation needed]

Amical protection

edit

In amical protection—as ofUnited States of the Ionian Islandsby Britain—the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate.[18][19]The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, ordynastic,historical, or ethnocultural ties). Also, the protector's interest is in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's strength.

Amical protection was frequently extended by thegreat powersto other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance.[ambiguous]After 1815, non-Christian states (such as theChinese Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection of other, much weaker states.

In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature ofmicrostates.According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints".[20]

Argentina's protectorates

edit

Brazil's protectorates

edit

British Empire's protectorates and protected states

edit
Main article:British protectorate

Americas

edit

Europe

edit

South Asia

edit

West and Central Asia

edit

Africa

edit
1960 stamp ofBechuanaland Protectoratewith the portraits of QueensVictoriaandElizabeth II

*protectorates which existed alongside a colony of the same name

De facto

edit

Oceania

edit

Southeast Asia

edit

China's protectorates

edit
Further information:Protectorate (Duhu Fu)

Dutch Empire's protectorates

edit

Various sultanates in theDutch East Indies(present day Indonesia):[35][36][37]

Sumatra

edit

Riau Archipelago

edit

Java

edit

Bali

edit

Lombok

edit

Floresand Solor

edit
  • Larantuka(1860–1904)
  • Tanah Kuna Lima (1917–1924)
  • Ndona (1917–1924)
  • Sikka(1879–c. 1947)

Borneo

edit

Celebes

edit
  • Gowa Sultanate(1669–1906; 1936–1949)
  • Bone Sultanate(1669–1905)
  • Bolaang Mongonduw(1825–c. 1949)
  • Laiwui (1858–c. 1949)
  • Luwu(1861–c. 1949)
  • Soppeng (1860–c. 1949)
  • Butung (1824–c. 1949)
  • Siau (1680–c. 1949)
  • Banggai(1907–c. 1949)
  • Tallo (1668–1780)
  • Wajo (1860–c. 1949)
  • Tabukan (1677–c. 1949)

AjattapparengConfederacy (1905–c. 1949)

edit
  • Malusetasi
  • Rapang
  • Swaito (union of Sawito and Alita, 1908)
  • Sidenreng
  • Supa

Mabbatupappeng Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

edit
  • Barru
  • Soppengriaja (union of Balusu, Kiru, Kamiri, 1906)
  • Tanette

Mandar Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

edit

Massenrempulu Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

edit

Moluccas

edit

West Timorand Alor

edit
  • Amanatun (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amanuban (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amarasi (1749–c. 1949)
  • Amfoan (1683–c. 1949)
  • Beboki (1756–c. 1949)
  • Belu (1756–c.1949)
  • Insana (1756–c.1949)
  • Sonbai Besar (1756–1906)
  • Sonbai Kecil (1659–1917)
  • Roti (Korbafo before 1928) (c. 1750–c.1949)
  • TaEbenu (1688–1917)

New Guinea

edit

France's protectorates and protected states

edit

Africa

edit

"Protection" was the formal legal structure under whichFrench colonial forcesexpanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part ofFrench West Africawas placed under protectorate status at some point, althoughdirect rulegradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with the low-level authority figures in the FrenchCercles—with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.[38]

Americas

edit

Asia

edit
1 Sapèque – Protectorate of Tonkin (1905)

Europe

edit

Oceania

edit
  • French Polynesia,mainlythe Society Islands(several others were immediately annexed).[41]All eventually were annexed by 1889.
    • Otaheiti(native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate known as Tahiti, 1842–1880
    • RaiateaandTahaa(after temporary annexation by Otaheiti; (title Ari`i) a French protectorate, 1880)
    • Mangareva(one of theGambier Islands;ruler title `Akariki) a French protectorate, 16 February 1844 (unratified) and 30 November 1871[42]
  • Wallis and Futuna:
    • Wallisdeclared to be a French protectorate byKingofUveaand Captain Mallet, 4 November 1842. Officially in a treaty becomes a French protectorate, 5 April 1887.
    • SigaveandAloon the islands ofFutunaandAlofisigned a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888.

Germany's protectorates and protected states

edit
See also:List of former German colonies
5000kronen–Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia(1939–1945)

TheGerman Empireused the wordSchutzgebiet,literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost duringWorld War I,regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included:

Before and duringWorld War II,Nazi Germanydesignated the rump of occupiedCzechoslovakiaandDenmarkas protectorates:

India's protectorates

edit

Italy's protectorates and protected states

edit
  • The Albanian Republic(1917–1920) and theAlbanian Kingdom(1939–1943)
  • Monacounder amical Protectorate of theKingdom of Sardinia20 November 1815 to 1860.
  • Ethiopia:2 May 1889Treaty of Wuchale,in theItalian languageversion, stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the EthiopianAmharic languageversion merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the versions came to light,EmperorMenelik IIabrogated first the article in question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in theFirst Italo-Ethiopian War,in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her sovereignty in 1896.
  • Libya:on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared overCirenaica(Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.
  • Benadir Coastin Somalia: 3 August 1889 Italian protectorate (in the northeast; unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed toItalian Somaliland.
    • Majeerteen Sultanatesince 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate (renewed 7 April 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.
    • Sultanate of Hobyosince December 1888 under Italian protectorate (renewed 11 April 1895), then in October 1925 incorporated into the Italian colony (known asObbia).

Japan's protectorates

edit

Poland's protectorates

edit

Portugal's protectorates

edit

Russia's and the Soviet Union's protectorates and protected states

edit

De facto

edit
See also:Russian-occupied territories

Some sources mention the following territories asde factoRussian protectorates:

Spain's protectorates

edit

Turkey's and the Ottoman Empire's protectorates and protected states

edit
Main article:Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire

De facto

edit

United Nations' protectorates

edit
Main article:United Nations protectorate

United States' protectorates and protected states

edit

After becoming independent nations in 1902 and 1903 respectively,CubaandPanamabecame protectorates of theUnited States.In 1903, Cuba and the US signed theCuban–American Treaty of Relations,which affirmed the provisions of thePlatt Amendment,including that the US had the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve its independence, among other reasons (the Platt Amendment had also been integrated into the1901 constitution of Cuba). Later that year, Panama and the US signed theHay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty,which established thePanama Canal Zoneand gave the US the right to intervene in the cities ofPanamaandColón(and the adjacent territories and harbors) for the maintenance of public order. The1904 constitution of Panama,in Article 136, also gave the US the right to intervene in any part of Panama "to reestablish public peace and constitutional order."Haitilater also became a protectorate after the ratification of theHaitian–American Convention(which gave the US the right to intervene in Haiti for a period of ten years, which was later expanded to twenty years through an additional agreement in 1917) on September 16, 1915.

The US also attempted to establish protectorates over theDominican Republic[54]andNicaraguathrough theBryan–Chamorro Treaty.

De facto

edit

Contemporary usage by the United States

edit

Some agencies of theUnited States government,such as theEnvironmental Protection Agency,refer to theDistrict of Columbiaandinsular areasof the United States—such asAmerican Samoaand theU.S. Virgin Islands—as protectorates.[58]However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, theOffice of Insular Affairs(OIA) within theUnited States Department of Interior,uses only the term "insular area" rather than protectorate.

Joint protectorates

edit
Further information:Condominium (international law)

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^abProtected statein this technical sense is distinguished from the informal usage of "protected state" to refer to a state receiving protection.
  2. ^Some scholars regard the relationship as one ofPriest-patronrather than a protectorate.[32][33][34]

References

edit
  1. ^Hoffmann, Protectorates (1987),p. 336.
  2. ^abcFuess, Albrecht (1 January 2005)."Was Cyprus a Mamluk protectorate? Mamluk policies toward Cyprus between 1426 and 1517".Journal of Cyprus Studies.11(28–29): 11–29.ISSN1303-2925.Retrieved24 October2020.
  3. ^abcReisman, W. (1 January 1989)."Reflections on State Responsibility for Violations of Explicit Protectorate, Mandate, and Trusteeship Obligations".Michigan Journal of International Law.10(1): 231–240.ISSN1052-2867.Retrieved24 October2020.
  4. ^abcBojkov, Victor D."Democracy in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Post-1995 political system and its functioning"(PDF).Southeast European Politics 4.1:41–67.
  5. ^Leys, Colin (2014)."The British ruling class".Socialist Register.50.ISSN0081-0606.Retrieved23 October2020.
  6. ^Kirkwood, Patrick M. (21 July 2016).""Lord Cromer's Shadow": Political Anglo-Saxonism and the Egyptian Protectorate as a Model in the American Philippines ".Journal of World History.27(1): 1–26.doi:10.1353/jwh.2016.0085.ISSN1527-8050.S2CID148316956.Retrieved23 October2020.
  7. ^Rubenson, Sven (1966)."Professor Giglio, Antonelli and Article XVII of the Treaty of Wichale".The Journal of African History.7(3): 445–457.doi:10.1017/S0021853700006526.ISSN0021-8537.JSTOR180113.S2CID162713931.Retrieved24 October2020.
  8. ^Archer, Francis Bisset (1967).The Gambia Colony and Protectorate: An Official Handbook.Psychology Press.ISBN978-0-7146-1139-6.
  9. ^Johnston, Alex. (1905)."The Colonization of British East Africa".Journal of the Royal African Society.5(17): 28–37.ISSN0368-4016.JSTOR715150.Retrieved24 October2020.
  10. ^abMeijknecht, Towards International Personality (2001),p. 42.
  11. ^Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration (2013),p. 16.
  12. ^Yoon, Jong-pil (17 August 2020)."Establishing expansion as a legal right: an analysis of French colonial discourse surrounding protectorate treaties".History of European Ideas.46(6): 811–826.doi:10.1080/01916599.2020.1722725.ISSN0191-6599.S2CID214425740.Retrieved24 October2020.
  13. ^Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration (2013),p. 16: "First, protected states are entities which still have substantial authority in their internal affairs, retain some control over their foreign policy, and establish their relation to the protecting state on a treaty or another legal instrument. Protected states still have qualifications of statehood."
  14. ^abcdefgOnley, The Raj Reconsidered (2009),p. 50.
  15. ^Willigen, Peacebuilding and International Administration (2013),pp. 16–17.
  16. ^Onah, Emmanuel Ikechi (9 January 2020)."Nigeria: A Country Profile".Journal of International Studies.10:151–162.doi:10.32890/jis.10.2014.7954.ISSN2289-666X.S2CID226175755.Retrieved21 September2021.
  17. ^Moloney, Alfred (1890)."Notes on Yoruba and the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, West Africa".Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography.12(10): 596–614.doi:10.2307/1801424.ISSN0266-626X.JSTOR1801424.Retrieved21 September2021.
  18. ^Wick, Alexis (2016),The Red Sea: In Search of Lost Space,Univ of California Press, pp. 133–,ISBN978-0-520-28592-7
  19. ^Αλιβιζάτου, Αικατερίνη (12 March 2019)."Use of GIS in analyzing archaeological sites: the case study of Mycenaean Cephalonia, Greece".University of Peloponnese.Retrieved2 July2022.
  20. ^Dumieński, Zbigniew (2014).Microstates as Modern Protected States: Towards a New Definition of Micro-Statehood(PDF)(Report). Occasional Paper. Centre for Small State Studies. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 14 July 2014.Retrieved2 July2022.
  21. ^Cunningham, Joseph Davy (1849).A History of the Sikhs: From the Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej.John Murray.
  22. ^Meyer, William Stevenson(1908)."Ferozepur district".The Imperial Gazetteer of India.Vol. XII. p. 90.But the British Government, established at Delhi since 1803, intervened with an offer of protection to all the CIS-SUTLEJ STATES; and Dhanna Singh gladly availed himself of the promised aid, being one of the first chieftains to accept British protection and control.
  23. ^Mullard, Saul (2011),Opening the Hidden Land: State Formation and the Construction of Sikkimese History,BRILL, p. 184,ISBN978-90-04-20895-7
  24. ^"Timeline – Story of Independence".Archived fromthe originalon 2019-07-27.Retrieved2020-05-11.
  25. ^Francis Carey Owtram (1999)."Oman and the West: State Formation in Oman since 1920"(PDF).University of London.Retrieved31 October2020.
  26. ^Onley, The Raj Reconsidered (2009),pp. 50–51.
  27. ^abOnley, The Raj Reconsidered (2009),p. 51.
  28. ^"A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present, by Michael J. Seth", p112
  29. ^Goldstein, Melvyn C. (April 1995),Tibet, China and the United States(PDF),The Atlantic Council, p. 3 – via Case Western Reserve University
  30. ^Norbu, Dawa (2001),China's Tibet Policy,Routledge, p. 78,ISBN978-1-136-79793-4
  31. ^Lin, Hsaio-ting (2011).Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49.UBC Press. p. 8.ISBN978-0-7748-5988-2.
  32. ^Sloane, Robert D. (Spring 2002),"The Changing Face of Recognition in International Law: A Case Study of Tibet",Emory International Law Review,16(1), note 93, p. 135: "This [" priest-patron "] relationship reemerged during China's prolonged domination by the Manchu Ch'ing dynasty (1611–1911)." – via Hein Online
  33. ^Karan, P. P. (2015), "Suppression of Tibetan Religious Heritage", in S. D. Brunn (ed.),The Changing World Religion Map,Spriger Science, p. 462,doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9376-6_23,ISBN978-94-017-9375-9
  34. ^Sinha, Nirmal C. (May 1964),"Historical Status of Tibet"(PDF),Bulletin of Tibetology,1(1): 27
  35. ^"Indonesian traditional polities".rulers.org.Retrieved2024-01-16.
  36. ^"Indonesian Traditional States part 1".worldstatesmen.org.Retrieved2024-01-16.
  37. ^"Indonesian Traditional States Part 2".worldstatesmen.org.Retrieved2024-01-17.
  38. ^See the classic account on this in Robert Delavignette.Freedom and Authority in French West Africa.London: Oxford University Press, (1950). The more recent standard studies on French expansion include:
    Robert Aldrich. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion. Palgrave MacMillan (1996)ISBN0-312-16000-3.
    Alice L. Conklin. A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa 1895–1930. Stanford: Stanford University Press (1998),ISBN978-0-8047-2999-4.
    Patrick Manning. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, 1880–1995. Cambridge University Press (1998)ISBN0-521-64255-8.
    Jean Suret-Canale. Afrique Noire: l'Ere Coloniale (Editions Sociales, Paris, 1971); Eng. translation, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900 1945. (New York, 1971).
  39. ^Bedjaoui, Mohammed (1 January 1991).International Law: Achievements and Prospects.Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.ISBN9231027166– via Google Books.
  40. ^Capaldo, Giuliana Ziccardi (1 January 1995).Repertory of Decisions of the International Court of Justice (1947–1992).Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.ISBN0792329937– via Google Books.
  41. ^C. W. Newbury. Aspects of French Policy in the Pacific, 1853–1906. The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 45–56
  42. ^Gonschor, Lorenz Rudolf (August 2008).Law as a Tool of Oppression and Liberation: Institutional Histories and Perspectives on Political Independence in Hawaiʻi, Tahiti Nui/French Polynesia and Rapa Nui(Thesis). Honolulu: University of Hawaii at Manoa. pp. 56–59.hdl:10125/20375.
  43. ^abGründer, Horst (2004).Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien(in German). Schöningh.ISBN978-3-8252-1332-9.
  44. ^Hoffmann, Protectorates (1987),pp. 336–339.
  45. ^abGerrits, Andre W. M.; Bader, Max (2 July 2016)."Russian patronage over Abkhazia and South Ossetia: implications for conflict resolution".East European Politics.32(3): 297–313.doi:10.1080/21599165.2016.1166104.hdl:1887/73992.ISSN2159-9165.S2CID156061334.
  46. ^Pieńkowski, Jakub (2016)."Renewal of Negotiations on Resolving the Transnistria Conflict".Central and Eastern European Online Library(CEEOL).Retrieved3 July2022.
  47. ^Greene, Sam (26 April 2019)."Putin's 'Passportization' Move Aimed At Keeping the Donbass Conflict on Moscow's Terms".The Moscow Times.Retrieved24 October2020.
  48. ^Robinson, Paul (1 October 2016)."Russia's role in the war in Donbass, and the threat to European security".European Politics and Society.17(4): 506–521.doi:10.1080/23745118.2016.1154229.ISSN2374-5118.S2CID155529950.
  49. ^"Putin's Karabakh victory sparks alarm in Ukraine".Atlantic Council.12 November 2020.Retrieved25 April2021.
  50. ^Goble, Paul (25 November 2020)."Nagorno-Karabakh Now A Russian Protectorate – OpEd".Eurasia Review.Retrieved21 September2021.
  51. ^Socor, Vladimir."Russia's 'Peacekeeping' Operation in Karabakh: Foundation of a Russian Protectorate (Part Two)".Jamestown.Retrieved21 September2021.
  52. ^"From the Archive 1999: Timor the defiant".The Sydney Morning Herald.30 August 2019.
  53. ^"East Timor".Human Rights Watch.
  54. ^"Dominican Republic, 1916-1924".U.S. Department of State Archive.20 August 2008.
  55. ^"Platt Amendment (1903)".National Archives.September 15, 2021.
  56. ^Gould, Lewis L. (4 October 2016)."William McKinley: Foreign Affairs".Miller Center.
  57. ^Aguilar, Filomeno V. (2000)."The Republic of Negros".Philippine Studies.48(1): 26–52.ISSN0031-7837.JSTOR42634352.
  58. ^"Notice of Finding of Failure To Submit State Plans for the Municipal Solid Waste Landfills Emission Guidelines".Environmental Protection Agency.12 March 2020.

Bibliography

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protectorate&oldid=1261096908#Amical_protection"