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Arab world

(Redirected fromArab states)
This article is about geographical region. For the geopolitical entity, seeArab League.

TheArab world(Arabic:اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّal-ʿālam al-ʿarabī), formally theArab homeland(اَلْوَطَنُ الْعَرَبِيُّal-waṭan al-ʿarabī),[7][8][9]also known as theArab nation(اَلْأُمَّةُ الْعَرَبِيَّةُal-ummah al-ʿarabiyyah), theArabsphere,or theArab states,[10]comprises a large group of countries, mainly located inWest AsiaandNorth Africa.While the majority of people in the Arab world are ethnicallyArab,[11][12]there are also significant populations of other ethnic groups such asBerbers,Kurds,SomalisandNubians,among othergroups.[13]Arabicis used as thelingua francathroughout the Arab world.[14][15][16][17][18][19]

Arab world
Area13,132,327 km2(5,070,420 sq mi)[1]
Population456,520,777[2]
Population density29.839/km2(70.37/sq mi)[3]
GDP (nominal)$2.782 trillion[4]
GDP per capita$6,647[5]
DemonymArab
Countries
DependenciesArab League[6]
Time zonesUTC±00:00toUTC+04:00
InternetTLD.africa,.asia
Largest citiesMajor cities of Arab world
List

The Arab world is at its minimum defined as the 19 states whereArabsform at least apluralityof the population.[20][21]At its maximum it consists of the 22membersof theArab League,an international organization,[6]which on top of the 19 plurality Arab states also includes theComoros,DjiboutiandSomalia.The region stretches from theAtlantic Oceanin the west to theArabian Seain the east, and from theMediterranean Seain the north to theIndian Oceanin the southeast.[6]The eastern part of the Arab world is known as theMashriq,and the western part as theMaghreb.

According to theWorld Bank,the Arab world has a total population of 456 million inhabitants and agross domestic productof $2.85 trillion, as of 2021.[2]The region is nevertheless diverse in many ways, and economically includes some of the wealthiest as well as poorest populations.[21]The region mostly corresponds with theMiddle East and North Africa(MENA) definition.

Inpost-classical history,the Arab world was synonymous with the historic Arab empires and caliphates.[22]Arab nationalismarose in the second half of the 19th century along with othernationalistmovements within theOttoman Empire.The Arab League was formed in 1945 to represent the interests of Arab people and especially to pursue the political unification of the Arab countries; a project known asPan-Arabism.[23][24]

Terminology

In page 9 ofBest Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions,10th century Arab geographerAl Maqdisiused the termArab regions(Arabic:أَقَالِيمُ ٱلْعَرَبِ) to refer to the lands of theArabian Peninsula(Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen). He also considered Iraq, alongsideUpper Mesopotamia(Iraq, Syria and Turkey),Ash-Sham(Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria and Turkey), Egypt and the Maghreb (Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia and Western Sahara Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic) to be part of the Arab regions.[25]

Malta,an island country inSouthern Europewhosenational languagederives from Arabic (throughSicilian Arabic), is not included in the region. Similarly,Chad,EritreaandIsraelrecognize Arabic as one of their official or working languages but are not included in the region because they are not members of the Arab League.

Definition

The linguistic and political denotation inherent in the termArabis generally dominant overgenealogicalconsiderations. In Arab states,Standard Arabicis used by the government. Localvernacular languagesare referred to asDarija(الدَّارِجَة"everyday/colloquial language"[26]) in theMaghreborAammiyya(ٱلْعَامِيَّة"common language" ) in theMashreq.The majority of the vocabulary in these vernaculars is shared with Standard Arabic, but they also significantly borrow from other languages, such asBerber,French,SpanishandItalianin the Maghreb.[27]

Standard territorial

Main article:Arab League

Although no globally accepted definition of the Arab world exists,[6]all countries that aremembersof theArab Leagueare generally acknowledged as being part of the Arab world.[6][28]

The Arab League is aregional organisationthat aims, among other things, to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries and sets out the following definition of an Arab:

An Arab is a person whose language is Arabic, who lives in an Arab country, and who is in sympathy with the aspirations of the Arab people.[29]

This standard territorial definition is sometimes seen to be inappropriate[30]or problematic,[31]and may be supplemented with certain additional elements (seeancillary linguistic definitionbelow).[32]

Member states of the Arab League

Main article:Member states of the Arab League

Ancillary linguistic

Main article:Arabic language

As an alternative to,[33]or in combination with,[6]the standard territorial definition, the Arab world may be defined as consisting of peoples and states united to at least some degree by Arabic language, culture or geographic contiguity,[34]or those states or territories in which the majority of the population speaks Arabic, and thus may also includepopulations of the Arab diaspora.[6]

When an ancillary linguistic definition is used in combination with thestandard territorial definition,various parameters may be applied[clarification needed]to determine whether a state or territory should be included in this alternative definition of the Arab world. These parameters may be applied[clarification needed]to the states and territories of the Arab League (which constitute the Arab world under the standard definition) and to other states and territories. Typical parameters that may be applied include: whether Arabic is widely spoken; whether Arabic is an official or national language; or whether an Arabic cognate language is widely spoken.

Varieties of Arabic

WhileArabic dialectsare spoken in a number of Arab League states,Literary Arabicis official in all of them. Several states have declared Arabic to be anofficial or national language,although Arabic is not as widely spoken there. As members of the Arab League, however, they are considered part of the Arab world under the standard territorial definition.

Somaliahas two official languages, Arabic andSomali,whileSomalilandhas three, Arabic, Somali andEnglish.[35]Both Arabic and Somali belong to the largerAfro-Asiaticlanguage family. Although Arabic is widely spoken by many people in the north and urban areas in the south, Somali is the most widely used language, and contains many Arabicloan words.[36]

Similarly,Djiboutihas two official languages, Arabic andFrench.It also has several formally recognized national languages; besides Somali, many people speakAfar,which is also an Afro-Asiatic language. The majority of the population speaks Somali and Afar, although Arabic is also widely used for trade and other activities.[37]

TheComoroshas three official languages: Arabic,Comorianand French. Comorian is the most widely spoken language, with Arabic having a religious significance, and French being associated with the educational system.

Chad,Eritrea[38]andIsraelall recognize Arabic as an official or working language, but none of them is a member-state of the Arab League, although both Chad and Eritrea are observer states of the League (with possible future membership) and have large populations of Arabic speakers.

Israel is not a part of the Arab world. By some definitions,[32][39]Arab citizens of Israelmay concurrently be considered a constituent part of the Arab world.

Iranhas about 1.5 million Arabic speakers.[40]Iranian Arabsare mainly found inAhvaz,a southwestern region in theKhuzestan Province;others inhabit theBushehrandHormozganprovinces and the city ofQom.MaliandSenegalrecognizeHassaniya,the Arabic dialect of theMoorishethnic minority, as anational language.[41]GreeceandCyprusalso recognizeCypriot Maronite Arabicunder theEuropean Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.Additionally, Malta, though not part of the Arab world, has as its official languageMaltese.The language is grammatically akin to Maghrebi Arabic.

Demographics

Main article:Demographics of the Arab world

In the Arab world,Modern Standard Arabic,derived fromClassical Arabic(symptomatic of Arabicdiglossia), serves as an official language in the Arab League states, andArabic dialectsare used as lingua franca. Various indigenous languages are also spoken, which predate the spread of the Arabic language. This contrasts with the situation in the widerIslamic world,where, in contiguous Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan, thePerso-Arabic scriptis used and Arabic is the primary liturgical language, but the tongue is not official at the state level or spoken as avernacular.Arabsconstitute around one quarter of the 1.5 billionMuslimsin the Islamic world.[42]

Religion

Eid al-Fitrmass prayer inMorocco

The majority of people in the Arab world adhere toIslam,and the religion has official status in most countries.Shariahlaw exists partially in the legal system in some countries (especially in theArabian Peninsula), while others are legislativelysecular.The majority of the Arab countries adhere toSunni Islam.IraqandBahrain,however, areShiamajority countries, whileLebanon,Yemen,andKuwaithave large Shia minorities. InSaudi Arabia,Ismailite pockets are also found in the eastern Al-Hasa region and the southern city of Najran.IbadiIslam is practiced inOman,where Ibadis constitute around 75% of Muslims.

There are alsoChristianadherents in the Arab world, particularly inEgypt,Syria,Lebanon,Iraq,Jordan,andPalestine.Small native Christian communities can be found also throughout theArabian PeninsulaandNorth Africa.[43]Coptic,MaroniteandAssyrian Christianenclaves exist in the Nile Valley, Levant and northern Iraq respectively. There are alsoAssyrian,Armenian,Syriac-ArameanandArab Christiansthroughout Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and Jordan. There are also native Arab Christian communities in Algeria,[44]Bahrain,[45]Morocco,[46][47]Kuwait[48]and Tunisia.[49]

Smaller ethno-religious minorities across the Arab League include theYezidis,YarsanandShabaks(mainly in Iraq), theDruzes(mainly in Syria and also in Lebanon, Jordan)[50]andMandaeans(in Iraq). Formerly, there were significant minorities ofJewsthroughout the Arab World. However, theArab–Israeli conflictprompted their massexodusbetween 1948 and 1972. Today small Jewish communities remain, ranging anywhere from just 10 inBahrain,to more than 1,000 inTunisiaand some 3,000 inMorocco.Historically,slavery in the Muslim worlddeveloped out ofpre-Islamicpractices of slavery in the Arab world.[51][52]

Education

Main article:Higher Education in the Arab World
Palestinianschoolgirls inGazalining up for class, 2009

According toUNESCO,the average rate ofadult literacy(ages 15 and older) in this regionis 78%.In Mauritania the rate is lower than the average, at less than 50%.Bahrain,Palestine,Kuwait,Qatar,andJordanrecord a high adult literacy rate of over 95%.[53]The average rate of adult literacy shows steady improvement, and the absolute number of adult illiterates fell from 64 million to around 58 million between 1990 and 2000–2004.[54]

Overall, the gender disparity in adult literacy is high in this region, and of the illiteracy rate, women account for two-thirds, with only 69 literate women for every 100 literate men. The average GPI (Gender Parity Index) for adult literacy is 0.72, and gender disparity can be observed in Egypt, Morocco, and Yemen. Above all, the GPI of Yemen is only 0.46 in a 53% adult literacy rate.[55]

Literacy rate is higher among theyouththan adults. Youth literacy rate (ages 15–24) in the Arab region increased from 63.9 to 76.3% from 1990 to 2002. The average rate of GCC States *Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC)

Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC)was 94%, followed by theMaghrebat 83.2% and theMashriqat 73.6%.

TheUnited Nationspublished anArab human development reportin 2002, 2003 and 2004. These reports, written by researchers from the Arab world, address some sensitive issues in the development of Arab countries: women empowerment, availability of education and information among others.

Film industry

Main article:Arab cinema

There is no single description ofArab cinemasince it includes films from various countries and cultures of the Arab world and therefore does not have one form, structure, or style.[56]In its inception, Arab cinema was mostly an imitation of Western cinema. However, it has and continues to constantly change and evolve.[56]It mostly includes films made inEgypt,Lebanon,Syria,Iraq,Kuwait,Algeria,Morocco,andTunisia.[56]Egypt is a pioneer in the field,[57]but each country in the region has its own unique cinema.[56]

Elsewhere inNorth Africaand theMiddle East,film production was scarce until the late 1960s and early 1970s when filmmakers began to receive funding and financial assistance from state organizations.[56]This was during the post-independence and is when most Arab cinema took root.[58]Most films produced at that time were funded by the state and contained a nationalistic dimension. These films helped to advance certain social causes such as independence, and other social, economic and political agendas.[58]

A sustained film industry was able to emerge inEgyptwhen other parts of the Arab world had only been able to sporadically produce feature-length films due to limited financing.[56]

Arabic cinema is dominated by films fromEgypt.Three quarters of all Arab movies are produced in Egypt. According to film critic and historian Roy Armes, thecinema of Lebanonis the only other in the Arabic-speaking region, beside Egypt's, that could amount to a national cinema.[59]

While Egyptian and Lebanese cinema have a long history of production, most other Arab countries did not witness film production until after independence, and even today, the majority of film production in countries like Bahrain, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and the United Arab Emirates is limited to television or short films.[60]

There is increased interest in films originating in the Arab world. For example, films fromAlgeria,Lebanon,Morocco,Palestine,SyriaandTunisiaare making wider and more frequent rounds than ever before in local film festivals and repertoire theaters.[61]

Arab cinema has explored many topics from politics, colonialism, tradition, modernity and social taboos.[62]It has also attempted to escape from its earlier tendency to mimic and rely on Western film devices.[62]In fact, colonization did not only influence Arab films, but it also had an impact on Arab movies theaters.[63]Apart from the history of Arab cinema, recently the portrayal of women became an important aspect in the production of Arab cinema. Arab women shaped a great portion of the film industry in the Arab world by employing their cinematic talents in improving the production of Arab films.[63]

The production of Arab cinema has declined in the last decades and many filmmakers in theMiddle Eastgathered to hold a meeting and discuss the current state of Arab cinema.[64]

Gender equality and women's rights

Main article:Women in the Arab world
A women's rights protest inEgypt,2011

Women in the Arab worldare still deniedequality of opportunity,although their disenfranchisement is a critical factor crippling the Arab nations' quest to return to the first rank of global leaders in commerce, learning and culture, according to aUnited Nations-sponsored report in 2008.[65]

Child marriages

According to the United Nations, 14% of Arab girls are married by the age of 18.[66]

Violence

Rapists are often treated leniently or acquitted in the Arab region if they marry their victims. 37% of Arab women experienced violence in their lifetime, but the numbers may be higher according to indicators. In some countries, the share of women experiencing violence and abuse by intimate partner reaches 70%.[66]

Largest cities

Main article:List of largest cities in the Arab world

Table of largest cities in the Arab world by officialcity propers:[67]

Rank Country City Population Founding date Image
1 Egypt Cairo 16,225,000 969 AD
2 Iraq Baghdad 7,960,000 762 AD
3 Saudi Arabia Riyadh 6,030,000 100–200 AD
4 Sudan Khartoum 5,345,000 1821 AD
5 Jordan Amman 4,995,000 7250 BC
6 Egypt Alexandria 4,870,000 331 BC
7 Kuwait Kuwait City 4,660,000 1613 AD
8 Morocco Casablanca 4,370,000 768 AD
9 Saudi Arabia Jeddah 3,875,000 600 BC
10 United Arab Emirates Dubai 3,805,000 1833 AD[68]

History

Main article:History of the Arabs

Early history

Further information:Arabization
TheGreat Mosque of Kairouan(also called the Mosque of Uqba) was founded in 670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi.[69]TheGreat Mosque of Kairouanis located in the historic city ofKairouaninTunisia.

TheArabshistorically originate as aCentral Semiticgroup in southernLevantand northernArabian peninsula.[70]Arab tribes and federations such asNabataeans,Tanukhids,Salihids,Ghassanids,and numerous other groups were prevalent in southern Levant (Syrian Desert) and northern Arabia. Their expansion beyond Arabia and the Syrian desert is due to theMuslim conquestsof the 7th and 8th centuries.Iraqwas conquered in 633,Levant(modern Syria, Israel, Palestine, Jordan and Lebanon ) between 636 and 640 CE.

Egyptwas conquered in 639, and gradually Arabized during the medieval period. A distinctivelyEgyptian Arabiclanguage emerged by the 16th century.

TheMaghrebwas also conquered in the 7th century, and gradually Arabized under theFatimids. Islam was brought toSudanfrom Egypt during the 8th to 11th centuries.

The culture of Sudan today depends on the tribe, some have a pure Nubian,Beja,or Arabic culture and some have a mixture of Arab andNubianelements.[71]

Ottoman and colonial rule

The ArabAbbasid Caliphatefell to theMongol invasionsin the 13th century. Egypt, the Levant and Hejaz also came under the TurkishMamluk Sultanate.

By 1570, the TurkishOttoman Empirecontrolled most of the Arab world. However,Moroccoremained under the rule of theZenataWattasid dynasty,which was succeeded by theSaadi dynastyin the 16th to 17th centuries. TheAjuran Sultanatealso held sway in the southern part of the Horn region.

The sentiment ofArab nationalismarose in the second half of the 19th century along with othernationalisms within the declining Ottoman Empire.

Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt,leader of theEgyptian Armyin theEgyptian Ottoman War

When the Ottoman Empire collapsed as a result ofWorld War I,much of the Arab world came to be controlled by the European colonial empires:Mandatory Palestine,Mandatory Iraq,British protectorate of Egypt,French protectorate of Morocco,Italian Libya,French Tunisia,French Algeria,Mandate for Syria and the Lebanonand the so-calledTrucial States,a British protectorate formed by the sheikhdoms on the former "Pirate Coast".

These Arab states only gained their independence during or afterWorld War II:theRepublic of Lebanonin 1943, theSyrian Arab Republicand theHashemite Kingdom of Jordanin 1946, theKingdom of Libyain 1951, theKingdom of Egyptin 1952, theKingdom of MoroccoandTunisiain 1956, theRepublic of Iraqin 1958, theSomali Republicin 1960,Algeriain 1962, and theUnited Arab Emiratesin 1971.

By contrast,Saudi Arabiahad fragmented with the fall of the Ottoman Empire, and wasunifiedunderIbn Saud of Saudi Arabiaby 1932.

TheMutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemenalso seceded directly from the Ottoman Empire in 1918.Oman,apart from brief intermittent Persian and Portuguese rule, has been self-governing since the 8th century.

Rise of Arab nationalism

Further information:Islam and modernityandArab Cold War
Egyptian presidentGamal Abdel Nasser(center) receiving Algerian presidentAhmed Ben Bella(right) and Iraqi presidentAbdel Salam Arif(left) for theArab League summitin Alexandria, September 1964.

The Arab League was formed in 1945 to represent the interests of the Arabs, and especially to pursue the political unification of the Arab world, a project known asPan-Arabism.[23][24] There were some short-lived attempts at such unification in the mid-20th century, notably theUnited Arab Republicof 1958 to 1961. The Arab League's main goal is to unify politically the Arab populations so defined. Its permanent headquarters are located inCairo.However, it was moved temporarily toTunisduring the 1980s, after Egypt was expelled for signing theCamp David Accords (1978).

Pan-Arabism has mostly been abandoned as an ideology since the 1980s, and was replaced byPan-Islamismon one hand, and individual nationalisms on the other.

Modern conflicts

Main article:List of modern conflicts in the Middle East

Unification of Saudi Arabia

Theunification of Saudi Arabiawas a 30-year-long military and political campaign, by which the varioustribes,sheikhdoms,andemiratesof most of theArabian Peninsulawere conquered by theHouse of Saud,orAl Saud,between 1902 and 1932, when the modern-dayKingdom of Saudi Arabiawas proclaimed. Carried out under the charismaticAbdul Aziz Ibn Saud,this process created what is sometimes referred to as theThird Saudi State,to differentiate it from thefirstandsecondstates that existed under the Al Saud clan.

The Al-Saud had been in exile inOttoman Iraqsince 1893 following the disintegration of the Second Saudi State and the rise ofJebel Shammarunder theAl Rashidclan. In 1902, Ibn Saud recapturedRiyadh,the Al Saud dynasty's former capital. He went on to subdue the rest ofNejd,Al-Hasa,Jebel Shammar,Asir,andHejaz(location of theMuslimholy cities ofMeccaandMedina) between 1913 and 1926. The resultant polity was named theKingdom of Nejd and Hejazfrom 1927 until it was further consolidated with Al-Hasa andQatifinto the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.

Arab–Israeli conflict

Further information:Arab–Israeli conflict
Egyptian vehicles crossing theSuez Canalon October 7, 1973, during theYom Kippur War

The establishment of theState of Israelin 1948 has given rise to theArab–Israeli conflict,one of the majorunresolved geopolitical conflicts.

The Arab states in changing alliances were involved in a number of wars with Israel and its western allies between 1948 and 1973, including the1948 Arab–Israeli War,the 1956Suez Crisis,theSix-Day Warof 1967, and theYom Kippur Warof 1973. AnEgypt–Israel peace treatywas signed in 1979.

Iran–Iraq War

Main article:Iran–Iraq War
TheIran–Iraq War(1980–1988) killed more than 500,000 people before a UN-brokered ceasefire ended it

TheIran–Iraq War(also known as the First Gulf War and by various other names) was an armed conflict between the armed forces of Iraq and Iran, lasting from September 1980 to August 1988, making it the second longest conventional war of the 20th century. It was initially referred to in English as the "Gulf War" prior to the "Gulf War" of 1990.

The war began when Iraq invaded Iran, launching a simultaneous invasion by air and land into Iranian territory on 22 September 1980 following a long history of border disputes, and fears of Shia Islam insurgency among Iraq's long-suppressed Shia majority influenced by the Iranian Revolution. Iraq was also aiming to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state. Although Iraq hoped to take advantage of the revolutionary chaos in Iran (seeIranian Revolution,1979) and attacked without formal warning, they made only limited progress into Iran and were quickly repelled by the Iranians who regained virtually all lost territory by June 1982. For the next six years, Iran was on the offensive.

Lebanese Civil War

Main article:Lebanese Civil War

TheLebanese Civil Warwas a multifaceted civil war in Lebanon, lasting from 1975 to 1990 and resulting in an estimated 120,000 fatalities. Another one million people (a quarter of the population) were wounded,[citation needed]and today approximately 76,000 people remain displaced within Lebanon. There was also a mass exodus of almost one million people from Lebanon.

Western Sahara conflict

Main article:Western Sahara conflict

TheWestern Sahara Warwas an armed struggle between the Sahrawi Polisario Front and Morocco between 1975 and 1991, being the most significant phase of the Western Sahara conflict. The conflict erupted after the withdrawal of Spain from the Spanish Sahara in accordance with the Madrid Accords, by which it transferred administrative control of the territory to Morocco and Mauritania, but not the sovereignty. In 1975, Moroccan government organized the Green March of some 350,000 Moroccan citizens, escorted by around 20,000 troops, who entered Western Sahara, trying to establish Moroccan presence.

While at first met with just minor resistance by the Polisario, Morocco later engaged a long period of guerilla warfare with the Sahrawi nationalists. During the late 1970s, the Polisario Front, desiring to establish an independent state in the territory, successively fought both Mauritania and Morocco. In 1979, Mauritania withdrew from the conflict after signing a peace treaty with the Polisario. The war continued in low intensity throughout the 1980s, though Morocco made several attempts to take the upper hand in 1989–1991. A cease-fire agreement was finally reached between the Polisario Front and Morocco in September 1991.

North Yemen Civil War

Main article:North Yemen Civil War

TheNorth Yemen Civil Warwas fought in North Yemen between royalists of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen and factions of the Yemen Arab Republic from 1962 to 1970. The war began with a coup d'état carried out by the republican leader, Abdullah as-Sallal, which dethroned the newly crowned Imam al-Badr and declared Yemen a republic under his presidency. The Imam escaped to the Saudi Arabian border and rallied popular support.

Somali Civil War

Main article:Somali Civil War

TheSomali Civil Waris an ongoing civil war taking place inSomalia.It began in 1991, when a coalition of clan-based armed opposition groups ousted the nation's long-standing military government.

Various factions began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed, which precipitated an aborted UN peacekeeping attempt in the mid-1990s. A period of decentralization ensued, characterized by a return to customary and religious law in many areas as well as the establishment of autonomous regional governments in the northern part of the country. The early 2000s saw the creation of fledgling interim federal administrations, culminating in the establishment of theTransitional Federal Government(TFG) in 2004.[72]

In 2006, the TFG, assisted by Ethiopian troops, assumed control of most of the nation's southern conflict zones from the newly formedIslamic Courts Union(ICU). The ICU splintered into more radical groups, notablyAl-Shabaab,which have since been fighting the Somali government and itsAMISOMallies for control of the region. In 2011, a coordinated military operation between the Somali military and multinational forces began, which is believed to represent one of the final stages in the war's Islamist insurgency.[72]

Arab Spring

Main articles:Arab Spring,Libyan Civil War,andSyrian civil war
2011 Bahraini uprising

Thepopular protests throughout the Arab worldof late 2010 to the present have been directed against authoritarian leadership and associatedpolitical corruption,paired with demands for more democratic rights. The two most violent and prolonged conflicts in the aftermath of the Arab Spring are the Libyan Civil War and Syrian Civil War.

Petroleum

Oilandgaspipelines and fields

While the Arab world had been of limited interest to the European colonial powers, theBritish Empirebeing mostly interested in theSuez Canalas a route toBritish India,the economic and geopolitical situation changed dramatically after the discovery of largepetroleumdeposits in the 1930s, coupled with the vastly increased demand for petroleum in the west as a result of theSecond Industrial Revolution.

ThePersian Gulfis particularly well-endowed with this strategicraw material:five Persian Gulf states, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, the UAE, Kuwait, and Qatar, are among the top ten petroleum or gas exporters worldwide. In Africa, Algeria (10th world) and Libya are important gas exporters. Bahrain, Egypt, Tunisia, and Sudan all have smaller but significant reserves. Where present, these have had significant effects on regional politics, often enablingrentier states,leading to economic disparities between oil-rich and oil-poor countries, and, particularly in the more sparsely populated states of the Persian Gulf and Libya, triggering extensive labor immigration. It is believed that the Arab world holds approximately 46% of the world's total proven oil reserves and a quarter of the world's natural-gas reserves.[73]

IslamismandPan-Islamismwere on the rise during the 1980s. TheHezbollah,a militant Islamic party inLebanon,was founded in 1982. Islamic terrorismbecame a problem in the Arab world in the 1970s to 1980s. While theMuslim Brotherhoodhad been active in Egypt since 1928, their militant actions were limited to assassination attempts on political leaders.

Recent history

The toppling ofSaddam Hussein's statue inFirdos SquareinBaghdadshortly after the Americaninvasion of Iraqin 2003
Saudi Arabian-led airstrikesinYemen,June 2015

Today, Arab states are characterized by theirautocratic rulersandlack of democratic control.The 2016Democracy IndexclassifiesLebanon,IraqandPalestineas "hybrid regimes",Tunisiaas a "flawed democracy" and all other Arab states as "authoritarian regimes". Similarly, the 2011Freedom Housereport classifies theComorosandMauritaniaas "electoral democracies",[74]Lebanon,KuwaitandMoroccoas "partly free", and all other Arab states as "not free".

The invasion of Kuwait by Iraq forces, led to the 1990–91Persian Gulf War.Egypt,SyriaandSaudi Arabiajoined a multinational coalition that opposed Iraq. Displays of support for Iraq byJordanandPalestineresulted in strained relations between many of the Arab states. After the war, a so-called "Damascus Declaration" formalized an alliance for future joint Arab defensive actions between Egypt, Syria, and the GCC states.[75]

A chain of events leading to the destabilization of the authoritarian regimes established during the 1950s throughout the Arab world became apparent during the early years of the 21st century. The2003 U.S. invasion of Iraqled to the collapse of theBaathistregime and ultimateexecution of Saddam Hussein.

A growing class of young, educated, secular citizens with access to modern media such asAl Jazeera(since 1996) and communicating via theinternetbegan to form a third force besides the classical dichotomy of Pan-Arabism vs. Pan-Islamism that had dominated the second half of the 20th century. These citizens wish for reform in their country's religious institutions.[76]

In Syria, theDamascus Springof 2000 to 2001 heralded the possibility of democratic change, but the Baathist regime managed to suppress the movement.

In 2003, theEgyptian Movement for Change,popularly known asKefaya,was launched to oppose theMubarak regimeand to establish democratic reforms and greatercivil libertiesin Egypt.

States and territories

For the states and territories constituting the Arab world, see definition above.

Forms of government

Arab leaders at theGCC+3 summit inJeddah,Saudi Arabia, July 2022

Different forms ofgovernmentare represented in the Arab World: Some of the countries aremonarchies:Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The other Arab countries are allrepublics.With the exception of Lebanon, Tunisia, Iraq, Palestine, and recently[when?]Mauritania, democratic elections throughout the Arab World are generally viewed as compromised, due to outright vote rigging, intimidation of opposition parties, and severe restraints on civil liberties and political dissent.

AfterWorld War II,Pan-Arabismsought to unite all Arabic-speaking countries into one political entity. OnlySyria,Iraq,Egypt,Sudan,Tunisia,LibyaandNorth Yemenconsidered the short-lived unification of theUnited Arab Republic.Historical divisions, competing local nationalisms, and geographical sprawl were major reasons for the failure of Pan-Arabism.Arab Nationalismwas another strong force in the region which peaked during the mid-20th century and was professed by many leaders in Egypt, Algeria, Libya, Syria, and Iraq. Arab Nationalist leaders of this period includedGamal Abdel Nasserof Egypt,Ahmed Ben Bellaof Algeria,Michel Aflaq,Salah al-Din al-Bitar,Zaki al-Arsuzi,Constantin ZureiqandShukri al-Kuwatliof Syria,Ahmed Hassan al-Bakrof Iraq,Habib Bourguibaof Tunisia,Mehdi Ben Barkaof Morocco, andShakib Arslanof Lebanon.

Later and current Arab Nationalist leaders includeMuammar al-Gaddafiof Libya,Hafez al-AssadandBashar al-Assadof Syria. The diverse Arab states generally maintained close ties but distinct national identities developed and strengthened with the social, historical and political realities of the past 60 years. This has made the idea of a pan-Arab nation-state increasingly less feasible and likely. Additionally, an upsurge in political Islam has since led to a greater emphasis on pan-Islamic rather than pan-Arab identity amongst someArab Muslims.Arab nationalists who once opposed Islamic movements as a threat to their power, now deal with them differently for reasons of political reality.[77]

Modern boundaries

Many of the modern borders of the Arab World were drawn byEuropeanimperial powers during the 19th and early 20th century. However, some of the larger states (in particularEgyptandSyria) have historically maintained geographically definable boundaries, on which some of the modern states are roughly based. The 14th-century Egyptian historianAl-Maqrizi,for instance, defines Egypt's boundaries as extending from theMediterraneanin the north to lowerNubiain the south; and between theRed Seain the east and the oases of the Western/Libyan desert.The modern borders of Egypt, therefore, are not a creation of European powers, and are at least in part based on historically definable entities which are in turn based on certain cultural and ethnic identifications.

At other times, kings,emirsorsheikhswere placed as semi-autonomous rulers over the newly creatednation states,usually chosen by the same imperial powers that for some drew the new borders, for services rendered to European powers likethe British Empire,e.g.Sherif Hussein ibn Ali.Many African states did not attain independence until the 1960s from France after bloody insurgencies for their freedom. These struggles were settled by the imperial powers approving the form of independence given, so as a consequence almost all of these borders have remained. Some of these borders were agreed upon without consultation of those individuals that had served the colonial interests of Britain or France. One such agreement solely between Britain and France (to the exclusion of Sherif Hussein ibn Ali), signed in total secrecy untilLeninreleased the full text, was theSykes-Picot Agreement.Another influential document written without the consensus of the local population was theBalfour Declaration.

As former director of the Israeli intelligence agencyMossad,Efraim Halevy, now a director at the Hebrew University said,

The borders, which if you look on the maps of the middle-east are very straight lines, were drawn by British and French draftsmen who sat with maps and drew the lines of the frontiers with rulers. If the ruler for some reason or other moved on the map, because of some person's hand shaking, then the frontier moved (with the hand).[78]

He went on to give an example,

There was a famous story about a British consul, a lady namedGertrude Bellwho drew the map between Iraq and Jordan, using transparent paper. She turned to talk to somebody and as she was turning the paper moved and the ruler moved and that added considerable territory to the (new) Jordanians.[78]

Historian Jim Crow, ofNewcastle University,has said:

Without that imperial carve-up, Iraq would not be in the state it is in today...Gertrude Bell was one of two or three Britons who were instrumental in the creation of the Arab states in the Middle East that were favourable to Britain.[79]

Modern economies

Cairo,the capital ofEgypt

As of 2006, the Arab world accounts for two-fifths of the gross domestic product and three-fifths of the trade of the widerMuslim world.[citation needed]

The Arab states are mostly, although not exclusively, developing economies and derive their export revenues from oil and gas, or the sale of other raw materials. Recent years have seen significant economic growth in the Arab World, due largely to an increase in oil and gas prices, which tripled between 2001 and 2006, but also due to efforts by some states to diversify their economic base. Industrial production has risen, for example the amount of steel produced between 2004 and 2005 rose from 8.4 to 19 million tonnes. (Source: Opening speech of Mahmoud Khoudri,Algeria's Industry Minister, at the 37th General Assembly of the Iron & Steel Arab Union, Algiers, May 2006). However even 19 million tons pa still only represents 1.7% of global steel production, and remains inferior to the production of countries likeBrazil.[80]

The main economic organisations in the Arab World are theGulf Cooperation Council (GCC),comprising the states in the Persian Gulf, and the Union of the Arab Maghreb (UMA), made up of North African States. The GCC has achieved some success in financial and monetary terms, including plans to establish a common currency in the Persian Gulf region. Since its foundation in 1989, the UMA's most significant accomplishment has been the establishment of a 7,000 km highway crossing North Africa fromMauritaniatoLibya's border withEgypt.The central stretch of the highway, expected to be completed in 2010, will crossMorocco,AlgeriaandTunisia.In recent years a new term has been coined to define a greater economic region: theMENAregion, standing for "Middle East and North Africa", is becoming increasingly popular, especially with support from the current US administration.

TheEmirate of Dubaiis one of the seven emirates of theUnited Arab Emirates

As of August 2009 it was reported that Saudi Arabia is the strongest Arab economy according to World Bank.[81]

Saudi Arabiaremains the top Arab economy in terms of total GDP. It is Asia's eleventh largest economy, followed byEgyptandAlgeria,which were the second and third largest economies in Africa, afterSouth Africa,in 2006. In terms of GDP per capita,Qataris the richest developing country in the world.[82]

The total GDP of all Arab countries in 1999 was US$531.2 billion.[83]The total Arab world GDP was estimated to be worth at least $2.8 trillion in 2011.[84]This is only smaller than the GDP of the US, China, Japan and Germany.

Geography

Main article:Geography of the Arab world

The Arab World stretches across more than 13,000,000 square kilometres (5,000,000 sq mi)[citation needed]ofNorth Africaand the part of North-East Africa and South-West Asia. The eastern part of the Arab world is called theMashriq.Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya and Mauritania are theMaghreborMaghrib.[citation needed]

TheMaghreb(Western Arab world)

The term "Arab" often connotes[according to whom?]the Arabian Peninsula, but the larger (and more populous) part of the Arab World is North Africa. Its eight million square kilometers include two of the largest countries of the African continent,Algeria(2.4 million km2) in the center of the region andSudan(1.9 million km2) in the southeast.[citation needed]Algeria is about three-quarters the size ofIndia,or about one-and-a-half times the size ofAlaska,the largest state in the United States. The largest country in the Arab West Asia isSaudi Arabia(2 million km2).[citation needed]

At the other extreme, the smallest autonomous mainland Arab country isLebanon(10,452 km2), and the smallest island Arab country isBahrain(665 km2).[citation needed]

Every Arab country borders a sea or ocean, with the exception of the Arab region of northern Chad, which is completely landlocked.[citation needed]Iraq is actually nearly landlocked, as it has only a very narrow access to the Persian Gulf.[citation needed]

Historical boundaries

The political borders of the Arab world have wandered, leaving Arab minorities in non-Arab countries of theSaheland theHorn of Africaas well as in the Middle Eastern countries ofCyprus,TurkeyandIran,and also leaving non-Arab minorities in Arab countries. However, the basic geography of sea, desert and mountain provides the enduring natural boundaries for this region.[citation needed]

Map of thecaliphate's expansion
Expansion underMuhammad,622–632
Expansion during theRashidun Caliphate,632–661
Expansion during theUmayyad Caliphate,661–750

The Arab world straddles two continents, Africa and Asia. It is mainly oriented along an east–west axis.[citation needed]

The West Asian Arab region comprises theArabian Peninsula,most of theLevant(excluding Cyprus and Israel), most of Mesopotamia (excluding parts of Turkey and Iran) and the Persian Gulf region. The peninsula is roughly a tilted rectangle that leans back against the slope of northeast Africa, the long axis pointing towardTurkeyandEurope.[citation needed]

Arab North Africa comprises the entire northern third of the continent. It is surrounded by water on three sides (west, north, and east) and desert or desert scrubland on the fourth (south).[citation needed]

In the west, it is bounded by the shores of theAtlantic Ocean.From northeast to southwest,Morocco,Western Sahara(mostlyunilaterallyannexedby Morocco), andMauritaniamake up the roughly 2,000 kilometers of Arab Atlantic coastline. The southwestern sweep of the coast is gentle but substantial, such that Mauritania's capital,Nouakchott(18°N, 16°W), is far enough west to share longitude withIceland(13–22°W). Nouakchott is the westernmost capital of the Arab World and the third-westernmost in Africa, and sits on the Atlantic fringe of the southwestern Sahara. Next south along the coast from Mauritania isSenegal,whose abrupt border belies the gradient in culture from Arab to indigenous African that historically characterizes this part ofWest Africa.[citation needed]

Arab Africa's boundary to the north is again a continental boundary, theMediterranean Sea.This boundary begins in the west with the narrowStrait of Gibraltar,the thirteen kilometer wide channel that connects the Mediterranean with the Atlantic to the west, and separates Morocco fromSpainto the north. East along the coast from Morocco are Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, followed by Egypt, which forms the region's, and the continent's, northeastern corner. The coast turns briefly but sharply south at Tunisia, slopes more gently southeastward through the Libyan capital ofTripoli,and bumps north through Libya's second city,Benghazi,before turning straight east again through Egypt's second city,Alexandria,at the mouth of the Nile. Along with the spine ofItalyto its north, Tunisia marks the junction of western and eastern Mediterranean, and a cultural transition as well: west of Egypt begins the region of the Arab World known as theMaghrebinclude (Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and Mauritania).[citation needed]

Historically the 4,000-kilometer Mediterranean boundary has fluttered. Population centers north of it inEuropehave invited contact and Arab exploration—mostly friendly, though sometimes not. Islands and peninsulas near the Arab coast have changed hands. The islands ofSicilyandMaltalie just a hundred kilometers east of the Tunisian city ofCarthage,which has been a point of contact with Europe since its founding in the first millennium BCE; both Sicily and Malta at times have been part of the Arab World. Just across the Strait of Gibraltar from Morocco, regions of the Iberian peninsula were part of the Arab World throughout theMiddle Ages,extending the northern boundary at times to the foothills of thePyreneesand leaving a substantial mark on local and wider European and Western culture.[citation needed]

The northern boundary of the African Arab world has also fluttered briefly in the other direction, first through theCrusadesand later through the imperial involvement ofFrance,Britain,Spain,andItaly.Another visitor from northern shores,Turkey,controlled the east of the region for centuries, though not as a colonizer. Spain still maintains two small enclaves,CeutaandMelilla(called "Morocco Espanol" ), along the otherwise Moroccan coast. Overall this wave has ebbed, though like the Arab expansion north it has left its mark. The proximity of North Africa to Europe has always encouraged interaction, and this continues with Arab immigration to Europe and European interest in the Arab countries today. However, population centers and the physical fact of the sea keeps this boundary of the Arab World settled on the Mediterranean coastline.[citation needed]

To the east, theRed Seadefines the boundary betweenAfricaandAsia,and thus also between Arab Africa and Arab West Asia. This sea is a long and narrow waterway with a northwest tilt, stretching 2,300 kilometers fromEgypt'sSinai peninsulasoutheast to theBab-el-Mandebstrait betweenDjiboutiin Africa andYemenin Arabia but on average just 150 kilometers wide. Though the sea is navigable along its length, historically much contact between Arab Africa and Arab West Asia has been either overland across the Sinai or by sea across the Mediterranean or the narrow Bab al Mendeb strait. From northwest to southeast, Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea form the African coastline, with Djibouti marking Bab al Mendeb's African shore.[citation needed]

Southeast along the coast from Djibouti is Somalia, but the Somali coast soon makes a 90-degree turn and heads northeast, mirroring a bend in the coast of Yemen across the water to the north and defining the south coast of the Gulf of Aden. The Somali coast then takes a hairpin turn back southwest to complete the horn of Africa. For six months of the year themonsoonwinds blow from up equatorial Somalia, past Arabia and over the small Yemeni archipelago ofSocotra,to rain onIndia.They then switch directions and blow back.

The east- and especially southeast-coast boundary of Arab Africa has historically been a gateway for maritime trade and cultural exchange with bothEast Africaand the subcontinent. The trade winds help explain the presence of the Comoros islands, an Arab-African country, off the coast ofMozambique,nearMadagascarin theIndian Ocean,the southernmost part of the Arab World.[citation needed]

The southern boundary of Arab North Africa is the strip of scrubland known as theSahelthat crosses the continent south of the Sahara.[citation needed]

See also

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Further reading

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