Wikipedia

Anti-war movement

Ananti-war movement(alsoantiwar) is asocial movement,usually in opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on anarmed conflict.The termanti-warcan also refer topacifism,which is the opposition to all use of military force during conflicts, or to anti-war books, paintings, and other works of art. Some activists distinguish between anti-war movements andpeace movements.Anti-war activists work through protest and othergrassrootsmeans to attempt to pressure a government (or governments) to put an end to a particular war or conflict or to prevent one from arising.

Apeace symbol,originally designed for the BritishCampaign for Nuclear Disarmamentmovement (CND)
For movements against violence in general, seePeace movement.

Ukrainian anti war signs against theRussian invasion of Ukraine
Anti-war rally of schoolchildren inPilathara,India

History

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American Revolutionary War

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Substantial opposition to British war intervention in America led theBritish House of Commonson 27 February 1783 tovote against further war in America,paving the way for theSecond Rockingham ministryand thePeace of Paris.

Antebellum United States

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Substantial antiwar sentiment developed in the United States roughly between the end of theWar of 1812and the commencement of the Civil War in what is called theAntebellum era.A similar movement developed in England during the same period. The movement reflected both strictpacifistand more moderatenon-interventionistpositions. Many prominent intellectuals of the time, includingRalph Waldo Emerson,Henry David Thoreau(seeCivil Disobedience) andWilliam Ellery Channingcontributed literary works against war. Other names associated with the movement includeWilliam Ladd,Noah Worcester,Thomas Cogswell Upham,andAsa Mahan.Many peace societies were formed throughout the United States, the most prominent of which being theAmerican Peace Society.Numerous periodicals (such asThe Advocate of Peace) and books were also produced. TheBook of Peace,an anthology produced by the American Peace Society in 1845, must surely rank as one of the most remarkable works of antiwar literature ever produced.[1]

A recurring theme in this movement was the call for the establishment of an international court to adjudicate disputes between nations. Another distinct feature of antebellum antiwar literature was the emphasis on how war contributed to a moral decline and brutalization of society in general.

American Civil War

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Further information:Opposition to the American Civil War
Rioters attack federal troops.

A key event in the early history of the modern anti-war stance inliteratureandsocietywas theAmerican Civil War,where it culminated in the candidacy ofGeorge B. McClellanforUS presidentas aPeace Democratagainst incumbent PresidentAbraham Lincoln.The outlines of the antiwar stance are seen: the argument of the costs of maintaining the present conflict not being worth the gains that can be made, the appeal to end the horrors of war, and the argument of war being waged for the profit of particular interests. During the war, theNew York Draft Riotswere started as violent protests against Lincoln'sEnrollment Act ofConscriptionto draft men to fight in the war. The outrage over conscription was augmented by the ability to "buy" one's way out, which could be afforded only by the wealthy. After the war,The Red Badge of Couragedescribed the chaos and sense of death which resulted from the changing style of combat: away from the set engagement, and towards two armies engaging in continuous battle over a wide area.

Second Boer War

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Further information:Opposition to the Second Boer War

William Thomas Steadformed an organization against theSecond Boer War,theStop the War Committee.

World War I

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Further information:Opposition to World War I
The DeserterbyBoardman Robinson,The Masses,1916

In Britain, in 1914, thePublic SchoolsOfficers' Training Corpsannual camp was held atTidworth Camp,nearSalisbury Plain.Head of the British ArmyLord Kitchenerwas to review thecadets,but the immenence of the war prevented him. GeneralHorace Smith-Dorrienwas sent instead. He surprised the two-or-three thousand cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher Smith, aBermudiancadet who was present) "that war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole populations would be decimated. In our ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of us who survived the holocaust-probably not more than one-quarter of us – learned how right the General's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it."[2]Having voiced these sentiments did not hinder Smith-Dorrien's career, or prevent him from carrying out his duty in the First World War to the best of his abilities.

With the increasing mechanization of war, opposition to its horrors grew, particularly in the wake of the First World War. Europeanavant-gardecultural movements such asDadawere explicitly anti-war.

TheEspionage Act of 1917and theSedition Act of 1918gave the American authorities the right to close newspapers and jailed individuals for having anti-war views.

On 16 June 1918,Eugene V. Debsmade an anti-war speech and was arrested under the Espionage Act of 1917. He was convicted, sentenced to serve ten years in prison, but PresidentWarren G. Hardingcommuted his sentence on 25 December 1921.

Between the World Wars

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In 1924,Ernst FriedrichpublishedKrieg dem Krieg!(War Against War!): an album of photographs drawn from German military and medical archives from the first world war. InRegarding the Pain of OthersSontagdescribes the book as "photography as shock therapy" that was designed to "horrify and demoralize".

It was in the 1930s that the Western anti-war movement took shape, to which the political and organizational roots of most of the existing movement can be traced. Characteristics of the anti-war movement included opposition to the corporate interests perceived as benefiting from war, to thestatus quowhich was trading the lives of the young for the comforts of those who are older, the concept that those who were drafted were from poor families and would be fighting a war in place of privileged individuals who were able to avoid the draft and military service, and to the lack of input in decision making that those who would die in the conflict would have in deciding to engage in it.

In 1933, theOxford Unionresolved in itsOxford Pledge,"That this House will in no circumstances fight for its King and Country."

Many warveterans,including US GeneralSmedley Butler,spoke out against wars andwar profiteeringon their return to civilian life.

Veterans were still extremely cynical about themotivationsfor entering World War I, but many were willing to fight later in theSpanish Civil War,indicating thatpacifismwas not always the motivation. These trends were depicted in novels such asAll Quiet on the Western Front,For Whom the Bell TollsandJohnny Got His Gun.

World War II

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Further information:Opposition to World War II
Protest at the White House by theAmerican Peace Mobilization

Opposition toWorld War IIwas most vocal during its early period, and stronger still before it started whileappeasementandisolationismwere considered viable diplomatic options. Communist-led organizations, including veterans of the Spanish Civil War,[3]opposed the war during the period starting with theMolotov–Ribbentrop pactbut then turned into hawks after Germanyinvaded the Soviet Union.

The war seemed, for a time, to set anti-war movements at a distinct social disadvantage; very few, mostly ardentpacifists,continued to argue against the war and its results at the time. However, theCold Warfollowed with thepost-war realignment,and the opposition resumed. The grim realities of modern combat, and the nature of mechanized society ensured that the anti-war viewpoint found presentation inCatch-22,Slaughterhouse-FiveandThe Tin Drum.This sentiment grew in strength as the Cold War seemed to present the situation of an unending series of conflicts, which were fought at terrible cost to the younger generations.

Vietnam War

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Further information:Opposition to the Vietnam War
U.S. Marshals arresting a Vietnam War protester in Washington, D.C., 1967

Organized opposition to U.S. involvement in theVietnam Warbegan slowly and in small numbers in 1964 on various college campuses in the United States and quickly as the war grew deadlier. In 1967 a coalition of antiwar activists formed theNational Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnamwhich organized several large anti-war demonstrations between the late 1960s and 1972. Counter-cultural songs, organizations, plays and other literary works encouraged a spirit of nonconformism, peace, and anti-establishmentarianism. This anti-war sentiment developed during a time of unprecedentedstudent activismand right on the heels of theCivil Rights Movement,and was reinforced in numbers by the demographically significantbaby boomers.It quickly grew to include a wide and varied cross-section of Americans from all walks of life. The anti-Vietnam war movement is often considered to have been a major factor affecting America's involvement in the war itself. ManyVietnam veterans,including futureSecretary of Stateand U.S. SenatorJohn Kerryand disabled veteranRon Kovic,spoke out against the Vietnam War on their return to the United States.

Mrs. Ngo Ba Thanh,a Vietnamese peace activist, aligned herVietnamese Women's Movement for the Right to Livewith international activists of theWomen's International League for Peace and Freedom(WILPF) andWomen Strike for Peace.Her imprisonment and publications about the war brought international attention to the social and economic issues created by the war and fostered international opposition to it.[4]: 109–110 [5]: 85, 89–90 Her arrest and lack of a trial sparkedBella Abzugand WILPF members to write to the United States Congress and petition PresidentRichard Nixonto appeal to South Vietnamese officials for her release,[4]: 126 [5]: 90 which was widely covered in the press.[6][7][8]Campaigns opposing the war and conscription also took place in Australia.[9]

South African Border War

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Main article:South African resistance to war

Opposition to theSouth African Border Warspread to a general resistance to theapartheidmilitary. Organizations such as theEnd Conscription Campaignand Committee on South African War Resisters, were set up. Many opposed the war at this time.[citation needed]

Yugoslav Wars

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Srđan Gojkovićperforming at theanti-war concertas part ofRimtutituki

Following the rise ofnationalismandpolitical tensionsafterSlobodan Miloševićcame to power, as well as the outbreaks of theYugoslav Wars,numerous anti-war movements developed inSerbia.[10][11][12][13]Theanti-war protestsinBelgradewere held mostly because of opposition theBattle of Vukovar,Siege of DubrovnikandSiege of Sarajevo,[10][12]while protesters demanded thereferendumon a declaration of war and disruption ofmilitary conscription.[14][15][16]

More than 50,000 people participated in many protests, and more than 150,000 people took part in the most massive protest called "The Black Ribbon March"in solidarity with people inSarajevo.[17][11]It is estimated that between 50,000 and 200,000 peopledesertedfrom theYugoslav People's Army,while between 100,000 and 150,000 people emigrated from Serbia refusing to participate in the war.[14][12]According to professor Renaud De la Brosse, senior lecturer at theUniversity of Reimsand a witness called by theInternational Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia(ICTY), it is surprising how great the resistance toMilošević's propagandawas among Serbs, given that and the lack of access to alternative news.[18]

The most famous associations and NGOs who marked the anti-war ideas and movements in Serbia were theCenter for Antiwar Action,Women in Black,Humanitarian Law CenterandBelgrade Circle.[12][10]TheRimtutitukiwas arocksupergroupfeaturingEkatarina Velika,Električni OrgazamandPartibrejkersmembers, which was formed at the petition signing againstmobilizationin Belgrade.[19]

NATO bombing of Yugoslaviaduring theKosovo Wartriggered debates over thelegitimacy of the intervention.[20][21]About 2,000Serbian Americansand anti-war activists protested in New York City against NATO airstrikes, while more than 7,000 people protested inSydney.[22]The most massive protestswere heldinGreece,and demonstrations were also held inItaliancities, London, Moscow,Toronto,Berlin,Stuttgart,SalzburgandSkopje.[23][24][22]

2001 Afghanistan War

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Demonstration inQuébec Cityagainst the Canadian military involvement inAfghanistan,22 June 2007
Further information:Opposition to the 2001 Afghanistan War

There was initially little opposition to the2001 Afghanistan Warin the United States and theUnited Kingdom,which was seen as a response to the11 September 2001 terrorist attacksand was supported by most of the American public. Most vocal opposition came from pacifist groups and groups promoting a left-wing political agenda. Over time, opposition to the war in Afghanistan has grown more widespread, partly as a result of weariness with the length of the conflict and partly as a result of a conflating of the conflict with the unpopular war in Iraq.[25]

Iraq War

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Further information:Opposition to the Iraq War
Anti-war rally inWashington, D.C.,15 March 2003
Thomason theWhite House Peace Vigil

The anti-war position gained renewed support and attention in the buildup to the2003 invasion of Iraqby the U.S. and its allies. Millions of people stagedmass protestsacross the world in the immediate prelude to the invasion, and demonstrations and other forms of anti-waractivismhave continued throughout the occupation. The primary opposition within the U.S. to the continued occupation of Iraq has come from thegrassroots.Opposition to the conflict,how it had been fought, and complications during the aftermath period divided public sentiment in the U.S., resulting in majority public opinion turning against the war for the first time in the spring of 2004, a turn which has held since.[26]

The American country music bandDixie Chicksopposition to the war caused many radio stations to stop playing their records, but who were supported in their anti-war stance by the equally anti-war country music legendMerle Haggard,who in the summer of 2003 released a song critical of US media coverage of the Iraq War. Anti-war groups protested during both the Democratic National Convention and2008 Republican National Convention protestsheld inSaint Paul, Minnesota,in September 2008.[citation needed]

Possible war against Iran

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Further information:Opposition to war against Iran

Organised opposition to a possible future military attack againstIranby the United States is known to have started during 2005–2006. Beginning in early 2005,journalists,activistsandacademicssuch asSeymour Hersh,[27][28]Scott Ritter,[29]Joseph Cirincione[30]andJorge E. Hirsch[31]began publishing claims that United States' concerns over the alleged threat posed bythe possibility that Iran may have a nuclear weapons programmight lead the US government to take military action against that country in the future. These reports, and the concurrent escalation of tensions between Iran and some Western governments, prompted the formation ofgrassrootsorganisations, includingCampaign Against Sanctions and Military Intervention in Iranin the US and theUnited Kingdom,to oppose potential military strikes on Iran. Additionally, several individuals, grassroots organisations and international governmental organisations, including the Director-General of theInternational Atomic Energy Agency,Mohamed ElBaradei,[32]a formerUnited Nations weapons inspectorinIraq,Scott Ritter,[29]Nobel Prizewinners includingShirin Ebadi,Mairead Corrigan-MaguireandBetty Williams,Harold PinterandJody Williams,[33]Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament,[33]Code Pink,[34]theNon-Aligned Movement[citation needed]of 118 states, and theArab League,have publicly stated their opposition to a would-be attack on Iran.[citation needed]

War in Donbass

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Main article:2014 anti-war protests in Russia
Anti-war/Putin demonstration inMoscow,21 September 2014

Anti-war/Putin demonstrations took place inMoscow"opposing theWar in Donbass",i.e., inEastern Ukraine.[35]

Saudi Arabian–led intervention in Yemen

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Main article:Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen
Protest against U.S. involvement in theSaudi Arabian-led intervention inYemen,New York City, 2017

2021 Israel–Palestine crisis

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Further information:International protests over the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis

In May 2021, protests broke out following aflare-upof theIsrael–Palestine conflict.In the U.S., thousands gathered in at least seven major cities across the country in solidarity with Palestinians.[36]The 2021 conflict lasted from 6 May until 21 May when a ceasefire was signed.[37]The following day, an estimated 180,000 protestors gathered inHyde Park,England, in what may have been the largest pro-Palestine demonstration in British history. Speeches were made by anti-war campaigners and trade union members including demands that the UK governmentdisinvestand sanction Israel. Messages such as "free Palestine" and "stop the war" were displayed on banners and placards and chanted by protesters.[38]Despite the ceasefire, protests continued into June, with, for example, protestors inOakland,California, attempting to block an Israeli cargo ship from entering thePort of Oaklandon 4 June.[39]

2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine

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Main article:Protests against the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Street protesterswith signs are demonstrating inHelsinki, FinlandafterRussia invaded Ukrainein 2022.

Beginning in 2022, the anti-war movement was renewed following tensions betweenRussiaandUkraine.Protests escalated on 24 February 2022, after RussiainvadedUkraine.[40]

Russian PresidentVladimir Putinintroducedprison sentences of up to 15 yearsfor publishing "fake news" about Russian military operations.[41]As of December 2022, more than 4,000 people, including Russian opposition politicians and journalists, had been prosecuted under Russia's "fake news" laws for criticizing the war in Ukraine.[42]

2023 Israel–Hamas war

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Main article:Israel–Hamas war protests

Multiple protests against the war took place around the world since the start of theIsrael–Hamas war,in support of Palestine mostly.[43][44]

Arts and culture

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See also:List of books with anti-war themes

EnglishpoetRobert Southey's 1796 poemAfter Blenheimis an early modern example of anti-war literature that was written generations after theBattle of Blenheimbut while Britain was again at war against France.[citation needed]

World War Iproduced a generation of poets and writers influenced by their experiences in the war. The work of poets, includingWilfred OwenandSiegfried Sassoon,exposed the contrast between the realities of life in the trenches and how the war was seen by the British public at the time and the earlier patriotic verse penned byRupert Brooke.The German writerErich Maria RemarquepennedAll Quiet on the Western Front,which has been adapted for several mediums and has become of the most often cited pieces of anti-war media.[citation needed]

Pablo Picasso's 1937 paintingGuernicaon the other hand, used abstraction, rather than realism, to generate an emotional response to the loss of life from theCondor LegionandAviazione Legionaria'sbombing of Guernicaduring theSpanish Civil War.The American authorKurt Vonnegutused science fiction themes in his 1969 novelSlaughterhouse-Five,depicting thebombing of Dresden in World War II,which Vonnegut witnessed.[citation needed]

The second half of the 20th century also witnessed a strong anti-war presence in other art forms, including anti-war music such as "Eve of Destruction","And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda"and"One Tin Soldier",and films such asM*A*S*HandDie Brücke,opposing theCold Warin general or specific conflicts such as theVietnam War.The war inIraqhas also generated significant artistic anti-war works, including the American filmmakerMichael Moore'sFahrenheit 9/11,which holds the box-office record for documentary films, and theCanadianmusicianNeil Young's 2006 albumLiving with War.[citation needed]

Anti-war intellectual and scientist-activists and their work

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Various people have discussed the philosophical question of whether war is inevitable, and how it can be avoided; in other words, what are the necessities of peace. Various intellectuals and others have discussed it from an intellectual and philosophical point of view, not only in public, but participating or leading anti-war campaigns despite its differing from their main areas of expertise, leaving their professional comfort zones to warn against or fight against wars.[citation needed]

Philosophical possibility of avoiding war

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  • Immanuel Kant:In (1795) "Perpetual Peace"[45][46]( "Zum ewigen Frieden").[47]Immanuel Kantbooklet on "Perpetual Peace" in 1795. Politically, Kant was one of the earliest exponents of the idea that perpetual peace could be secured through universal democracy and international cooperation.[48]

Leading scientists and intellectuals

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Here is a list of notable anti-war scientists and intellectuals:

Manifestos and statements by scientist and intellectual activists

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See also

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References

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  1. ^Beckwith, George (ed),The Book of Peace.American Peace Society, 1845.
  2. ^Merely For the Record: The Memoirs of Donald Christopher Smith 1894–1980.By Donald Christopher Smith. Edited by John William Cox, Jr. Bermuda.
  3. ^ Volunteer for LibertyArchived2006-12-06 at theWayback Machine,newsletter of theAbraham Lincoln Brigade,February 1941, Volume III, No. 2
  4. ^abFrazier, Jessica M. (2017).Women's Antiwar Diplomacy during the Vietnam War Era.Chapel Hill, NC:University of North Carolina Press.ISBN978-1-4696-3178-3.
  5. ^abNguyen, An Thuy (March 2019)."The Vietnam Women's Movement for the Right to Live: A Non-Communist Opposition Movement to the American War in Vietnam".Critical Asian Studies.51(1). Milton Park, Abingdon-on-Thames, England:Taylor & Francis:75–102.doi:10.1080/14672715.2018.1542522.ISSN1467-2715.OCLC7965329217.S2CID149982568.EBSCOhost134057139.Retrieved21 October2023.(subscription required)
  6. ^Cavaliero, Eric (5 December 1973)."Woman Activist Wages Ceaseless Political War with Thieu".The Honolulu Advertiser.Honolulu, Hawaii. p. E14.Retrieved22 October2023– viaNewspapers.
  7. ^"Frail from Hunger Strike, Saigon Critic Leaves Jail".The Record.Hackensack, NJ.Associated Press.23 September 1973. p. 2.Retrieved22 October2023– viaNewspapers.
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  10. ^abcUdovicki, Jasminka; Ridgeway, James (2000).Burn This House: The Making and Unmaking of Yugoslavia.Durham, NC:Duke University Press.pp.255-266.ISBN9781136764820.
  11. ^abFridman, Orli (2010). "'It was like fighting a war with our own people': anti-war activism in Serbia during the 1990s ".The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity.39(4): 507–522.doi:10.1080/00905992.2011.579953.S2CID153467930.
  12. ^abcd"Antiratne i mirovne ideje u istoriji Srbije i antiratni pokreti do 2000. godine".republika.co.rs.2011.Archivedfrom the original on 19 March 2022.Retrieved4 May2020.
  13. ^"Sećanje na antiratni pokret u Jugoslaviji početkom 1990-ih".globalvoices.org.2016.Archivedfrom the original on 25 April 2022.Retrieved4 May2020.
  14. ^ab"Spomenik neznanom dezerteru".Vreme.2008.Archivedfrom the original on 5 October 2021.Retrieved4 May2020.
  15. ^Udovicki & Ridgeway 2000,p. 258
  16. ^Powers, Roger S. (1997).Protest, Power, and Change: An Encyclopedia of Nonviolent Action from ACT-UP to Women's Suffrage.Routledge. p. 467.
  17. ^Udovicki & Ridgeway 2000,p. 260
  18. ^"Comment: Milosevic's Propaganda War".Institute for War and Peace Reporting.Archivedfrom the original on 7 June 2020.Retrieved5 May2020.
  19. ^"Manje pucaj, više tucaj".Buka.2012.Archivedfrom the original on 7 June 2020.Retrieved4 May2020.
  20. ^Coleman, Katharina Pichler (2007).International Organisations and Peace Enforcement: The Politics of International Legitimacy.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-87019-1.
  21. ^Erlanger, Steven (8 June 2000)."Rights Group Says NATO Bombing in Yugoslavia Violated Law".The New York Times.Retrieved5 May2020.
  22. ^ab"Anti-NATO protests in Australia, Austria, Russia".CNN.Archivedfrom the original on 18 November 2020.Retrieved5 May2020.
  23. ^"World: Europe Greeks protest at Nato strikes".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 17 April 2022.Retrieved5 May2020.
  24. ^"Greece: Antiwar protests intensify".International Committee of the Fourth International.3 May 1999.Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2020.Retrieved5 May2020.
  25. ^"CNN Poll: Support for Afghanistan war at all time low".cnn.Archived fromthe originalon 6 February 2023.Retrieved26 February2012.
  26. ^"Iraq".pollingreport.Archivedfrom the original on 5 December 2016.Retrieved21 February2008.
  27. ^Hersh, Seymour M.(24 January 2005)."Annals of National Security: The Coming Wars".The New Yorker.
  28. ^The Iran plansArchived2006-11-02 at theWayback Machine,Hersh, Seymour.The New Yorker,April 8, 2006
  29. ^abScott Ritter(1 April 2005)."Sleepwalking To Disaster In Iran".Archived fromthe originalon 17 March 2007.
  30. ^Joseph Cirincione(27 March 2006)."Fool Me Twice".Foreign Policy.
  31. ^Hirsch, Jorge (1 November 2005)."The Real Reason for Nuking Iran: Why a nuclear attack is on the neocon agenda".antiwar.Archivedfrom the original on 13 February 2007.Retrieved4 November2007.
  32. ^Heinrich, Mark; Karin Strohecker (14 June 2007)."IAEA urges Iran compromise to avert conflict".Reuters.Archivedfrom the original on 18 January 2016.Retrieved21 June2007.
  33. ^ab"For a Middle East free of all Weapons of Mass Destruction".Campaign Against Sanctions and Military Intervention in Iran.6 August 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 30 September 2018.Retrieved3 November2007.
  34. ^Knowlton, Brian (21 September 2007)."Kouchner, French foreign minister, draws antiwar protesters in Washington".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 21 July 2016.Retrieved1 November2007.
  35. ^"Thousands march in Moscow".Deutsche Welle.21 September 2014.Archivedfrom the original on 3 March 2023.Retrieved30 March2023.
  36. ^"People across the US join pro-Palestinian protests".CNN. 18 May 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 6 December 2022.Retrieved13 June2021.
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  38. ^"Thousands gather in London for Palestine solidarity march".The Guardian.22 May 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 22 May 2021.Retrieved2 May2023.
  39. ^"Pro-Palestinian protesters at Port of Oakland attempt to block unloading of Israeli cargo ship".San Francisco Chronicle.4 June 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 7 June 2021.Retrieved2 May2023.
  40. ^Knutson, Jacob (24 February 2022)."Over 1700 Russians arrested during anti-war protests, human rights organization says".Axios.Archivedfrom the original on 28 February 2022.Retrieved1 March2022.
  41. ^"Even Russia's Kremlin-backed media is going off message and beginning to question Putin's war on Ukraine".Fortune.11 March 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 11 March 2022.Retrieved30 March2023.
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  43. ^"Mapping protests in solidarity with Palestine against Israel's assault".Al Jazeera.16 October 2023.
  44. ^"Israel-Hamas war: Protesters take to streets around the world to show support for Palestinians".Sky News.
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  58. ^Hermann, Armin (1979).The new physics: the route into the atomic age: in memory of Albert Einstein, Max von Laue, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner.Bonn-Bad Godesberg: Inter Nationes. p. 130.
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Further reading

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  • Chickering, Roger.Imperial Germany and a World Without War: The Peace Movement and German Society, 1892-1914(Princeton University Press,2015).
  • Curti, Merle.The American peace crusade, 1815-1860(1929)online free to borrow
  • Davenport, Christian, Erik Melander, and Patrick M. Regan. ThePeace Continuum: What it is and how to Study it(Oxford University Press,2018).
  • Gledhill, John, and Jonathan Bright. "Studying peace and studying conflict: Complementary or competing projects?",Journal of Global Security Studies4.2 (2019): 259–266.
  • Howlett, Charles F. "Studying America's Struggle against War: An Historical Perspective."History Teacher36#3 (2003), pp. 297–330.onlineArchived2019-08-07 at theWayback Machine.
  • Jarausch, Konrad H. "Armageddon Revisited: Peace Research Perspectives on World War One."Peace & Change7.1-2 (1981): 109–118.
  • Jeong, Ho-Won.Peace and conflict studies: An introduction(Routledge, 2017).
  • Kaltefleiter, Werner, and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff.The Peace Movements in Europe and the United States(Routledge, 2019).
  • Patler, Nicholas.Norman's Triumph: the Transcendent Language of Self-ImmolationArchived2017-10-19 at theWayback MachineQuaker History, Fall 2105, 18–39.
  • Patterson, David S.The Search for Negotiated Peace: Women's Activism and Citizen Diplomacy in World War I(Routledge. 2008)
  • Peterson, Christian Philip, William M. Knoblauch, and Michael Loadenthal, eds.The Routledge History of World Peace Since 1750(Routledge, 2018).
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