Antirrhinum majus,thecommon snapdragon(often – especially inhorticulture– simply "snapdragon"), is aspeciesof flowering plant belonging to thegenusAntirrhinum.The plant was placed in the familyPlantaginaceaefollowing a revision of its prior classical family,Scrophulariaceae.[1][2][3]
| Antirrhinum majus | |
|---|---|
| |
| Plant growing in an old wall in Thasos, Greece | |
Scientific classification
| |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Asterids |
| Order: | Lamiales |
| Family: | Plantaginaceae |
| Genus: | Antirrhinum |
| Species: | A. majus
|
| Binomial name | |
| Antirrhinum majus | |
The common name "snapdragon", originates from the flowers' reaction to having their throats squeezed, which causes the "mouth" of the flower to snap open like a dragon's mouth. It is widely used as anornamental plantin borders and as acut flower.It is perennial but usually cultivated as an annual plant. The species has been in culture since the 15th century.[4]
Description
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It is an herbaceousperennial plant,growing to 0.5–1 m tall, rarely up to 2 m. Theleavesare spirally arranged, broadly lanceolate, 1–7 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The upper glandularstalkis stalk-round, sometimes woody to the middle. The opposite leaves are simple, elliptic or ovate to broad-lanceolate,sometimes linear and usually bleak.Leafletsare missing.[6]
Theflowersare produced on a tall spike, each flower is 3.5-4.5 cm long,zygomorphic,with two 'lips' closing thecorollatube lobed divided into three parts and is purple red, almost 5 cm long. Wild plants have pink to purple flowers, often with yellow lips. Most 8 to 30 short stalked flowers are in aninflorescencetogether; the inflorescence axis is glandular hairy. Thecrownis 25 to 45 (rarely to 70) millimeters long and in different colors (red, pink, orange, yellow, white). The "maw" of the crown is closed by protuberance of the lower lip, one speaks here of "masked", and everted baggy at the bottom. There is a circle with fourstamens.The plants are pollinated bybumblebees,who are strong enough to gently and briefly open male flowers to enter and exit them without difficulty, collecting pollen in the process. A snapdragon'scalyxis up to 8 mm long, withsepalsof equal length, oblong to space.
Theovaryis hypogynous, or superior[7].Thefruitis an ovoidcapsule10–14 mm diameter shaped like askull,[8]containing numerous smallseeds.[9]
Chemistry
editAntirrhininis ananthocyaninfound inA. majus.[10]It is the 3-rutinosideofcyanidin.Its active ingredients includemucilages,gallic acid,resins,pectinandbitters.It is a topicalemollient,antiphlogistic,astringent,antiscorbutic,hepaticanddiuretic.It is effective against inflammations, it is used forhaemorrhoids.It has been used in gargles againstulcerationsof the oral cavity. Internally, it can be used forcolitisandheartburn.Externally, aspoultices,onerythemas.
Taxonomy
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Four formersubspeciesare now considered as separate species:[11]
- Antirrhinum majussubsp.cirrhigerum(Ficalho) Franco:now classified asAntirrhinum cirrhigerum(Welw. ex Ficalho)
- Antirrhinum majussubsp.linkianum(Boiss. & Reut.) Rothm:now classified asAntirrhinum linkianumBoiss. & Reut.
- Antirrhinum majussubsp.litigiosum(Pau) Rothm.:now synonymised withAntirrhinum barrelieriBoreau
- Antirrhinum majussubsp.tortuosum(Bosc) Rouy:now classified asAntirrhinum tortuosumBosc ex Lam.
Distribution and habitat
editIt isnativeto from southern-central France, and the easternPyreneesto north-eastern Spain and theBalearic Islands.They often grow in crevices and walls.[12]
Ecology
editAntirrhinum majusmay suffer from some pests and diseases.
Pests
editInsects are the primary pests that affectA. majus.
- Aphids:They target and consume the terminal growth and underside of leaves. Aphids consume the liquids in the plant and may cause a darkened or spotted appearance on the leaves.[13]
- Frankliniella occidentalis:These insects affect even strong growing and healthyAntirrhinum;they are commonly seen in newly opened flowers. They will cause small lesions in the shoots and flower buds ofA. majusas well as remove pollen from the anther. This case is difficult to treat, but may be kept manageable with the predatory miteNeoseiulus.[1]
Diseases
editAntirrhinum majussuffers mostly from fungal infections.
- Anthracnose:A disease caused by fungi of the genusColletotrichum.This disease targets the leaves and stem causing them a yellow with a brownish border to the infected spot. It is recommended to destroy infected plants and space existing ones farther apart.[13]
- Botrytis:This infection occurs under the flower ofA. majus.Botrytiscauses wilting of the flower's spikes and causes a light browning of the stem below the cluster of flowers.[13]Botrytis causes quick and localized drying and browning in the flower, leaves, and shoots ofA. majus.In warmer weather, Botrytis becomes more severe. Treatment of Botrytis involves cutting off the infected stock and clearing the surrounding area ofA. majusfrom any of this debris.
- Pythium:Wilting in the plant may be caused by aPythiumspecies fungal infection if the plant is receiving adequate water.[1]
- Rust:Another fungal disease thatA. majusis susceptible to is rust. It can first be seen on the plant as light-green circles, on the stem or underside of its leaves, that eventually turn brown and form pustules.[1]Rust may causeA. majusto bloom prematurely, sprout smaller flowers, and begin decomposition earlier.[13]
- Stem rot:A fungal infection, it can be seen as a cottony growth on the stem, low, near the soil. If infected, it is suggested the plant be destroyed.[13]
Cultivation
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Antirrhinum majuscan survive a certain amount of frost, as well as higher temperatures, but does best at 17–25 °C (63–77 °F). Nighttime temperatures around 15–17 °C (59–63 °F) encourage growth in both theapical meristemand stem.[1]The species is able to grow well from seeds, flowering quickly in 3 to 4 months. It can also be grown fromcuttings.[14]
Though perennial, the species is often cultivated as abiennialorannual plant,particularly in colder areas where it may not survive the winter. Numerouscultivarsare available, including plants with lavender, orange, pink, yellow, or white flowers, and also plants withpeloricflowers, where the normal flowering spike is topped with a single large, symmetrical flower.[9][15]The cultivars 'Floral Showers Deep Bronze'[16] and 'Montego Pink'[17] have gained theRoyal Horticultural Society'sAward of Garden Merit.
The trailing (creeping) variety is often referred to asA. majus pendula(syn.A. pendula,A. repens).
It often escapes from cultivation, andnaturalisedpopulations occur widely in Europe north of the native range,[9]and elsewhere in temperate regions of the world.[2]
Past common names forAntirrhinum majusinclude:great snapdragon,lion's-mouth,rabbit's mouth,bonny rabbits,calf-snout,toad's mouth,bulldogs,andlion's-snap.[18]
Model research organism
editIn the laboratory it is amodel organism,[19]for example containing the geneDEFICIENS which provides the letter "D" in the acronymMADS-boxfor a family of genes which are important inplant development.Antirrhinum majushas been used as a model organism in biochemical and developmental genetics for nearly a century. Many of the characteristics ofA. majusmade it desirable as a model organism; these include its diploid inheritance, ease of cultivation (having a relatively shortgeneration timeof around 4 months), its ease of both self-pollination and cross-pollination, andA. majus's variation in morphology and flowering color. It also benefits from its divergence fromArabidopsis thaliana,withA. thaliana's use as a common eudicot model, it has been used to compare againstA. majusin developmental studies.[1]
Studies inA. majushave also been used to suggest that, at high temperatures,DNA methylationis not vital in suppressing the Tam3transposon.Previously, it was suggested that DNA methylation was important in this process, this theory coming from comparisons of the degrees of methylation when transposition is active and inactive. However,A. majus's Tam3 transposon process did not completely support this. Its permission of transposition at 15 °C and strong suppression of transposition at temperatures around 25 °C showed that suppression of the transposition state was unlikely to be caused by the methylation state.[20]It was shown that low temperature-dependent transposition was the cause of the methylation/demethylation of Tam3, not the other way around as previously believed. It was shown in a study that decreases in the methylation of Tam3 were found in tissue that was still developing at cooler temperatures, but not in tissue that was developed or grown in hotter temperatures.[21]
Antirrhinum majushas also been used to examine the relationship between pollinators and plants. With debate as to the evolutionary advantages the conical-papillate shape of flower petals, with arguments suggesting the shape either enhanced and intensified the color of the flower or aided in orienting pollinators through sight or touch. The benefit thatA. majusbrought was through an identification of a mutation at the MIXTA locus that prevented this conical petal shape from forming. This allowed testing of the pollination plants with and without conical petals as well as comparisons of the absorption of light between these two groups. With the MIXTA gene being necessary in the formation of conical cells, the use of the gene in breeding ofAntirrhinumwas crucial, and allowed for the tests which showed why many plants produced conical-papillate epidermal cells.[22]
Another roleA. majusplayed in examining the relationship between pollinator and plant were in the studies of floral scents. Two ofA. majus's enzymes, phenylpropanoids and isoprenoids, were used in the study of its floral scent production and the scent's effect on attracting pollinators.[1]
Gallery
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Close-up view ofAntirrhinum majus -
White snapdragon flower -
Yellow snapdragon flower -
Pink snapdragon flower -
White snapdragon flower -
Yellow snapdragon flower -
Bunch of pink snapdragon flowers -
Antirrhinum majusflower
References
edit- ^abcdefgHudson, Andrew; Critchley, Joanna; Erasmus, Yvette (2008-10-01)."The Genus Antirrhinum (Snapdragon): A Flowering Plant Model for Evolution and Development".Cold Spring Harbor Protocols.2008(10): pdb.emo100.doi:10.1101/pdb.emo100.ISSN1940-3402.PMID21356683.
- ^ab"Antirrhinum majus".Germplasm Resources Information Network.Agricultural Research Service,United States Department of Agriculture.Retrieved24 December2017.
- ^Olmstead, R. G.; dePamphilis, C. W.; Wolfe, A. D.; Young, N. D.; Elisons, W. J.; Reeves, P.A. (2001)."Disintegration of the Scrophulariaceae".American Journal of Botany.88(2):348–361.doi:10.2307/2657024.JSTOR2657024.PMID11222255.
- ^Siegmund Seybold: Flora of Germany and neighboring countries. A book to identify wild and frequently cultivated vascular plants. Founded by Otto Schmeil, Jost Fitschen. 93. Completely revised and expanded edition. Quelle & Meyer, Wiebelsheim 2006,ISBN3-494-01413-2
- ^Neil A. Campbell,Jane B. Reece:Biologie. Spektrum-Verlag Heidelberg-Berlin 2003,ISBN3-8274-1352-4,page 302.
- ^Erich Oberdorfer: Plant sociology excursion flora for Germany and adjacent areas. In collaboration with Angelika Schwabe and Theo Müller. 8th, heavily revised and supplemented edition. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 2001,ISBN3-8001-3131-5,p. 828.
- ^https:// usanpn.org/taxonomy/term/601
- ^"The Dragon's Skull: The Macabre Appearance of Snapdragon Seed Pods".Kuriositas.26 January 2019.
- ^abcBlamey, M.; Grey-Wilson, C. (1989).Flora of Britain and Northern Europe.ISBN978-0-340-40170-5.
- ^Scott-Moncrieff, R (1930)."Natural anthocyanin pigments: The magenta flower pigment of Antirrhinum majus".Biochemical Journal.24(3):753–766.doi:10.1042/bj0240753.PMC1254517.PMID16744416.
- ^"Antirrhinum majus L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science".Plants of the World Online.Retrieved2023-09-10.
- ^Flora Europaea:Antirrhinum majus
- ^abcdeGilman, Edward F. (2015-05-18)."Antirrhinum majus Snapdragon".edis.ifas.ufl.edu.Retrieved2017-04-17.
- ^David A. Sutton: A revision of the tribe Antirrhineae. Oxford University Press, London / Oxford 1988,ISBN0-19-858520-9,p. 90-96.
- ^Huxley, A, ed. (1992).New RHS Dictionary of Gardening.ISBN978-0-333-47494-5.
- ^"RHS Plantfinder -Antirrhinum majus'Floral Showers Deep Bronze'".Retrieved12 January2018.
- ^"RHS Plantfinder -Antirrhinum majus' Montego Pink'".Retrieved13 January2018.
- ^Gentianaceae to Compositae; gentian to thistle.Dover Publications; 1970.ISBN978-0-486-22644-6.p. 178.
- ^Oyama, R. K.; Baum, D. A. (2004). "Phylogenetic relationships of North American Antirrhinum (Veronicaceae)".American Journal of Botany.91(6):918–25.doi:10.3732/ajb.91.6.918.PMID21653448.
- ^Hashida, Shin-nosuke; Kishima, Yuji; Mikami, Tetsuo (2005-11-01)."DNA methylation is not necessary for the inactivation of the Tam3 transposon at non-permissive temperature in Antirrhinum"(PDF).Journal of Plant Physiology.162(11):1292–1296.doi:10.1016/j.jplph.2005.03.003.hdl:2115/8374.ISSN0176-1617.PMID16323282.S2CID7509877.
- ^Hashida, Shin-Nosuke; Uchiyama, Takako; Martin, Cathie; Kishima, Yuji; Sano, Yoshio; Mikami, Tetsuo (2017-04-21)."The Temperature-Dependent Change in Methylation of the Antirrhinum Transposon Tam3 Is Controlled by the Activity of Its Transposase".The Plant Cell.18(1):104–118.doi:10.1105/tpc.105.037655.ISSN1040-4651.PMC1323487.PMID16326924.
- ^Glover, Beverley J.; Martin, Cathie (1998-06-01)."The role of petal cell shape and pigmentation in pollination success in Antirrhinum majus".Heredity.80(6):778–784.doi:10.1046/j.1365-2540.1998.00345.x.ISSN0018-067X.
