Anarchy

For other uses, seeAnarchy (disambiguation).

This article is about the state of government without authority. For the philosophy against authority, seeAnarchism.

Anarchyis a form ofsocietywithoutrulers.As a type ofstateless society,it is commonly contrasted withstates,which are centralized polities that claim amonopoly on violenceover a permanentterritory.Beyond a lack ofgovernment,it can more precisely refer to societies that lack any form ofauthorityorhierarchy.While viewed positively byanarchists,the primary advocates of anarchy, it is viewed negatively by advocates ofstatism,who see it in terms ofsocial disorder.

The word "anarchy" was first defined byAncient Greek philosophy,which understood it to be a corrupted form ofdirect democracy,where a majority of people exclusively pursue their own interests. This use of the word made its way intoLatinduring theMiddle Ages,before the concepts of anarchy and democracy were disconnected from each other in the wake of theAtlantic Revolutions.During theAge of Enlightenment,philosophers began to look at anarchy in terms of the "state of nature",a thought experiment used to justify various forms of hierarchical government. By the late 18th century, some philosophers began to speak in defence of anarchy, seeing it as a preferable alternative to existing forms oftyranny.This lay the foundations for the development of anarchism, which advocates for the creation of anarchy throughdecentralisationandfederalism.

Definition

As a concept,anarchyis commonly defined by what it excludes.Etymologically, anarchy is derived from theGreek:αναρχία,romanized:anarchia;where "αν" ( "an" ) means "without" and "αρχία" ( "archia" ) means "ruler".Therefore, anarchy is fundamentally defined by the absence ofrulers.

While anarchy specifically represents a society without rulers, it can more generally refer to astateless society,or a society withoutgovernment.Anarchy is thus defined in direct contrast to theState,an institution that claims amonopoly on violenceover a giventerritory.Anarchists such asErrico Malatestahave also defined anarchy more precisely as a society withoutauthority,orhierarchy.

Anarchy is often defined synonymously as chaos orsocial disorder,reflecting thestate of natureas depicted byThomas Hobbes.By this definition, anarchy represents not only an absence of government but also an absence ofgovernance.This connection of anarchy with chaos usually assumes that, without government, no means of governance exist and thus that disorder is an unavoidable outcome of anarchy.SociologistFrancis Dupuis-Dérihas described chaos as a "degenerate form of anarchy", in which there is an absence, not just of rulers, but of any kind of political organization.He contrasts the "rule of all" under anarchy with the "rule of none" under chaos.

Since its conception, anarchy has been used in both a positive and negative sense, respectively describing a free society without coercion or a state of chaos.

Conceptual development

Classical philosophy

When the word "anarchy" (Greek:αναρχία,romanized:anarchia) was first defined in ancient Greece, it initially had both a positive and negative connotation, respectively referring tospontaneous orderor chaos without rulers. The latter definition was taken by the philosopherPlato,who criticisedAthenian democracyas "anarchical", and his discipleAristotle,who questioned how to prevent democracy from descending into anarchy.Ancient Greek philosophyinitially understood anarchy to be a corrupted form ofdirect democracy,although it later came to be conceived of as its own form of political regime, distinct from any kind of democracy.According to the traditional conception of political regimes, anarchy results when authority is derived from a majority of people who pursue their own interests.

Post-classical development

During theMiddle Ages,the word "anarchia" came into use in Latin, in order to describe theeternal existenceof theChristian God.It later came to reconstitute its original political definition, describing a society without government.

Christian theologists came to claim thatall humans were inherently sinfuland ought to submit to theomnipotenceof higher power, with the French Protestant reformerJohn Calvindeclaring that even the worst form oftyrannywas preferable to anarchy.The Scottish QuakerRobert Barclayalso denounced the "anarchy" oflibertinessuch as theRanters.In contrast,radical Protestantssuch as theDiggersadvocated for anarchist societies based oncommon ownership.Although following attempts to establish such a society, the DiggerGerard Winstanleycame to advocate for anauthoritarian formofcommunism.

During the 16th century, the term "anarchy" first came into use in theEnglish language.It was used to describe the disorder that results from the absence of or opposition to authority, withJohn Miltonwriting of "the waste/Wide anarchy of Chaos" inParadise Lost.Initially used as a pejorative descriptor fordemocracy,the two terms began to diverge following theAtlantic Revolutions,when democracy took on a positive connotation and was redefined as a form ofelected,representational government.

Enlightenment philosophy

Political philosophers of theAge of Enlightenmentcontrasted thestatewith what they called the "state of nature",a hypothetical description of stateless society, although they disagreed on its definition.Thomas Hobbesconsidered the state of nature to be a "nightmare of permanent war of all against all".In contrast,John Lockeconsidered it to be a harmonious society in which people lived "according to reason, without a common superior". They would be subject only tonatural law,with otherwise "perfect freedom to order their actions".

In depicting the "state of nature" to be a free and equal society governed by natural law, Locke distinguished between society and the state.He argued that, without established laws, such a society would be inherently unstable, which would make alimited governmentnecessary in order to protect people'snatural rights.He likewise argued that limiting the reach of the state was reasonable when peaceful cooperation without a state was possible.His thoughts on the state of nature and limited government ultimately provided the foundation for theclassical liberalargument forlaissez-faire.

Kant's thought experiment

German idealistphilosopherImmanuel Kant,who looked at anarchy as a thought experiment to justify government

Immanuel Kantdefined "anarchy", in terms of the "state of nature", as a lack of government. He discussed the concept of anarchy in order to question why humanity ought to leave the state of nature behind and instead submit to a "legitimate government".In contrast to Thomas Hobbes, who conceived of the state of nature as a "war of all against all" which existed throughout the world, Kant considered it to be only athought experiment.Kant believed thathuman naturedrove people to not only seek outsocietybut also to attempt to attain asuperior hierarchical status.

While Kant distinguished between different forms of the state of nature, contrasting the "solitary" form against the "social", he held that there was no means ofdistributive justicein such a circumstance. He considered that, withoutlaw,ajudiciaryand means forlaw enforcement,the danger of violence would be ever-present, as each person could only judge for themselves what is right without any form of arbitration. He thus concluded that human society ought to leave the state of nature behind and submit to the authority of a state.Kant argued that the threat of violence incentivises humans, by the need to preserve their own safety, to leave the state of nature and submit to the state.Based on his "hypothetical imperative",he argued that if humans desire to secure their own safety, then they ought to avoid anarchy.But he also argued, according to his "categorical imperative",that it is not onlyprudentbut also amoralandpolitical obligationto avoid anarchy and submit to a state.Kant thus concluded that even if people did not desire to leave anarchy, they ought to as a matter of duty to abide by universal laws.

Defense of the state of nature

In contrast,Edmund Burke's 1756 workA Vindication of Natural Society,argued in favour of anarchist society in a defense of the state of nature.Burke insisted that reason was all that was needed to govern society and that "artificial laws" had been responsible for all social conflict and inequality, which led him to denounce the church and the state.Burke's anti-statist arguments preceded the work of classical anarchists and directly inspired the political philosophy ofWilliam Godwin.

English political philosopherWilliam Godwin,an early proponent of anarchy as a political regime

In his 1793 bookPolitical Justice,Godwin proposed the creation of a more just and free society by abolishing government, concluding that order could be achieved through anarchy.Although he came to be known as a founding father of anarchism,Godwin himself mostly used the word "anarchy" in its negative definition,fearing that an immediate dissolution of government without any prior political development would lead to disorder.Godwin held that the anarchy could be best realised through gradual evolution, by cultivating reason through education, rather than through a sudden and violent revolution.But he also considered transitory anarchy to be preferable to lastingdespotism,stating that anarchy bore a distorted resemblance to "true liberty"and could eventually give way to "the best form of human society".

This positive conception of anarchy was soon taken up by other political philosophers. In his 1792 workThe Limits of State Action,Wilhelm von Humboldtcame to consider an anarchist society, which he conceived of as a community built on voluntary contracts between educated individuals, to be "infinitely preferred to any State arrangements".The French political philosopherDonatien Alphonse François,in his 1797 novelJuliette,questioned what form of government was best.He argued that it was passion, not law, that had driven human society forward, concluding by calling for the abolition of law and a return to a state of nature by accepting anarchy.He concluded by declaring anarchy to be the best form of political regime, as it was law that gave rise totyrannyand anarchic revolution that was capable of bringing down bad governments.After theAmerican Revolution,Thomas Jeffersonsuggested that a stateless society might lead to greater happiness for humankind and has been attributed the maxim "that government is best which governs least". Jefferson's political philosophy later inspired the development ofindividualist anarchism in the United States,with contemporaryright-libertariansproposing that private property could be used to guarantee anarchy.

Anarchist thought

Proudhon

Pierre-Joseph Proudhon,the first person to self-identify with the term "anarchist" and one of the first to redefine "anarchy" in a positive sense

Pierre-Joseph Proudhonwas the first person known to self-identify as an anarchist, adopting the label in order to provoke those that took anarchy to mean disorder.Proudhon was one of the first people to use the word "anarchy" (French:anarchie) in a positive sense, to mean a free society without government.To Proudhon, as anarchy did not allow coercion, it could be defined synoymously withliberty.In arguing againstmonarchy,he claimed that "theRepublicis a positive anarchy... it is the liberty that is the MOTHER, not the daughter, of order. "While acknowledging this common definition of anarchy as disorder, Proudhon claimed that it was actually authoritarian government and wealth inequality that were the true causes of social disorder.By counterposing this against anarchy, which he defined as an absence of rulers,Proudhon declared that "just as man seeks justice in equality, society seeks order in anarchy".Proudhon based his case for anarchy on his conception of a just and moral state of nature.

Proudhon positedfederalismas an organizational form andmutualismas an economic form, which he believed would lead towards the end goal of anarchy.In his 1863 workThe Federal Principle,Proudhon elaborated his view of anarchy as "the government of each man by himself," using the English term of "self-government" as a synonym for it.According to Proudhon, under anarchy, "all citizens reign and govern" throughdirect participationin decision-making.He proposed that this could be achieved through a system offederalismanddecentralisation,in which every community is self-governing and any delegation of decision-making is subject toimmediate recall.He likewise called for the economy to be brought underindustrial democracy,which would abolishprivate property.Proudhon believed that all this would eventually lead to anarchy, as individual and collective interests aligned andspontaneous orderis achieved.

Proudhon thus came to be known as the "father of anarchy" by the anarchist movement, which emerged from thelibertarian socialistfaction of theInternational Workingmen's Association(IWA).Until the establishment of IWA in 1864, there had been no anarchist movement, only individuals and groups that saw anarchy as their end goal.

Bakunin

Mikhail Bakunin,who infused the term "anarchy" with simultaneous positive and negative definitions

One of Proudhon's keenest students was the Russian revolutionaryMikhail Bakunin,who adopted his critiques of private property and government, as well as his views on the desirability of anarchy.During theRevolutions of 1848,Bakunin wrote of his hopes of igniting a revolutionary upheaval in theRussian Empire,writing to the German poetGeorg Herweghthat "I do not fear anarchy, but desire it with all my heart". Although he still used the negative definition of anarchy as disorder, he nevertheless saw the need for "something different: passion and life and a new world, lawless and thereby free."

Bakunin popularised "anarchy" as a term,using both its negative and positive definitions,in order to respectively describe the disorderly destruction of revolution and the construction of a new social order in the post-revolutionary society.Bakunin envisioned the creation of an "International Brotherhood", which could lead people through "the thick of popular anarchy" in asocial revolution.Upon joining the IWA, in 1869, Bakunin drew up a programme for such a Brotherhood, in which he infused the word "anarchy" with a more positive connotation:

We do not fear anarchy, we invoke it. For we are convinced that anarchy, meaning the unrestricted manifestation of the liberated life of the people, must spring from liberty, equality, the new social order, and the force of the revolution itself against the reaction. There is no doubt that this new life – the popular revolution – will in good time organize itself, but it will create its revolutionary organization from the bottom up, from the circumference to the center, in accordance with the principle of liberty, and not from the top down or from the center to the circumference in the manner of all authority. It matters little to us if that authority is calledChurch,Monarchy,constitutional State,bourgeois Republic,or evenrevolutionary Dictatorship.We detest and reject all of them equally as the unfailing sources of exploitation and despotism.

See also

• Anti-authoritarianism
• Criticisms of electoral politics
• Libertarian socialism
• List of anarchist organizations
• Outline of anarchism
• Power vacuum
• Rebellion
• Relationship anarchy
• State of nature

Bibliography

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• Bell, Tom W. (2020). "The Forecast for Anarchy". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.).The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought.New York:Routledge.pp.309–324.doi:10.4324/9781315185255-22.ISBN9781315185255.S2CID228898569.
• Boettke, Peter J.;Candela, Rosolino A. (2020). "The Positive Political Economy of Analytical Anarchism". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.).The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought.New York:Routledge.pp.222–234.doi:10.4324/9781315185255-15.ISBN9781315185255.S2CID228898569.
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• Dupuis-Déri, Francis(2010). "Anarchy in Political Philosophy". In Jun, Nathan J.; Wahl, Shane (eds.).New Perspectives on Anarchism.Rowman & Littlefield.pp.9–24.ISBN978-0-7391-3240-1.LCCN2009015304.
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• Marshall, Peter H.(2008) [1992].Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism.London:Harper Perennial.ISBN978-0-00-686245-1.OCLC218212571.
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• Morris, Christopher W.(2020). "On the Distinction Between State and Anarchy". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.).The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought.New York:Routledge.pp.39–52.doi:10.4324/9781315185255-3.ISBN9781315185255.S2CID228898569.
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Further reading

• Crowe, Jonathan(2020). "Anarchy and Law". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.).The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought.New York:Routledge.pp.281–294.doi:10.4324/9781315185255-20.ISBN9781315185255.S2CID228898569.
• Gabay, Clive (2010). "What Did the Anarchists Ever Do for Us? Anarchy, Decentralization, and Autonomy at the Seattle Anti-WTO Protests". In Jun, Nathan J.; Wahl, Shane (eds.).New Perspectives on Anarchism.Rowman & Littlefield.pp.121–132.ISBN978-0-7391-3240-1.LCCN2009015304.
• Gordon, Uri(2010). "Power and Anarchy: In/equality + In/visibility in Autonomous Politics". In Jun, Nathan J.; Wahl, Shane (eds.).New Perspectives on Anarchism.Rowman & Littlefield.pp.39–66.ISBN978-0-7391-3240-1.LCCN2009015304.
• Hirshleifer, Jack(1995)."Anarchy and its Breakdown"(PDF).Journal of Political Economy.103(1):26–52.doi:10.1086/261974.ISSN1537-534X.S2CID154997658.
• Huemer, Michael(2020). "The Right Anarchy: Capitalist or Socialist?". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.).The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought.New York:Routledge.pp.342–359.doi:10.4324/9781315185255-24.ISBN9781315185255.S2CID228898569.
• Leeson, Peter T.(2007)."Better off stateless: Somalia before and after government collapse"(PDF).Journal of Comparative Economics.35(4):689–710.doi:10.1016/j.jce.2007.10.001.ISSN0147-5967.
• Levy, Carl(2019)."Anarchism and Cosmopolitanism"(PDF).In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.).The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism.London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp.125–148.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_7.ISBN978-3319756196.S2CID158605651.
• McLaughlin, Paul (2020). "Anarchism, Anarchists and Anarchy". In Chartier, Gary; Van Schoelandt, Chad (eds.).The Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought.New York:Routledge.pp.15–27.doi:10.4324/9781315185255-1.ISBN9781315185255.S2CID228898569.
• Powell, Benjamin;Stringham, Edward P.(2009)."Public choice and the economic analysis of anarchy: a survey"(PDF).Public Choice.140(3–4):503–538.doi:10.1007/s11127-009-9407-1.ISSN1573-7101.S2CID189842170.
• Newman, Saul(2019). "Postanarchism". In Adams, Matthew S.; Levy, Carl (eds.).The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism.London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp.293–304.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_17.ISBN978-3319756196.S2CID158605651.
• Shannon, Deric (2018). "Economy". In Franks, Benjamin; Jun, Nathan; Williams, Leonard (eds.).Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach.Routledge.pp.142–154.ISBN978-1-138-92565-6.LCCN2017044519.
• Shantz, Jeff; Williams, Dana M. (2013).Anarchy and Society: Reflections on Anarchist Sociology.Brill.doi:10.1163/9789004252998.ISBN978-90-04-21496-5.LCCN2013033844.
• Tamblyn, Nathan (30 April 2019)."The Common Ground of Law and Anarchism".Liverpool Law Review.40(1):65–78.doi:10.1007/s10991-019-09223-1.hdl:10871/36939.S2CID155131683.
• Taylor, Michael(1982).Community, Anarchy and Liberty.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-24621-0.LCCN82-1173.
• Verter, Mitchell (2010). "The Anarchism of the Other Person". In Jun, Nathan J.; Wahl, Shane (eds.).New Perspectives on Anarchism.Rowman & Littlefield.pp.67–84.ISBN978-0-7391-3240-1.LCCN2009015304.