Wikipedia

Arthur Griffith

For other people named Arthur Griffith, seeArthur Griffith (disambiguation).

Arthur Joseph Griffith(Irish:Art Seosamh Ó Gríobhtha;31 March 1871 – 12 August 1922) was an Irish writer, newspaper editor and politician who founded the political partySinn Féin.He led the Irish delegation at the negotiations that produced the 1921Anglo-Irish Treaty,and served as thepresident of Dáil Éireannfrom January 1922 until his death later in August.

Arthur Griffith
President of Dáil Éireann
In office
10 January 1922 – 12 August 1922
Preceded byÉamon de Valera
Succeeded byW. T. Cosgrave
Minister for Foreign Affairs
In office
26 July 1922 – 12 August 1922
PresidentMichael Collins
Preceded byGeorge Gavan Duffy
Succeeded byMichael Hayes
In office
26 August 1921 – 9 January 1922
PresidentÉamon de Valera
Preceded byGeorge Noble Plunkett
Succeeded byGeorge Gavan Duffy
Minister for Home Affairs
In office
2 April 1919 – 12 August 1921
PresidentÉamon de Valera
Preceded byMichael Collins
Succeeded byAustin Stack
Deputy leader of Sinn Féin
In office
6 June 1917 – 9 January 1922
LeaderÉamon de Valera
Preceded byThomas Kelly
Succeeded byKathleen Lynn
In office
20 May 1905 – 11 January 1911
LeaderEdward Martyn
Preceded byNew office
Succeeded byJennie Wyse Power
Leader of Sinn Féin
In office
11 January 1911 – 6 June 1917
DeputyJennie Wyse Power
Thomas Kelly
Preceded byJohn Sweetman
Succeeded byÉamon de Valera
Teachta Dála
In office
May 1921– 12 August 1922
ConstituencyCavan
In office
June 1918–May 1921
ConstituencyCavan East
Member of Parliament
In office
14 December 1918 – 12 August 1922
Preceded byNew office
Succeeded byVacant, then constituency abolished
ConstituencyTyrone North West
In office
20 June 1918 – 12 August 1922
Preceded bySamuel Young
Succeeded byVacant, then constituency abolished
ConstituencyCavan East
Member of the Northern Ireland Parliament
In office
24 May 1921 – 12 August 1922
Preceded byNew office
Succeeded byEdward Archdale
ConstituencyFermanagh and Tyrone
Personal details
Born(1871-03-31)31 March 1871
Dublin,Ireland
Died12 August 1922(1922-08-12)(aged 51)
Dublin, Ireland
Cause of deathIntracerebral hemorrhageandheart failure
Resting placeGlasnevin Cemetery,Dublin, Ireland
Political partySinn Féin
Spouse
Maud Sheehan
​
(m.1910)​
Children2

After a short spell inSouth Africa,Griffith founded and edited theIrish nationalistnewspaperThe United Irishmanin 1899. In 1904, he wroteThe Resurrection of Hungary: A Parallel for Ireland,which advocated the withdrawal of Irish members from theParliament of the United Kingdomand the setting up of the institutions of government at home in Ireland, a policy that became known asSinn Féin(ourselves). On 28 November 1905, he presented "The Sinn Féin Policy" at the first annual convention of his organisation, the National Council; the occasion is marked as the founding date of the Sinn Féin party. Griffith took over as president of Sinn Féin in 1911, but at that time the organisation was still small.

Griffith was arrested following theEaster Risingof 1916, despite not having taken any part in it. On his release, he worked to build up Sinn Féin, which won a string of by-election victories. At the party'sArdfheis(annual convention) in October 1917, Sinn Féin became an unambiguouslyrepublicanparty, and Griffith resigned the presidency in favour of the 1916 leaderÉamon de Valera,becoming vice-president instead. Griffith was elected as anMPforEast Cavanin aby-electionin June 1918, and re-elected in the1918 general election,when Sinn Féin won a huge electoral victory over theIrish Parliamentary Partyand, refusing to take their seats at Westminster, set up their own constituent assembly,Dáil Éireann.[1]

In the Dáil, Griffith served as Minister for Home Affairs from 1919 to 1921, and Minister for Foreign Affairs from 1921 to 1922. In September 1921, he was appointed chairman of the Irish delegation to negotiate a treaty with the British government. After months of negotiations, he and the other four delegates signed theAnglo-Irish Treaty,which created theIrish Free State,but not as a republic. This led to a split in the Dáil. After the Treaty was narrowly approved by the Dáil, de Valera resigned as president and Griffith was elected in his place. The split led to theIrish Civil War.Griffith died suddenly in August 1922, two months after the outbreak of that war.

Family and early life

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Arthur Joseph Griffith was born at 61 UpperDominick Street,Dublinon 31 March 1871,[2]of distant Welsh lineage. His great-great-grandfather, William Griffith of Drws-y-coed Uchaf,Rhyd-ddu,Caernarvonshire(1719-1782), was a farmer and supporter of theMoravian Churchcause. His great grandfather, Griffith Griffith (b. 1789), emigrated first to theUnited Statesand then to Ireland, where some of his sisters had settled in Dublin among the Moravian community there.[3]A Roman Catholic,[4]Griffith was educated by the IrishChristian Brothers.He worked for a time as a printer before joining theGaelic League,which was aimed at promoting the restoration of theIrish language.

His father had been a printer onThe Nationnewspaper — Griffith was one of several employees locked out in the early 1890s due to a dispute with a new owner of the paper. The young Griffith was a member of theIrish Republican Brotherhood(IRB). He initially supported Parnell's political views, but then decided that Parnell's political outlook was not what he thought was best for Ireland.[5]Griffith visitedSouth Africafrom 1896 to 1898.[6]In South Africa, Griffith supported theBoersin their campaign against British expansionism and was a supporter ofPaul Kruger.[7]

In 1899, on returning toDublin,Griffith co-founded the weeklyUnited Irishmannewspaper with his associateWilliam Rooney,who died in 1901.[8]On 24 November 1910, Griffith married Maud Sheehan, after a six-year engagement; they had a son and a daughter.[9]

Griffith's fierce criticism of theIrish Parliamentary Party's alliance with the BritishLiberal Partywas heavily influenced by the anti-Liberal rhetoric ofYoung IrelanderJohn Mitchel.Griffith supported theLimerick boycott,advocating shunning Jewish-owned businesses in the city.[10][11]Griffith also supported movements seeking national independence from the British Empire inEgyptandIndia,and wrote a highly-critical description of the British government action atMatabele.He opposed the policies ofJames Larkin,but worked withJames Connolly,who was a nationalist as well as a socialist.[12]

In September 1900, he established an organisation calledCumann na nGaedheal( "Society of the Gaels" ), to unite advanced nationalist andseparatistgroups and clubs. In 1903, he set up the National Council, to campaign against the visit to Ireland ofKing Edward VIIand his consortAlexandra of Denmark.[13]In 1907, that organisation merged with the Sinn Féin League, which itself had been formed from an amalgamation of Cumann na nGaedheal and the Dungannon Clubs, to form what would become Sinn Féin.[14]

In 1906, after theUnited Irishmanjournal collapsed because of a libel suit, Griffith re-founded it under the titleSinn Féin.It briefly became a daily in 1909 and survived until its suppression by the British government in 1914, after which Griffith became editor of the new nationalist journal,Nationality.[citation needed]

Foundation of Sinn Féin

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Most historians opt for 28 November 1905 as a founding date because it was on this date that Griffith first presented his 'Sinn Féin Policy'. In his writings, Griffith declared that theAct of Union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1800was illegal and that, consequently, the Anglo-Irish dual monarchy that existed underGrattan's Parliamentand the so-calledConstitution of 1782were still in effect. Its first president wasEdward Martyn.

The fundamental principles of abstentionism on which Sinn Féin was founded were outlined in an article published in 1904, by Griffith calledThe Resurrection of Hungary,in which, noting how in 1867 Hungary went from beingpartof theAustrian Empireto a separate co-equal kingdom inAustria-Hungary.Though not amonarchisthimself, Griffith advocated such an approach for theAnglo-Irishrelationship, namely that Ireland should become a separate kingdom alongside Great Britain, the two forming adual monarchywith a shared monarch but separate governments, as it was thought this solution would be more palatable to the British.[15]This was similar to the policy ofHenry Grattana century earlier. However, this idea was never really embraced by later separatist leaders, especiallyMichael Collins,and never came to anything, althoughKevin O'Higginstoyed with the idea as a means of endingpartition,shortly before his assassination in 1927.

Griffith sought to combine elements ofParnellismwith the traditional separatist approach; he saw himself not as a leader but as providing a strategy which a new leader might follow. Central to his strategy was parliamentaryabstention:the belief that IrishMPsshould refuse to attend theParliament of the United KingdomatWestminster,but should instead establish a separate Irish parliament (with an administrative system based on local government) in Dublin.

Griffith was a stauncheconomic nationalist,he argued that nationalism was central to the fostering of economic growth. He often cited the works of German economistFriedrich List.[15]

In February 1908, Sinn Féin unsuccessfully contested a by-election inNorth Leitrim,where the sitting MP, oneCharles DolanofManorhamilton,County Leitrim,had defected to Sinn Féin. At this time Sinn Féin was being infiltrated by theIrish Republican Brotherhood,who saw it as a vehicle for their aims; it had several local Councillors (mostly in Dublin, includingW. T. Cosgrave) and contained a dissident wing grouped from 1910 around the monthly periodical calledIrish Freedom.The IRB members argued that the aim of dual monarchism should be replaced by republicanism and that Griffith was excessively inclined to compromise with conservative elements (notably in his pro-employer position during the 1913–1914Dublin Lockout,when he saw the syndicalism ofJames Larkinas aimed at crippling Irish industry for Great Britain's benefit).

In 1911, he helped to found theProportional Representation Society of Ireland,believing thatproportional representationwould help to prevent animosity between unionists and nationalists in an independent Ireland.[16]

1916 Rising

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In 1916, rebels seized and took over a number of key locations in Dublin, in what became known as theEaster Rising.After its defeat, it was widely described both by British politicians and the Irish and British media as the "Sinn Féin rebellion", even though Sinn Féin had very limited involvement. Griffith was detained, being released fromReading Gaolat the end of 1916.[17]When in 1917, surviving leaders of the rebellion were released from gaol (or escaped) they joined Sinn Féinen masse,using it as a vehicle for the advancement of the republic. The result was a bitter clash between those original members who backed Griffith's concept of an Anglo-Irish dual monarchy and the new members, underÉamon de Valera,who wanted to achieve a republic. Matters almost led to a split at the party's Ard Fheis (conference) in October 1917.

In a compromise, it was decided to seek to establish a republic initially, then allow the people to decide whether they wanted a republic or a monarchy, subject to the condition that no member of Britain's royal house could sit on any prospective Irish throne.[18]At that Ard Fheis, Griffith resigned the presidency of Sinn Féin in favour of de Valera; he andFr. Michael O'Flanaganwere elected Vice-Presidents. The leaders of theIrish Parliamentary Party(IPP) sought a rapprochement with Griffith over the British threat ofconscription,which both parties condemned, but Griffith refused unless the IPP embraced his more radical and subversive ideals, a suggestion whichJohn Dillon,a leader of the IPP rubbished as unrealistic, although it would ultimately mean the defeat and dissolution of the IPP after the election in December 1918.

War of Independence

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Griffith seen in July 1922, a month before his death
Michael Collins with Arthur Griffith

In May 1918, along with Éamon de Valera and 72 other Sinn Féiners, Griffith was arrested on the pretext of involvement in the fictitiousGerman Plot.Griffith spent ten months interned inHM Prison Gloucester,being released on 6 March 1919.Fr. O'Flanaganwas left as Acting-President of Sinn Féin.[19]Griffith was put forward as a Sinn Féin candidate for theEast Cavan by-electionon 20 June 1918.[20]Under the slogan "Put him in to get him out," and was elected. and held the seat when Sinn Féin subsequently routed theIrish Parliamentary Partyat the1918 general electionwith a commitment ofabstentionismfrom theBritish House of Commons.[21]Griffith was returned for both East Cavan andTyrone North West.

Sinn Féin's MPs set up an Irish parliament,Dáil Éireannanddeclared independencefor theIrish Republic;theIrish War of Independencefollowed almost immediately. The dominant leaders in the Dáil included Éamon de Valera,President of Dáil Éireann(1919–21), President of the Republic (1921–1922), andMichael Collins,Minister for Finance,head of the IRB and theIrish Republican Army's Director of Intelligence.

During de Valera's absence in the United States (1919–21) Griffith served as Acting President and gave regular press interviews. He was arrested at his house at 3 am, on 26 November 1920, and later jailed,[22]Fr. O'Flanagan again taking over as acting leader until de Valera returned from America on 23 December.[19]Griffith was to spend the next seven months in Dublin'sMountjoy Prison.He was released on 30 June 1921 as peace moves got underway.[citation needed]

In Ireland, ageneral electionwas held on 24 May 1921 and Griffith, while still in prison, headed the poll in the contested constituency ofFermanagh and Tyrone,and was returned unopposed forCavan.On 26 August 1921, Griffith was appointedMinister for Foreign Affairsin the new Irish cabinet.[23]

Treaty negotiations and death

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Arthur Griffith and three of the four other members of the Irish delegation (George Gavan Duffy, Erskine Childers and Robert Barton) for the Anglo-Irish Treaty negotiations in 1921

In September 1921, de Valera, President of the Republic, asked Griffith to head the delegation of Irish plenipotentiaries to negotiate with the British government. The delegates set up Headquarters inHans Place,London.After nearly two months of negotiations, on 5 December, the delegates decided in a private conversation in their headquarters to sign the Treaty and recommended it to the Dáil; negotiations closed at 2.20 a.m. on 6 December 1921. Griffith was the member of the treaty delegation most supportive of its eventual outcome, a compromise based ondominionstatus, rather than a republic. Griffith was content for an independent Irish State to remain within theBritish EmpireorBritish Commonwealthas it soon would become. The Treatywas ratified by the Dáilby 64 votes to 57 on 7 January 1922. On 9 January, de Valera stood down as president and sought re-election by the Dáil, which he lost by a vote of 60 to 58.[24]Griffith then succeeded de Valera as President of Dáil Éireann.[25]A second ratification of the Treaty by theHouse of Commons of Southern Irelandfollowed shortly afterwards. Griffith was, however, to a great extent merely a figurehead as President of theSecond Dáil.[citation needed]

Suffering from overwork and strain after the long and difficult negotiations with the British government (Griffith attended 41 of the 42 provisional government meetings held between 23 June and 30 July), and the work involved in establishing the Free State government, he entered St. Vincent's Nursing Home,Leeson Street,Dublin, during the first week of August 1922, following an acute attack of tonsillitis.[26]He was confined to a room in St Vincent's by his doctors, who had observed signs of what they thought might be asubarachnoid haemorrhage,but it was difficult to keep him quiet,[27]and he resumed his daily work in the government building. He had been about to leave for his office shortly before 10 a.m. on 12 August 1922, when he paused to retie his shoelace and fell down unconscious. He regained consciousness but collapsed again with blood coming from his mouth. Three doctors rendered assistance but to no avail. Fr John Lee of theMarist Fathersadministeredextreme unction,and Griffith died as the priest recited the concluding prayer. The cause of death,cerebral haemorrhage,[28]was also reported as being due to heart failure.[29]He died at the age of 51, ten days beforeMichael Collins' death in an ambush inCounty Cork.He was buried inGlasnevin Cemeteryfour days later.[citation needed]

Posthumous commemoration

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Griffith's grave inGlasnevin Cemetery,Dublin
Richard Mulcahy and Michael Collins at Arthur Griffith's funeral

The historianDiarmaid Ferriterconsiders that, though he had founded Sinn Féin, Griffith was 'quickly airbrushed' from Irish history. His widow had to beg his former colleagues for a pension, saying that he 'had made them all'. She considered that his grave plot was too modest and threatened to exhume his body. Only in 1968 was a plaque fixed on his formerClontarfhome on St Lawrence Road.[30][31]

Griffith Barrackswhich is nowGriffith College DublinonSouth Circular Road, Dublin,Griffith Avenuein North Dublin,Griffith ParkinDrumcondraand Arthur Griffith Park inLucan, County Dublinare named after him. An obelisk erected in 1950 in the grounds ofLeinster Housecommemorates Griffith, as well asMichael CollinsandKevin O'Higgins.[32]

Views on race

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Views on Jews

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As editor of theUnited Irishman,Griffith took an "Anti-Dreyfusard"line, writing in 1899 to defend the conviction of"the Jew traitor"Dreyfus; accusing the Dublin press of being"almost all Jew rags";and decrying[33][34]

Fifty other rags like those which have nothing behind them but the forty or fifty thousand Jewish usurers and pick- pockets in each country and which no decent Christian ever reads except holding his nose as a precaution against nausea.

Other editorials in Griffith's United Irishman that year expressed concern about a conspiracy where"the Jew capitalist has got a grip on the lying" Press of Civilization "from Vienna to New York and further",and concluded"we know that all Jews are pretty sure to be traitors if they get the chance."[33][34]In late 1899 The United Irishman published an article by Griffith that stated: "I have in former years often declared that the Three Evil Influences of the century were the Pirate, the Freemason, and the Jew."[35]The antisemitism found in the pages of the United Irishman during Griffth's editorial tenure has been credited with shaping various aspects of Joyce'sUlysses,especially in the "Cyclops" episode.[34][36]

In 1904, a piece in the paper voiced support for theLimerick boycott,a boycott of Jewish businesses in Limerick organised by a local priest, declaring that

the Jew in Limerick has not been boycotted because he is a Jew, butbecause he is a usurer"and that"If Jews —as Jews— were boycotted, it would be outrageously unjust.

Griffith was apparently unaware that the Jews of Limerick had little or no involvement in moneylending or similar practices.[37][4][38]TheUnited Irishmanalso published articles byOliver St. John Gogartythat contained antisemitic sentiments, which were common in the Ireland of the time.[39]

During this time an article in the United Irishman also expressed positive views towardsZionism;while

The Jews ofGreat Britainand Ireland have united, as is their wont, to crush the Christian who dares to block their path or to point them out for what they are — nine-tenths of them— usurers andparasitesof industry.

and excluded from this criticism was[39]

the Zionist minority of the Jews, who include those honest and patriotic Jews who desire the reestablishment of theHebrewnation in Palestine.

From 1904 until his death, Griffith wrote virtually nothing which could be construed as antisemitic.[4]Historian Colum Kenny writes that Griffith's "thinking developed" which is shown by a "radical shift" in his journalism.[40]Already in 1903, he had endorsed the Temperance–Labour CouncillorAlbert L. Altman,a Jew, for election to Dublin Corporation.[40][41]In 1909, he wrote a favourable article inSinn Féinon the Jewish contribution to European civilisation, and inNationalityin 1915, he railed against theIrish Parliamentary Partyfor saying that Jews should be barred from public office.[38][39]Griffith's publication 'Scissors and Paste' published three separate articles sympathetic to Jewish victims of Eastern European pogroms and in 1915 his 'Nationality' published a piece which defended English JewMatthew Nathan- "We do not know of one Nationalist Irishman who objects to Sir Matthew Nathan because of the religion he professes, or who holds the creed that an Irish Jew should be ineligible for any office he was competent to fill in an Irish government".[39]

Griffith was a close friend of Jewish solicitorMichael Noyk,who defended many IRA members incourts martialduring theIrish War of Independence,and served as an official in theFirst DáilDepartment of Finance and as aDáil Courtjudge during the war.[42]Other Jewish Friends included Dr Edward Lipman, Jacob Elyan and DrBethel Solomons.[39]Noyk and Solomons were among a group of friends who purchased a house for Griffith when he married.[39][43]

Views on other races

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Griffith held racist views towards Black people; in a preface he authored for the 1913 edition of John Mitchel'sJail Journal,Griffith argued that "no excuses were needed for an Irish Nationalist declining to hold the Negro his peer in right".[44]

However while in South Africa, he opposed the exploitation of blacks by whites and he expressed appreciation that theRusso-Japanese Warwhich led to a Russian defeat had destroyed "the prestige of the white face" in India.[8]Meanwhile Griffith's newspapers,United IrishmanandSinn Féin,both produced sympathetic coverage ofIndian nationalists.[45][46]Griffith was particularly interested in India'sSwadeshi movement.[47]

References

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  1. ^"Arthur Griffith".Oireachtas Members Database.Archivedfrom the original on 19 July 2019.Retrieved19 July2019.
  2. ^"31st March 1871 - Birth of Arthur Griffith"(PDF).Civil Records on Irish Genealogy Site.Archivedfrom the original on 22 September 2021.Retrieved30 May2017.
  3. ^R.T. Jenkins,The Moravian Brethren in North Wales,(Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion, London, 1938, pp.82-6, 151-4; broadcast gan Karen Owen, Radio Cymru,Rhaglen Dei Tomos,24 February 2019
  4. ^abcMaye, Brian:Arthur Griffith,Dublin, Griffith College Publications, 1997, p. 368
  5. ^"BBC - History - 1916 Easter Rising - Profiles - Arthur Griffith".bbc.co.uk.Archivedfrom the original on 12 April 2021.Retrieved6 June2021.
  6. ^"Arthur Griffith | president of Ireland".Encyclopedia Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 2 May 2021.Retrieved6 June2021.
  7. ^"The rising of unlikely band of brothers".The Irish Times.Archivedfrom the original on 7 July 2021.Retrieved6 June2021.
  8. ^abLaffan, Michael."Griffith, Arthur Joseph".Dictionary of Irish Biography.Retrieved7 January2022.
  9. ^Arthur Griffith by Owen Magee, 2015
  10. ^Hanley, Brian."'Jewish Fenians' and anti-Semites: the Jewish role in the Irish fight for freedom ".The Irish Times.Archivedfrom the original on 2 June 2021.Retrieved6 June2021.
  11. ^"The Limerick pogrom, 1904".History Ireland.21 February 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 12 November 2020.Retrieved6 June2021.
  12. ^Review of Brian Maye'sArthur Griffithby Patrick MaumeArchived1 April 2016 at theWayback Machine,History Ireland,6:1 (Spring 1998)
  13. ^Irish Leaving cert history textbook; Movements for Political and Social Reform 1870–1914.
  14. ^Boyce, D. George;O'Day, Alan (2004).Ireland in Transition, 1867-1921.Routledge. p. 155.ISBN1134320000.Archivedfrom the original on 29 January 2017.Retrieved18 March2016.
  15. ^abLaffan, Michael (1999).The Resurrection of Ireland: The Sinn Féin Party 1916-1923.Cambridge University Press. pp.223.ISBN9780521650731.
  16. ^John Coakley and Michael Gallagher,Politics in the Republic of Ireland(Taylor & Francis, 2010), 113.
  17. ^Kennedy, Maev(21 April 2016)."Jailer complained about noisy Easter Rising prisoners, letter reveals".The Guardian.London.Retrieved10 March2024.
  18. ^Packenham, Frank (1974).Éamon de Valera.Arrow Books. p. 68.Archivedfrom the original on 22 September 2021.Retrieved7 April2016.
  19. ^abCarroll, Denis (2016).They Have Fooled You Again.The Columba Press.ISBN978-1-78218-300-6.[page needed]
  20. ^Maume, Patrick:The long Gestation, Irish Nationalist Life 1891–1918p. 207 (note 322), Gill & Macmillan (1999);ISBN0-7171-2744-3
  21. ^"Arthur Griffith".ElectionsIreland.org.Archivedfrom the original on 25 October 2007.Retrieved1 June2009.
  22. ^"MR. ARTHUR GRIFFITH (ARREST). (Hansard, 26 November 1920)".Parliamentary Debates (Hansard).26 November 1920.Archivedfrom the original on 7 August 2016.Retrieved28 May2017.
  23. ^"THE NEW MINISTRY – Dáil Éireann (2nd Dáil) – Friday, 26 August 1921".Houses of the Oireachtas.26 August 1921.Archivedfrom the original on 31 August 2019.Retrieved19 March2020.
  24. ^"RESIGNATION OF PRESIDENT – Dáil Éireann (2nd Dáil) – Monday, 9 January 1922".Houses of the Oireachtas.9 January 1922.Archivedfrom the original on 31 August 2019.Retrieved31 August2019.
  25. ^"ELECTION OF PRESIDENT – Dáil Éireann (2nd Dáil) – Tuesday, 10 January 1922".Houses of the Oireachtas.10 January 1922.Archivedfrom the original on 31 August 2019.Retrieved31 August2019.
  26. ^Glandon, Virginia E. (1985).Arthur Griffith and the Advanced-nationalist Press, Ireland, 1900–1922.P. Lang. p. 230.ISBN0-8204-0041-6.
  27. ^O'Connor, Ulick (1996).Michael Collins and the Troubles.W.W. Norton.ISBN0-393-31645-9.
  28. ^"General Registrar's Office".IrishGenealogy.ie.Archivedfrom the original on 22 September 2021.Retrieved12 August2017.
  29. ^"Arthur Griffith Dies Suddenly"(PDF).The New York Times.13 August 1922.Archived(PDF)from the original on 22 September 2021.Retrieved13 June2018.
  30. ^Ferriter, D.The Transformation of Ireland 1900–2000(Profile 2004) p. 260;ISBN1-86197-307-1
  31. ^"Plan to delist 500 buildings defended".The Irish Times.
  32. ^The OPW – a history of service(PDF).The Office of Public Works. 2006. p. 5. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 17 September 2012.
  33. ^abHadel, Ira B. (1989).Joyce and the Jews: Culture and Texts.Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 64–66.ISBN978-0-333-38352-0.
  34. ^abcGoldberg, Gerald Y. (1982).""Ireland Is the Only Country...": Joyce and the Jewish Dimension ".The Crane Bag.6(1): 5–12.ISSN0332-060X.JSTOR30059524.
  35. ^Keogh, Dermot (1998).Jews in Twentieth-century Ireland: Refugees, Anti-semitism and the Holocaust.Cork University Press. p. 22.ISBN1-85918-150-3.
  36. ^Davison, Neil R. (1995).""Cyclops," Sinn Féin, and "The Jew": An Historical Reconsideration ".Journal of Modern Literature.19(2): 245–257.ISSN0022-281X.JSTOR3831591.
  37. ^Kenny, Colum (20 January 2020).The Enigma of Arthur Griffith: 'Father of Us All'.Ireland: Irish Academic Press. p. 36.ISBN9781785373145.
  38. ^abMcGee, Owen (2015).Arthur Griffith.Merrion Press. p. 409 (fn 62).ISBN978-1-78537-009-0.
  39. ^abcdefKenny, Colum (2016)."Arthur Griffith: More Zionist than Anti-Semite".History Ireland.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2019.Retrieved10 February2019.
  40. ^abKenny, Colum (November 2016)."Arthur Griffith and Anti-Semitism".History Ireland.Archivedfrom the original on 9 February 2019.Retrieved10 February2019.
  41. ^Davison, Neil R.An Irish-Jewish Politician, Joyce's Dublin, and Ulysses(University Press of Florida, James Joyce Series, 2022), 148-151.
  42. ^Benson, Asher (2007).Jewish Dublin.A. & A. Farmar Limited.ISBN978-1-906353-00-1.
  43. ^Manus O'Riordan,Citizens of the Republic, Jewish History in IrelandArchived28 March 2016 at theWayback Machine,Dublin Review of Books,Summer 2007
  44. ^Fanning, Bryan (1 November 2017)."Slaves to a Myth".Irish Review of Books(article).102.Retrieved11 November2018.
  45. ^Beyond the Black Atlantic Relocating Modernization and Technology.Taylor & Francis. 2006. p. 51.
  46. ^Bonakdarian, Mansour (2006).Britain and the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1906-1911 Foreign Policy, Imperialism, and Dissent.Syracuse University Press. p. 136.
  47. ^The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV: The Twentieth Century.Oxford University Press. 1999. p. 147.

Further reading

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