Wikipedia

Andromeda (constellation)

For other uses, seeAndromeda.

Andromedais one of the 48constellationslisted by the 2nd-centuryGreco-RomanastronomerPtolemy,and one of the88 modern constellations.Located in thenorthern celestial hemisphere,it is named forAndromeda,daughter ofCassiopeia,in theGreek myth,who was chained to a rock to be eaten by the sea monsterCetus.Andromeda is most prominent during autumn evenings in theNorthern Hemisphere,along with several other constellations named for characters in thePerseusmyth. Because of its northerndeclination,Andromeda is visible only north of 40° south latitude; for observers farther south, it lies below the horizon. It is one of the largest constellations, with an area of 722square degrees.This is over 1,400 times the size of thefull moon,55% of the size of the largest constellation,Hydra,and over 10 times the size of the smallest constellation,Crux.

Andromeda
Constellation
Andromeda
List of stars in Andromeda
AbbreviationAnd[1]
GenitiveAndromedae
Pronunciation
SymbolismAndromeda,
the Chained Woman[2]
Right ascension23h25m48.6945s–02h39m32.5149s[3]
Declination53.1870041°–21.6766376°[3]
Area722[4]sq. deg. (19th)
Main stars16
Bayer/Flamsteed
stars		65
Stars withplanets12
Stars brighter than 3.00m3
Stars within 10.00 pc (32.62 ly)3
Brightest starAlpheratz(α And) (2.07m)
Messier objects3,[5]including the Andromeda Galaxy
Meteor showersAndromedids(Bielids)
Bordering
constellations
Visible at latitudes between +90° and −40°.
Best visible at 21:00 (9 p.m.) during the month ofNovember.

Its brightest star,Alpheratz(Alpha Andromedae), is abinary starthat has also been counted as a part ofPegasus,whileGamma Andromedae(Almach) is a colorful binary and a popular target for amateur astronomers. With avariable brightnesssimilar to Alpheratz,Mirach(Beta Andromedae) is ared giant,its color visible to the naked eye. The constellation's most obvious deep-sky object is the naked-eyeAndromeda Galaxy(M31, also called the Great Galaxy of Andromeda), the closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way and one of the brightestMessier objects.Several fainter galaxies, including M31's companionsM110andM32,as well as the more distantNGC 891,lie within Andromeda. TheBlue Snowball Nebula,aplanetary nebula,is visible in a telescope as a blue circular object.

InChinese astronomy,the stars that make up Andromeda were members of four different constellations that had astrological and mythological significance; a constellation related to Andromeda also exists in Hindu mythology. Andromeda is the location of theradiantfor theAndromedids,a weakmeteor showerthat occurs in November.

History and mythology

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Johannes Hevelius's depiction of Andromeda, from the 1690 edition of hisUranographia.As was conventional forcelestial atlasesof the time, the constellation is a mirror image of modern maps as it was drawn from a perspective outside thecelestial sphere.
Andromeda as depicted inUrania's Mirror,a set of constellation cards published in London c. 1825, showing the constellation from the inside of the celestial sphere
Andromeda depicted in an early scientific manuscript, c.1000

Theuranographyof Andromeda has its roots most firmly in the Greek tradition, though a female figure in Andromeda's location had appeared earlier inBabylonian astronomy.The stars that make upPiscesand the middle portion of modern Andromeda formed a constellation representing afertility goddess,sometimes named as Anunitum or the Lady of the Heavens.[8]

Andromeda is known as "the Chained Lady" or "the Chained Woman" in English. It was known asMulier Catenata( "chained woman" ) inLatinandal-Mar'at al MusalsalahinArabic.[2]It has also been calledPersea( "Perseus's wife" ) orCepheis( "Cepheus's daughter" ),[2][9]all names that refer to Andromeda's role in the Greco-Roman myth of Perseus, in whichCassiopeia,the queen ofAethiopia,bragged that her daughter was more beautiful than theNereids,sea nymphs blessed with incredible beauty.[10]Offended at her remark, the nymphs petitionedPoseidonto punish Cassiopeia for her insolence, which he did by commanding the sea monsterCetusto attack Aethiopia.[10]Andromeda's panicked father,Cepheus,was told by the Oracle of Ammon that the only way to save his kingdom was to sacrifice his daughter to Cetus.[11][12]She was chained to a rock by the sea but was saved by the heroPerseus,who in one version of the story used the head ofMedusato turn the monster into stone;[13]in another version, by the Roman poetOvidin hisMetamorphoses,Perseus slew the monster with his diamond sword.[12]Perseus and Andromeda then married; the myth recounts that the couple had nine children together – seven sons and two daughters – and foundedMycenaeand its Persideae dynasty. After Andromeda's deathAthenaplaced her in the sky as a constellation, to honor her. Three of the neighboring constellations (Perseus,CassiopeiaandCepheus) represent characters in the Perseus myth, whileCetusretreats to beyondPisces.[11]It is connected with the constellation Pegasus.

Andromeda was one of the original 48constellationsformulated byPtolemyin his 2nd-centuryAlmagest,in which it was defined as a specific pattern of stars. She is typically depicted with α Andromedae as her head, ο and λ Andromedae as her chains, and δ, π, μ, β, and γ her body and legs. However, there is no universal depiction of Andromeda and the stars used to represent her body, head, and chains.[14]Arab astronomers were aware of Ptolemy's constellations, but they included a second constellation representing a fish overlapping Andromeda's body; the nose of this fish was marked by a hazy patch that ‍we ‍now ‍know ‍as ‍the ‍Andromeda Galaxy,‍M31.[15]Several stars from Andromeda and most of the stars inLacertawere combined in 1787 by German astronomerJohann Bodeto formHonores Friderici(also called Friedrichs Ehre). It was designed to honourKing Frederick II of Prussia,but quickly fell into disuse.[16]Since the time of Ptolemy, Andromeda has remained a constellation and is officially recognized by theInternational Astronomical Union.Like all those that date back to a pattern known to Ptolemy, it is attributed to a wider zone and thus many surrounding stars.[17][18]In 1922, the IAU defined its recommended three-letter abbreviation, "And".[19]The official boundaries of Andromeda were defined in 1930 by Belgian astronomerEugène Delporteas a polygon of 36 segments. Itsright ascensionis between 22h57.5mand 2h39.3mand itsdeclinationis between 53.19° and 21.68° in theequatorial coordinate system.[3]

In non-Western astronomy

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Photo of the constellation Andromeda, as it appears to the naked eye. Lines have been added for clarity.

In traditionalChinese astronomy,nine stars from Andromeda (including Beta Andromedae, Mu Andromedae, and Nu Andromedae), along with seven stars from Pisces, formed an elliptical constellation called "Legs"( khuê túc ). This constellation either represented the foot of a walking person or a wild boar.[12]Gamma Andromedaeand its neighbors were called "Teen Ta Tseang Keun"( thiên đại tướng quân, heaven's great general), representing honour in astrology and a great general in mythology.[9][12]Alpha AndromedaeandGamma Pegasitogether made "Wall"( vách tường túc ), representing the eastern wall of the imperial palace and/or the emperor's personal library. For the Chinese, the northern swath of Andromeda formed a stable for changing horses (tianjiu,Thiên chuồng, stable on sky) and the far western part, along with most ofLacerta,became Tengshe, a flying snake.[12]

An Arab constellation called "al-Hut" (the fish) was composed of several stars in Andromeda, M31, and several stars in Pisces.ν And,μ And,β And,η And,ζ And,ε And,δ And,π And,and32 Andwere all included from Andromeda;ν Psc,φ Psc,χ Psc,andψ1Pscwere included from Pisces.[20][21]

As per Hindu astronomy, Andromeda is known as Devyani Constellation while Cassiopeia is Sharmishta Constellation. Devyani and Sharmishta are wives of King Yayati (Perseus Constellation) who is the earliest patriarch of the Kuru and Yadu Clans that are mentioned frequently in epic Mahabharat. There is an interesting story of these three characters mentioned in Mahabharat. Devyani is the daughter of Guru Shukracharya while Shar.[citation needed]

Hindu legends surrounding Andromeda are similar to the Greek myths. Ancient Sanskrit texts depict Antarmada chained to a rock, as in the Greek myth. Scholars believe that the Hindu and Greek astrological myths were closely linked; one piece of evidence cited is the similarity between the names "Antarmada" and "Andromeda".[9]

Andromeda is also associated with theMesopotamiancreation story ofTiamat,the goddess of Chaos. She bore many demons for her husband,Apsu,but eventually decided to destroy them in a war that ended whenMardukkilled her. He used her body to create the constellations as markers of time for humans.[9][14]

In theMarshall Islands,Andromeda, Cassiopeia, Triangulum, and Aries are incorporated into a constellation representing aporpoise.Andromeda's bright stars are mostly in the body of the porpoise; Cassiopeia represents its tail and Aries its head.[14]In theTuamotuislands, Alpha Andromedae was calledTakurua-e-te-tuki-hanga-ruki,meaning "Star of the wearisome toil",[22]and Beta Andromedae was calledPiringa-o-Tautu.[23]

Features

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Stars

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Further information:List of stars in Andromeda
Andromeda as it appears in the night sky, with the superimposed figure.
  • α And(Alpheratz) is the brighteststarin this constellation. It is anA0p class[10]binary star with an overallapparent visual magnitudeof 2.1 and aluminosityof 96L☉.[24]It is 97light-yearsfrom Earth.[25]In Western mythology it represents Andromeda's head, although the star's traditionalArabicnames, Alpheratz and Sirrah, come from the phrasesurrat al-faras,referring to the navel of the horse.[26][27]The Arabic names are a reference to the fact that α And forms anasterismknown as the Great Square of Pegasus with three stars inPegasus:α,β,andγ Peg.As such, the star was formerly considered to belong to both Andromeda and Pegasus, and was co-designated Delta Pegasi (δ Peg), although this name is no longer formally used.[10][12][24]
  • β And(Mirach) is a red-hued giant star oftype M0[10][28]located in an asterism known as the "girdle". It is 198 light-years away,[28]has a magnitude of 2.06,[29]and a luminosity of 115L☉with a planet discovered orbiting this star (b).[24]Its name comes from the Arabic phraseal-Maraqqmeaning "the loins" or "the loincloth",[27]a phrase translated from Ptolemy's writing. However, β And was mostly considered by the Arabs to be a part of al-Hut, a constellation representing a larger fish than Pisces at Andromeda's feet.[20]
  • γ And(Almach) is an orange-hued bright giant star oftype K3[10]found at the southern tip of the constellation with an overall magnitude of 2.14.[24]Almach is amultiple starwith a yellow primary of magnitude 2.3 and a blue-green secondary of magnitude 5, separated by 9.7arcseconds.[11][12][30]British astronomer William Herschel said of the star: "[the] striking difference in the color of the 2 stars, suggests the idea of a sun and its planet, to which the contrast of their unequal size contributes not a little."[31]The secondary, described by Herschel as a "fine light sky-blue, inclining to green",[31]is itself a double star, with a secondary of magnitude 6.3[11]and a period of 61 years.[24]The system is 358 light-years away.[32]Almach was named for the Arabic phraseʿAnaq al-Ard,which means "the earth-kid", an obtuse reference to an animal that aids a lion in finding prey.[20][27]
  • δ Andis an orange-hued giant star oftype K3[10]orange giantof magnitude 3.3.[29]It is 105 light-years from Earth.[33]
  • ι And,κ,λ,ο,andψ Andform an asterism known as "Frederick's Glory", a name derived from aformer constellation(Frederici Honores).[16]ι And is a blue-white hued main-sequence star oftype B8,502 light-years from Earth;[34]κ And is a white-hued main-sequence star of type B9 IVn, 168 light-years from Earth;[35]λ And is a yellow-hued giant star of type G8, 86 light-years from Earth;[36]ο And is a blue-white hued giant star of type B6, 679 light-years from Earth;[37]and ψ And is a blue-white hued main-sequence star of type B7, 988 light-years from Earth.[38]
  • μ Andis a white-hued main-sequence star of type A5 and magnitude 3.9.[29]It is 130 light-years away.[39]
  • υ And(Titawin)[40]is a magnitude 4.1[29]binary system that consists of oneF-type dwarfand anM-type dwarf.The primary star has aplanetary systemwith 4 confirmedplanets,[41]0.96 times, 14.57 times, 10.19 times and 1.06 the mass ofJupiter.[42]The system is 44 light-years from Earth.[43]
  • ξ And(Adhil) is a binary star 217 light-years away. The primary is an orange-hued giant star of type K0.[44]
  • π Andis a blue-white hued binary star of magnitude 4.3[29]that is 598 light-years away. The primary is a main-sequence star of type B5.[45]Its companion star is of magnitude 8.9.[29]
  • 51 And(Nembus[40]) was assigned byJohann Bayerto Perseus, where he designated it "Upsilon Persei (υ Per)", but it was moved to Andromeda by the International Astronomical Union.[46]It is 177 light-years from Earth and is an orange-hued giant star of type K3.[47]
  • 54 And was a former designation forφ Per.[12][46]
  • 56 Andis an optical binary star. The primary is a yellow-hued giant star of type K0 with an apparent magnitude of 5.7[29]that is 316 light-years away.[48]The secondary is an orange-hued giant star of type K0 and magnitude 5.9 that is 990 light-years from Earth.[29]
  • R Andis aMira-type variable starwith a period of 409 days. Its maximum magnitude is 5.8 and its minimum magnitude is 14.8,[10]and it is at a distance of 1,250 light-years.[49]There are 6 other Mira variables in Andromeda.[24]
  • Z Andis the M-type prototype forits classof variable stars. It ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 12.4 to a maximum of 8.[24]It is 2,720 light-years away.[50]
  • Ross 248(HH Andromedae) is the ninth-closest star to Earth at a distance of 10.3 light-years.[7]It is a red-hued main-sequenceBY Draconis variable starof type M6.[51]
  • 14 And(Veritate[40]) is a yellow-hued giant star of type G8 that is 251 light-years away.[52]It has a mass of 2.2M☉and a radius of 11R☉.It has one planet,14 Andromedae b,discovered in 2008. It orbits at a distance of 0.83astronomical unitsfrom its parent star every 186 days and has a mass of4.3MJ.[53]
AHertzsprung–Russell diagramfor stars brighter than 4thmagnitudein the constellation Andromeda (axes not labelled).

Of the stars brighter than 4thmagnitude(and those with measuredluminosity), Andromeda has a relatively even distribution ofevolvedandmain-sequencestars.

Deep-sky objects

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M31, the Great Galaxy of Andromeda.

Andromeda's borders contain many visible distant galaxies.[11]The most famousdeep-sky objectin Andromeda is thespiral galaxycataloged as Messier 31 (M31) or NGC 224 but known colloquially as theAndromeda Galaxyfor the constellation.[54]M31 is one of the most distant objects visible to the naked eye, 2.2 million light-years from Earth (estimates range up to 2.5 million light-years).[55]It is seen under a dark, transparent sky as a hazy patch in the north of the constellation.[55]M31 is the largest neighboring galaxy to the Milky Way and the largest member of theLocal Groupof galaxies.[54][55]In absolute terms, M31 is approximately 200,000 light-years in diameter, twice the size of the Milky Way.[55]It is an enormous – 192.4 by 62.2 arcminutes inapparent size[11]–barred spiral galaxysimilar in form to the Milky Way and at an approximate magnitude of 3.5, is one of the brightest deep-sky objects in the northern sky.[56]Despite being visible to the naked eye, the "little cloud" near Andromeda's figure was not recorded until AD 964, when the Arab astronomeral-Sufiwrote hisBook of Fixed Stars.[12][57]M31 was first observed telescopically shortly after its invention, bySimon Mariusin 1612.[58]

The future of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies may be interlinked: in about five billion years, the two could potentially begin anAndromeda–Milky Way collisionthat would spark extensive new star formation.[55]

Zooming In on the Andromeda Galaxy–A mosaic of the Andromeda Galaxy and the largest images ever taken using theHubble Space Telescope[59]

American astronomerEdwin Hubbleincluded M31 (then known as the Andromeda Nebula) in his groundbreaking 1923 research on galaxies.[57]Using the 100-inchHooker TelescopeatMount Wilson Observatoryin California, he observedCepheid variablestars in M31 during a search fornovae,allowing him to determine their distance by using the stars asstandard candles.[60]The distance he found was far greater than the size of the Milky Way, which led him to the conclusion that many similar objects were "island universes" on their own.[61][62][63]Hubble originally estimated that the Andromeda Galaxy was 900,000 light-years away, butErnst Öpik's estimate in 1925 put the distance closer to 1.5 million light-years.[60]

The Andromeda Galaxy's two main companions,M32andM110(also known as NGC 221 and NGC 205, respectively) are faint elliptical galaxies that lie near it.[5][54]M32, visible with a far smaller size of 8.7 by 6.4 arcminutes,[11]compared to M110, appears superimposed on the larger galaxy in a telescopic view as a hazy smudge, M110 also appears slightly larger and distinct from the larger galaxy;[54]M32 is 0.5° south of the core, M110 is 1° northwest of the core.[29]M32 was discovered in 1749 by French astronomerGuillaume Le Gentiland has since been found to lie closer to Earth than the Andromeda Galaxy itself.[64]It is viewable in binoculars from a dark site owing to its high surface brightness of 10.1 and overall magnitude of 9.0.[11]M110 is classified as either adwarf spheroidal galaxyor simply a generic elliptical galaxy. It is far fainter than M31 and M32, but larger than M32 with a surface brightness of 13.2, magnitude of 8.9, and size of 21.9 by 10.9 arcminutes.[11]

The Andromeda Galaxy has a total of 15satellite galaxies,including M32 and M110. Nine of these lie in a plane, which has caused astronomers to infer that they have a common origin. These satellite galaxies, like thesatellites of the Milky Way,tend to be older, gas-poordwarf ellipticalanddwarf spheroidal galaxies.[65]

The Blue Snowball Nebula as seen through theHubble Space Telescope.

Along with the Andromeda Galaxy and its companions, the constellation also featuresNGC 891(Caldwell 23), a smaller galaxy just east ofAlmach.It is a barred spiral galaxy seen edge-on, with a darkdust lanevisible down the middle. NGC 891 is incredibly faint and small despite its magnitude of 9.9,[24]as its surface brightness of 14.6 indicates;[11]it is 13.5 by 2.8 arcminutes in size.[24]NGC 891 was discovered by the brother-and-sister team ofWilliamandCaroline Herschelin August 1783.[55]This galaxy is at an approximate distance of 30 million light-years from Earth, calculated from itsredshiftof 0.002.[55]

Andromeda's most celebratedopen clusterisNGC 752(Caldwell28) at an overall magnitude of 5.7.[24]It is a loosely scattered cluster in the Milky Way that measures 49 arcminutes across and features approximately twelve bright stars, although more than 60 stars of approximately 9th magnitude become visible at low magnifications in a telescope.[11][29]It is considered to be one of the more inconspicuous open clusters.[10]The other open cluster in Andromeda isNGC 7686,which has a similar magnitude of 5.6 and is also a part of the Milky Way. It contains approximately 20 stars in a diameter of 15 arcminutes, making it a tighter cluster than NGC 752.[24]

There is one prominentplanetary nebulain Andromeda:NGC 7662(Caldwell 22).[24]Lying approximately 3 degrees southwest ofIota Andromedaeat a distance of about 4,000 light-years from Earth, the "Blue Snowball Nebula"[11]is a popular target for amateur astronomers.[66]It earned its popular name because it appears as a faint, round, blue-green object in a telescope, with an overall magnitude of 9.2.[11][66]Upon further magnification, it is visible as a slightly elliptical annular disk that gets darker towards the center, with a magnitude 13.2 central star.[11][29]The nebula has an overall magnitude of 9.2 and is 20 by 130 arcseconds in size.[24]

Meteor showers

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Each November, theAndromedidsmeteor shower appears to radiate from Andromeda.[67]The shower peaks in mid-to-late November every year, but has a low peak rate of fewer than 2 meteors per hour.[68]Astronomers have often associated the Andromedids withBiela's Comet,which was destroyed in the 19th century, but that connection is disputed.[69]Andromedid meteors are known for being very slow and the shower itself is considered to be diffuse, as meteors can be seen coming from nearby constellations as well as from Andromeda itself.[70]Andromedid meteors sometimes appear as redfireballs.[71][72]The Andromedids were associated with the most spectacular meteor showers of the 19th century; the storms of 1872 and 1885 were estimated to have a peak rate of 2 meteors per second (azenithal hourly rateof 10,000), prompting a Chinese astronomer to compare the meteors to falling rain.[69][73]The Andromedids had another outburst on December 3–5, 2011, the most active shower since 1885, with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 50 meteors per hour. The 2011 outburst was linked to ejecta from Comet Biela, which passed close to the Sun in 1649. None of the meteoroids observed were associated with material from the comet's 1846 disintegration. The observers of the 2011 outburst predicted outbursts in 2018, 2023, and 2036.[74]

See also

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References

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Citations

  1. ^Russell 1922,p. 469.
  2. ^abcAllen 1899,pp. 32–33.
  3. ^abcIAU,The Constellations,Andromeda.
  4. ^Ridpath,Constellations.
  5. ^abBakich 1995,p. 54.
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  7. ^abRECONS,The 100 Nearest Star Systems.
  8. ^Rogers,Mediterranean Traditions1998.
  9. ^abcdOlcott 2004,pp. 22–23.
  10. ^abcdefghiMoore & Tirion 1997,pp. 116–117.
  11. ^abcdefghijklmnThompson & Thompson 2007,pp. 66–73.
  12. ^abcdefghiRidpath,Star TalesAndromeda.
  13. ^Pasachoff 2000,p. 132.
  14. ^abcStaal 1988,pp. 7–14, 17.
  15. ^"The Andromeda Galaxy and the Double Cluster in al-Sufi's Book of the Fixed Stars".Ian Ridpath's Star Tales.Retrieved21 November2022.
  16. ^abBakich 1995,p. 43.
  17. ^Bakich 1995,p. 11.
  18. ^Pasachoff 2000,pp. 128–129.
  19. ^Russell 1922,pp. 469–471.
  20. ^abcDavis 1944.
  21. ^"The Great Fish (al-hut): The 28th Arab lunar station".Two Deserts, One Sky.Retrieved21 March2024.
  22. ^Makemson 1941,p. 255.
  23. ^Makemson 1941,p. 279.
  24. ^abcdefghijklmMoore 2000,pp. 328–330.
  25. ^SIMBAD Alpha And.
  26. ^Ian Ridpath."Star Tales – Andromeda".Retrieved31 January2025.
  27. ^abcOdeh & Kunitzsch 1998.
  28. ^abSIMBAD Mirach.
  29. ^abcdefghijkRidpath 2001,pp. 72–74.
  30. ^Ridpath & Tirion 2009,pp. 61–62.
  31. ^abFrench 2006.
  32. ^SIMBAD Gamma1 Andromedae.
  33. ^SIMBAD Delta Andromedae.
  34. ^SIMBAD Iota And.
  35. ^SIMBAD Kappa Andromedae.
  36. ^SIMBAD Lambda Andromedae.
  37. ^SIMBAD Omicron Andromedae.
  38. ^SIMBAD Psi Andromedae.
  39. ^SIMBAD 37 Andromedae.
  40. ^abc"Naming Stars".IAU.org.Retrieved30 July2018.
  41. ^Ligi, R.; et al. (2012). "A new interferometric study of four exoplanet host stars: θ Cygni, 14 Andromedae, υ Andromedae and 42 Draconis".Astronomy & Astrophysics.545:A5.arXiv:1208.3895.Bibcode:2012A&A...545A...5L.doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219467.S2CID10934982.
  42. ^ExoPlanetups And.
  43. ^SIMBAD Ups And.
  44. ^SIMBAD Xi Andromedae.
  45. ^SIMBAD 29 And.
  46. ^abWagman 2003,p. 240.
  47. ^SIMBAD 51 And.
  48. ^SIMBAD 56 And.
  49. ^SIMBAD R And.
  50. ^SIMBAD Z And.
  51. ^SIMBAD HH And.
  52. ^SIMBAD 14 And.
  53. ^ExoPlanetPlanet 14 And b.
  54. ^abcdPasachoff 2000,p. 244.
  55. ^abcdefgWilkins & Dunn 2006,pp. 348, 366.
  56. ^Bakich 1995,p. 51.
  57. ^abHiggins 2002.
  58. ^Rao 2011.
  59. ^"Sharpest ever view of the Andromeda Galaxy".spacetelescope.org.ESA/Hubble.Retrieved14 January2015.
  60. ^abHoskin & Dewhirst 1999,pp. 292–296.
  61. ^ESA,Edwin Powell Hubble.
  62. ^PBS,Edwin Hubble1998.
  63. ^HubbleSite,About Edwin Hubble2008.
  64. ^Block 2003.
  65. ^Koch & Grebel 2006.
  66. ^abPasachoff 2000,p. 270.
  67. ^Bakich 1995,p. 60.
  68. ^Lunsford,Meteor Shower List2012.
  69. ^abJenniskens 2008.
  70. ^Lunsford,Activity Nov 19–232011.
  71. ^Sherrod & Koed 2003,p. 58.
  72. ^Jenniskens & Vaubaillon 2007.
  73. ^Jenniskens 2006,p. 384.
  74. ^Wiegert et al. 2012.

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