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Apocynaceae

Further information:List of subfamilies and genera of Apocynaceae

Apocynaceae(/əˌpɑːsəˈneɪsiˌaɪ,-siːˌiː/,fromApocynum,Greek for "dog-away" ) is a family offlowering plantsthat includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as thedogbane family,[1]because some taxa were used as dog poison.[when?][2]Members of the family are native to the European, Asian, African, Australian, and American tropics or subtropics, with some temperate members.[1]The former family Asclepiadaceae (now known asAsclepiadoideae) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be foundhere.

Apocynaceae
Apocynum cannabinum
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Gentianales
Family: Apocynaceae
Juss.
Type genus
Apocynum
Synonyms

Many species are tall trees found in tropical forests, but some grow in tropical dry (xeric) environments. Alsoperennialherbs fromtemperate zonesoccur. Many of these plants have milky latex, and many species are poisonous if ingested, the family being rich in genera containingalkaloidsandcardiac glycosides,those containing the latter often finding use as arrow poisons. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such asAdenium,bleed clear sap without latex when damaged, and others, such asPachypodium,have milky latex apart from their sap.

Description

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Alstonia scholaris,arrangement of leaves

Growth pattern

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The dogbane/milkweed[2]family includes annual plants, perennial herbs, stem succulents, woody shrubs, trees, or vines.[1][3]Most exude a milky latex when cut.[4]

Leaves and stems

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Leaves aresimple.They may appear one at a time (singly) with each occurrence onalternatingsides of the stem,[3]but usually occur in pairs (and rarely inwhorls).[1]When paired, they occur on opposite sides of the stem (opposite), with each pair occurring at an angle rotated 90° to the pair below it (decussate).

There is nostipule(a small leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf stem), or stipules are small and sometimes finger-like.[3]

Inflorescence and fruit

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Rhigospira quadrangularis,portion of a plant. 1) the inflorescence and 2) a flower,to scale;3) corolla in bud, showing the pyramidal form of the erect segments in aestivation and 4) the same cut open when expanded, showing their simple sinistrorse convolution and the nearly basal position of the stamens,both magnified;5) the calyx, disk, very short style, clavuncle, and stigmata,to scale;6) the same,magnified;7) a stamen,much magnified.[5]

Flowers have radial symmetry (actinomorphic),[1]and are borne in heads that arecymesorracemes,or are solitary in axils.[6]They areperfect(bisexual), with asynsepalous,five-lobedcalyxunited into a tube at the base.[1][6]Inflorescences are terminal oraxillary.Five petals are united into a tube with four or fiveepipetalous stamens.[1]Thestylehead is swollen.[7]The pollen is transported in foam.[7]Theovaryis usuallysuperior,bicarpellary,andapocarpous,[1]with a common fused style and stigma. (Fig. 5. and Fig.6. in the illustration ofRhigospira quadrangularisshow a typical tripartite style which divides into three zones (specialised for pollen deposition, viscin secretion, and the reception of pollen).[8]

The fruit is adrupe,aberry,acapsule,or a (frequently paired)follicle.[1]The seeds are often winged or have appendages of long silky hairs.[9]

Taxonomy

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Further information:List of subfamilies and genera of Apocynaceae

As of 2012, the family was described as comprising some 5,100 species, in five subfamilies:[10]

The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to theAngiospermPhylogeny Group III (APG III) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy.[11] An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes, and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014.[12]

376 genera are currently accepted.[13]

Distribution and habitat

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Species in this family are distributed mainly in tropical regions:

  • In the tropical forests and swamps ofIndomalaya:small to very tall evergreen trees up to 80 m (260 ft) tall, often with buttress roots, such asAlstoniaandDyera.
  • In Australia: occurs in all habitats; about 46 genera and about 200 species, including about 20 naturalised; herbs, vines, shrubs and trees.[14][15][16]
  • In deciduous forests of Africa, India, andIndo-China:smaller trees such asCarissa,Wrightia,andHolarrhena
  • In tropical America, India, Myanmar, and Malaya: evergreen trees and shrubs, such asRauvolfia,Tabernaemontana,andAcokanthera.
  • In Central America:Plumeria,or the frangipani, with its waxy white or pink flowers and a sweet scent.
  • In South America, Africa, and Madagascar: manylianas,such asLandolphia
  • In the Mediterranean region:Nerium,with the well-known oleander or be-still tree (Nerium oleander), and Apple of Sodom (Calotropis procera), with other (Calotropis) species extending into South Asia.
  • The only genera found in temperate Europe away from the Mediterranean areVinca(Rauvolfioideae) andVincetoxicum(Asclepiadoideae). AlsoAsclepias syriacais an invasive weed (e. g., in many areas of Ukraine).
  • In North America:Apocynum,dogbane or Indian hemp, includingApocynum cannabinum,a traditional source of fiber. Also the bluestars,Amsonia,herbaceous perennials of upright habit, grown as ornamental plants for their attractive flowers.
  • In continental southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and Madagascar, except for the humid evergreen forest of the eastern side of Madagascar, and never above 2,000 m (6,600 ft) for the entire island:PachypodiumandFockea.

Ecology

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Several genera are preferred larval host plants for theQueen Butterfly(Danaus gilippus).[17]

Toxicity

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Many species of plants from the family Apocynaceae have some toxicity, with some being extremely poisonous if parts are ingested, or if they are not handled properly. Genera containingcardiac glycosides—Cerbera,Nerium,Asclepias,Cascabela,Strophanthus,[6]Acokanthera,[18]Apocynum,[19]Thevetia,[20]etc.—have therapeutic ranges, but are often associated with accidental poisonings, in many cases lethal (see below).Alkaloid-producing species likeRauvolfia serpentina,Catharanthus roseus,andTabernanthe ibogaare likewise the source of compounds with therapeutic ranges, but which have significant associated toxicities if not taken in appropriate doses and in controlled fashion. (See below)

Uses

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Several members of the family Apocynaceae have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of importantnatural products—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual prescription drugs.Cardiac glycosides,which affect heart function, are a ready example. Genera studied and known to contain such glycosides includeAcokanthera,Apocynum,Cerbera,Nerium,ThevetiaandStrophanthus.Rauvolfia serpentina(Indian snakeroot) contains the alkaloidreserpine,which has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic drug but its adverse effects limit its clinical use.[21]Catharanthus roseusyields alkaloids used in the treatment of cancer.[22][23]Tabernanthe iboga,Voacanga africana,andTabernaemontana undulatacontain the alkaloidibogaine,which is apsychedelic drugwhich may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects,[24][25]with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.[26]Ajmalicine,analkaloidfound inRauvolfiaspp.,Catharanthus roseus,andMitragyna speciosa,[27][28][29]is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure.[27]

Many genera are grown asornamental plants,includingAmsonia(bluestar),[30]Nerium(oleander),[31]Vinca(periwinkle),[32]Carissa(Natal plum),[33]Allamanda(golden trumpet),[34]Plumeria(frangipani),[35]Thevetia,[36]Mandevilla(Savannah flower),[37]andAdenium(desert-rose).[38]

In addition, the generaLandolphia,Carpodinus,andMascarenhasiahave been used as commercial sources of inferior rubber.[39](SeeCongo rubber)

There are limited dietary uses of plants from this family. The flower ofEchites panduratus(common name:loroco) is edible.[40]Carissa(Natal plum) produces an edible fruit, but all other parts of the plant are poisonous.[41]The genusApocynumwas reportedly used as a source of fiber by Native Americans.[42]The aromatic fruit juice fromSaba comorensis(syn.Landolphia comorensis,theBungo or Mbungo fruit) is used as a drink.[43]

Finally, ethnopharmacologic and ethnotoxicologic uses are also known. The roots ofTabernanthe ibogaand certainVoacangaspecies have traditionally been used ceremonially as hallucinogens in Africa. Theibogaine-type alkaloids responsible for the psychoactivity of these plants have been studied with regard to the treatment of drug addiction.[24]The juice ofAcokantheraspecies such asA. venenataand the milky juice of theNamibianPachypodiumhave been used as poison for arrow tips.[44]

Many species are ornamental in gardens or as houseplants.

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Flowers

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Fruits

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Pachycaul species

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  • Adenium obesumgrowth habit of wild specimens, Tanzania
  • Adenium obesumclose-up of colossal specimen, Ghana
  • Adenium obesumtrunk of extreme pachycaul specimen, Socotra
  • Pachypodium lamereiwild specimen of maximum height (approx 6 m (20 ft)) attained by species
  • Pachypodium lamereiin flower
  • Pachypodium lamereimature, multi-trunked specimen cultivated in glasshouse
  • Pachypodium namaquanum

References

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  1. ^abcdefghiEndress ME, Bruyns PV (2000)."A revised classification of the Apocynaceae s.l."(PDF).The Botanical Review.66(1): 1–56.Bibcode:2000BotRv..66....1E.doi:10.1007/BF02857781.S2CID31739212.
  2. ^abSimpson, Michael George (2010).Plant Systematics.Academic Press.ISBN9780123743800.
  3. ^abcApocynaceae, Thomas Rosatti, Jepson Herbarium
  4. ^"Apocynaceae usually have copious latex and the leaves are often opposite and with colleters...", retrieved 3/10/18 fromANGIOSPERM PHYLOGENY WEBSITE, version 13http:// mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/
  5. ^Miers, J. (1878).On the Apocynaceae of South America, with some preliminary remarks on the whole family.p. 269.
  6. ^abc"PlantNET - FloraOnline: Apocynaceae".plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au.Retrieved2020-05-29.
  7. ^ab"Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14, July 2017 [and more or less continuously updated since]".Angiosperm Phylogeny Website.Retrieved2020-05-30.
  8. ^Judd, W.S.; Campbell, C.S.; Kellogg, E.A.; Stevens, P.F.; Donoghue, M.J. (January 2015).Plant systematics A phylogenetic approach(4 ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 500.ISBN9781605353890.
  9. ^"Apocynaceae Juss. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science".Plants of the World Online.Retrieved2020-05-29.
  10. ^Nazia Nazar, David J. Goyder, James J. Clarkson, Tariq Mahmood and Mark W. Chase, 2013, "The taxonomy and systematics ofApocynaceae:Where we stand in 2012, "Bot. J. Linn. Soc.,171(3, March), pp. 482–490, see[1],accessed 22 June 2015.
  11. ^Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2009)."An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III".Bot. J. Linn. Soc.161(2): 105–121.doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x.hdl:10654/18083.
  12. ^Endress M.E., Liede-Schumann S. & Meve U. (2014)."An updated classification forApocynaceae"(PDF).Phytotaxa.159(3): 175–194.doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.159.3.2.
  13. ^ApocynaceaeJuss.Plants of the World Online.Retrieved 24 July 2023.
  14. ^"Search: species: Apocynaceae | Occurrence records".Australasian Virtual Herbarium.Australian Government.Retrieved1 July2024.
  15. ^Ohlsen, D.J.; Forster, P.I. (2022). Kodela, P.G. (ed.)."Apocynaceae".Flora of Australia.Australian Biological Resources Study,Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water: Canberra.Retrieved1 July2024.
  16. ^F.A.Zich;B.P.M.Hyland;T.Whiffen; R.A.Kerrigan (2020)."Apocynaceae".Australian Tropical Rainforest PlantsEdition 8 (RFK8).Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research (CANBR),Australian Government.Retrieved1 July2024.
  17. ^Klots, Alexander B. (1951).A Field Guide to the Butterflies of North America, East of the Great Plains.Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press. pp. 77–79.
  18. ^de Mello, J.P. (1965)."Offensive weapons of the world 3. Kenya arrow poison".Med. Sci. & L.5:44–5.doi:10.1177/002580246500500111.PMID14269673.S2CID208362795– via HeinOnline.
  19. ^Irie, K.; Sato, T.; Tanaka, I.; Nakajima, J.; Kawaguchi, M.; Himi, T. (2009). "Cardiotonic effect of Apocynum venetum L. extracts on isolated guinea pig atrium".Journal of Natural Medicines.63(2): 111–116.doi:10.1007/s11418-008-0296-2.ISSN1340-3443.PMID19002560.S2CID12653850.
  20. ^Kohls, S.; Scholz-Böttcher, B.M.; Teske, J.; Zark, Patrick; Rullkötter, J. (2012). "Cardiac glycosides from Yellow Oleander (Thevetia peruviana) seeds".Phytochemistry.75:114–127.Bibcode:2012PChem..75..114K.doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.11.019.PMID22196940.
  21. ^"reserpine".drugcentral.org.Retrieved2020-05-31.
  22. ^Arora, R., Malhotra, P., Mathur, A.K., Mathur, A., Govil, C.M., Ahuja, P.S. (2010)."Chapter 21 Anticancer Alkaloids of Catharanthus roseus: Transition from Traditional to Modern Medicine".Herbal Medicine: A Cancer Chemopreventive and Therapeutic Perspective(1 ed.). Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Pvt. Limited. pp. 292–310.ISBN9788184488418.Retrieved2020-06-01.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^Simpson, M.G. (2010).Plant Systematics.Elsevier. p. 397.ISBN9780123743800.
  24. ^abKoenig X, Hilber K (January 2015)."The anti-addiction drug ibogaine and the heart: a delicate relation".Molecules.20(2): 2208–28.doi:10.3390/molecules20022208.PMC4382526.PMID25642835.
  25. ^Zdrojewicz Z, Kuszczak B, Olszak N. (2016). "Ibogaina – budowa, wpływ na organizm człowieka, znaczenie kliniczne [Ibogaine - structure, influence on human body, clinical relevance]".Pol Merkur Lekarski.(in Polish).41(241): 50–55.PMID27734823.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^Wasko, M.J.; Witt-Enderby, P.A.; Surratt, C.K. (2018-10-17). "DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Ibogaine".ACS Chemical Neuroscience.9(10): 2475–2483.doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00294.ISSN1948-7193.PMID30216039.S2CID52277862.
  27. ^abWink, Michael; Roberts, M. W. (1998).Alkaloids: biochemistry, ecology, and medicinal applications.New York: Plenum Press.ISBN0-306-45465-3.
  28. ^Kurz WG, Chatson KB, Constabel F, et al. (May 1981). "Alkaloid Production in Catharanthus roseus Cell Cultures VIII1".Planta Medica.42(5): 22–31.doi:10.1055/s-2007-971541.PMID17401876.S2CID28177495.
  29. ^León F, Habib E, Adkins JE, Furr EB, McCurdy CR, Cutler SJ (July 2009)."Phytochemical characterization of the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa grown in U.S.A".Natural Product Communications.4(7): 907–10.doi:10.1177/1934578X0900400705.PMC9255435.PMID19731590.S2CID37709142.
  30. ^"StackPath: Growing Amsonia".gardeningknowhow.22 June 2013.Retrieved2020-06-01.
  31. ^"Oleander".Better Homes & Gardens.Retrieved2020-06-01.
  32. ^"Annual Vinca".Better Homes & Gardens.Retrieved2020-06-01.
  33. ^"Carissa macrocarpa - Useful Tropical Plants".tropical.theferns.info.Retrieved2020-06-01.
  34. ^Agriculture and Fisheries (2015-10-30)."Yellow allamanda".business.qld.gov.au.Retrieved2020-06-01.
  35. ^"PLUMERIA RUBRA: AN OLD ORNAMENTAL, A NEW CROP".actahort.org.Retrieved2020-06-01.
  36. ^"Factsheet - Thevetia peruviana (Yellow Oleander)".keys.lucidcentral.org.Retrieved2020-06-01.
  37. ^"Propagating Mandevilla: Using Mandevilla Cuttings Or Seeds To Propagate Mandevilla Vine".14 September 2010.
  38. ^Archived atGhostarchiveand theWayback Machine:Desert Rose Plant: How to Grow Desert Rose and Adeniums,retrieved2020-06-01
  39. ^Western Australian Herbarium."FloraBase—the Western Australian Flora:Apocynaceae".florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au.Biodiversity and Conservation Science.Retrieved2020-05-29.
  40. ^"Loroco: flower buds used as an herb".CooksInfo.Retrieved2020-05-31.
  41. ^"Floridata: Carissa macrocarpa (Natal plum)".floridata.Retrieved2020-05-31.
  42. ^Coville, F. V. (1897)."Notes On The Plants Used By The Klamath Indians Of Oregon"(PDF).Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium.VII(3): 295–408–108 (p. 379). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2016-03-04.Retrieved2020-05-29.
  43. ^"Saba comorensisin Agroforestree Database "(PDF).Retrieved30 July2012.
  44. ^"Pachypodium | PlantZAfrica".pza.sanbi.org.Retrieved2020-05-31.
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Further reading

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  • A review on antimicrobial botanicals, phytochemicals and natural resistance modifying agents from Apocynaceae family: Possible therapeutic approaches against multidrug resistance in pathogenic microorganisms.doi:10.1016/j.drup.2020.100695
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