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Asana

(Redirected fromAsanas)
For other uses, seeAsana (disambiguation).

Anāsana(Sanskrit:आसन) is a body posture, originally and still a general term for asitting meditation pose,[1]and later extended inhatha yogaand modernyoga as exercise,to any type of position, adding reclining,standing,inverted, twisting, and balancing poses. TheYoga Sutras of Patanjalidefine "asana" as "[a position that] is steady and comfortable".[2]Patanjali mentions the ability to sit for extended periods as one of theeight limbs of his system.[2]Asanas are also calledyoga posesoryoga posturesin English.

Asanas in varied contexts. Left to right, top to bottom:Eka Pada Chakrasana;Ardha Matsyendrasana;Padmasana;Navasana;Pincha Mayurasana;Dhanurasana;Natarajasana;Vrkshasana;Yashtikasana

The 10th or 11th centuryGoraksha Satakaand the 15th centuryHatha Yoga Pradipikaidentify 84 asanas; the 17th centuryHatha Ratnavaliprovides a different list of 84 asanas, describing some of them. In the 20th century,Indian nationalismfavouredphysical culturein response tocolonialism.In that environment, pioneers such asYogendra,Kuvalayananda,andKrishnamacharyataught a new system of asanas (incorporating systems of exercise as well as traditional hatha yoga). Among Krishnamacharya's pupils were influential Indian yoga teachers includingPattabhi Jois,founder ofAshtanga vinyasa yoga,andB.K.S. Iyengar,founder ofIyengar yoga.Together they described hundreds more asanas, revived the popularity of yoga, and brought it to the Western world. Many more asanas have been devised since Iyengar's 1966Light on Yogawhich described some 200 asanas. Hundreds more were illustrated byDharma Mittra.

Asanas were claimed to provide both spiritual and physical benefits in medieval hatha yoga texts. More recently, studies have provided evidence that they improve flexibility, strength, and balance; to reduce stress and conditions related to it; and specifically to alleviate some diseases such as asthma[3][4]and diabetes.[5]

Asanas have appeared in culture for many centuries. ReligiousIndian artdepicts figures of theBuddha,Jaintirthankaras,andShivainlotus positionand other meditation seats, and in the "royal ease" position,lalitasana.With the popularity of yoga as exercise, asanas feature commonly innovelsandfilms,and sometimes also inadvertising.

History

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Ancient times

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Mould ofPashupati sealfrom theIndus Valley civilization,c. 2500 BC,its central figure in a pose resemblingMulabandhasana.[a]

The central figure in thePashupati sealfrom theIndus Valley civilizationofc. 2500 BCwas identified by Sir John Marshall in 1931 as a prototype of the godShiva,recognised by being three-faced; in a yoga position as the Mahayogin, the god of yoga; having four animals asPashupati,the Lord of Beasts; with deer beneath the throne, as in medieval depictions of Shiva; having a three-part headdress recalling Shiva's trident; and possibly beingithyphallic,again like Shiva.[6]If correct, this would be the oldest record of an asana. However, with no proof anywhere of an Indus Valley origin for Shiva, with multiple competing interpretations of the Pashupati seal and no obvious way of deciding between these, there is no reliable evidence that it is actually a yoga pose that is depicted in the seal.[7][8][9][10][11]

This article containsIndic text.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks or boxes,misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

Asanas originated in India. In hisYoga Sutras,Patanjali(c. 2nd to 4th century CE) describes asana practice as the third of the eight limbs (Sanskrit:अष्टाङ्ग,aṣṭāṅga,from अष्ट्aṣṭ,eight, and अङ्गaṅga,limb) of classical, orraja yoga.[12] The word asana, in use in English since the 19th century, is fromSanskrit:आसनāsana"sitting down" (from आस्ās"to sit down" ), a sitting posture, a meditation seat.[13][14][15]

A page fromPatanjali'sYoga SutrasandBhasyacommentary (c. 2nd to 4th century CE), which placed asana as one of the eight limbs of classical yoga

The eight limbs are, in order, theyamas(codes of social conduct),niyamas(self-observances), asanas (postures),pranayama(breath work),pratyahara(sense withdrawal or non-attachment),dharana(concentration),dhyana(meditation), andsamadhi(realization of the true Self orAtman,and unity withBrahman,ultimate reality).[16] Asanas, along with the breathing exercises ofpranayama,are the physical movements ofhatha yogaand ofmodern yoga.[17][18]Patanjali describes asanas as a "steady and comfortable posture",[19]referring to the seated postures used forpranayamaand formeditation,where meditation is the path to samadhi,transpersonalself-realization.[20][21]

TheYoga Sutrasdo not mention a single asana by name, merely specifying the characteristics of a good asana:[22]

स्थिरसुखमासनम् ॥४६॥
sthira sukham āsanam
Asana means a steady and comfortable posture.Yoga Sutras2:46

TheSutrasare embedded in theBhasyacommentary, which scholars suggest may also be by Patanjali;[23]it names 12seated meditation asanasincludingPadmasana,Virasana,Bhadrasana,andSvastikasana.[24]

Medieval texts

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The two seated asanas mentioned in theGoraksha Sataka,PadmasanaandSiddhasana,are used formeditationand forpranayama.
Further information:Hatha yoga

The 10th–11th centuryVimanarcanakalpais the first manuscript to describe a non-seated asana, in the form ofMayurasana(peacock) – a balancing pose. Such poses appear, according to the scholarJames Mallinson,to have been created outsideShaivism,the home of theNathyoga tradition, and to have been associated withasceticism;they were later adopted by the Nath yogins.[25][26]

TheGoraksha Sataka(10–11th century), orGoraksha Paddhathi,an earlyhatha yogictext, describes the origin of the 84 classic asanas said to have been revealed by theHindu deityLord Shiva.[27]Observing that there are as many postures as there are beings and asserting that there are 84lakh[b]or 8,400,000[28]species in all, the text states that Lord Shiva fashioned an asana for each lakh, thus giving 84 in all, although it mentions and describes only two in detail:SiddhasanaandPadmasana.[27]The number 84 is symbolic rather than literal, indicating completeness and sacredness.[c][29]

Relief statue inAchyutaraya temple,Hampi,Karnatakashowing an unidentified[d]hand-balancing asana,[30]16th century

TheHatha Yoga Pradipika(15th century) specifies that of these 84, the first four are important, namely the seated poses Siddhasana, Padmasana,BhadrasanaandSimhasana.[31]

The pillars of the 16th centuryAchyutaraya templeatHampiare decorated with numerous relief statues of yogins in asanas including Siddhasana balanced on a stick,Chakrasana,Yogapattasanawhich requires theuse of a strap,and ahand-standing inverted posewith a stick, as well as several unidentified poses.[32]

By the 17th century, asanas became an important component of Hatha yoga practice, and more non-seated poses appear.[33]TheHatha Ratnavaliby Srinivasa (17th century)[34][35]is one of the few texts to attempt an actual listing of 84 asanas,[e] although 4 out of its list cannot be translated from the Sanskrit, and at least 11[f]are merely mentioned without any description, their appearance known from other texts.[35]

TheGheranda Samhita(late 17th century) again asserts that Shiva taught 84 lakh of asanas, out of which 84 are preeminent, and "32 are useful in the world of mortals."[g][36]The yoga teacher and scholarMark Singletonnotes from study of the primary texts that "asana was rarely, if ever, the primary feature of the significant yoga traditions in India."[37]The scholarNorman Sjomancomments that a continuous tradition running all the way back to the medieval yoga texts cannot be traced, either in the practice of asanas or in a history of scholarship.[38]

Modern pioneers

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Further information:Yoga as exerciseandList of Indian asana yoga gurus
Postures inNiels Bukh's 1924Primary Gymnastics[39]resemblingParighasana,Parsvottanasana,andNavasana,supporting the suggestion thatKrishnamacharyaderived some of his asanas from the gymnastics culture of his time[40]

From the 1850s onwards, a culture of physical exercise developed in India to counter the colonial stereotype of supposed "degeneracy" of Indians compared to the British,[41][42]a belief reinforced by then-current ideas ofLamarckismandeugenics.[43][44]This culture was taken up from the 1880s to the early 20th century byIndian nationalistssuch asTiruka,who taught exercises and unarmed combat techniques under the guise of yoga.[45][46]Meanwhile, proponents of Indianphysical culturelikeK. V. Iyerconsciously combined "hata yoga" [sic] withbodybuildingin hisBangaloregymnasium.[47][48]

Singleton notes that poses close toParighasana,Parsvottanasana,Navasanaand others were described inNiels Bukh's 1924 Danish textGrundgymnastik eller primitiv gymnastik[39](known in English asPrimary Gymnastics).[37]These in turn were derived from a 19th-century Scandinavian tradition of gymnastics dating back toPehr Ling,and "found their way to India" by the early 20th century.[37][49]

Yoga asanas were brought to America in 1919 byYogendra,sometimes called "the Father of the Modern Yoga Renaissance", his system influenced by thephysical cultureofMax Müller.[50]

In 1924,Swami Kuvalayanandafounded theKaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research CenterinMaharashtra.[51]He combined asanas with Indian systems of exercise and modern European gymnastics, having according to the scholarJoseph Altera "profound" effect on the evolution of yoga.[52]

In 1925,Paramahansa Yogananda,having moved from India to America, set up theSelf-Realization Fellowshipin Los Angeles, and taught yoga, including asanas, breathing, chanting and meditation, to tens of thousands of Americans, as described in his 1946Autobiography of a Yogi.[53][54]

Tirumalai Krishnamacharya(1888–1989) studied under Kuvalayananda in the 1930s, creating "a marriage of hatha yoga, wrestling exercises, and modern Western gymnastic movement, and unlike anything seen before in the yoga tradition."[37]Sjoman argues that Krishnamacharya drew on theVyayama Dipika[55]gymnastic exercise manual to create the Mysore Palace system of yoga.[56]Singleton argues that Krishnamacharya was familiar with the gymnastics culture of his time, which was influenced by Scandinavian gymnastics; his experimentation with asanas and innovative use of gymnastic jumping between poses may well explain, Singleton suggests, the resemblances between modern standing asanas and Scandinavian gymnastics.[37]Krishnamacharya, known as the father of modern yoga, had among his pupils people who became influential yoga teachers themselves: the Russian Eugenie V. Peterson, known asIndra Devi;Pattabhi Jois,who foundedAshtanga Vinyasa Yogain 1948;B.K.S. Iyengar,his brother-in-law, who foundedIyengar Yoga;T.K.V. Desikachar,his son, who continued hisViniyogatradition;Srivatsa Ramaswami;andA. G. Mohan,co-founder of Svastha Yoga & Ayurveda.[57][58]Together they revived the popularity of yoga and brought it to the Western world.[59][60]

In 1960,Vishnudevananda Saraswati,in theSivananda yogaschool, published a compilation of sixty-six basic postures and 136 variations of those postures inThe Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga.[61]

In 1966, Iyengar publishedLight on Yoga:Yoga Dipika,illustrated with some 600 photographs of Iyengar demonstrating around 200 asanas; it systematised the physical practice of asanas. It became a bestseller, selling three million copies, and was translated into some 17 languages.[62]

In 1984,Dharma Mittracompiled a list of about 1,300 asanas and their variations, derived from ancient and modern sources, illustrating them with photographs of himself in each posture; the Dharma Yoga website suggests that he created some 300 of these.[63][64][65]

Origins of the asanas

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Headstand (Kapala Asana) from 1830 manuscript ofJoga Pradipika

The asanas have been created at different times, a few being ancient, some being medieval, and a growing number recent.[66][67][68]Some that appear traditional, such asVirabhadrasana I(Warrior Pose I), are relatively recent: that pose was probably devised by Krishnamacharya around 1940, and it was popularised by his pupil, Iyengar.[69]A pose that is certainly younger than that isParivritta Parsvakonasana(Revolved Side Angle Pose): it was not in the first edition of Pattabhi Jois'sYoga Malain 1962.[70]Viparita Virabhadrasana(Reversed Warrior Pose) is still more recent, and may have been created after 2000.[70]Several poses that are now commonly practised, such as Dog Pose and standing asanas including Trikonasana (triangle pose), first appeared in the 20th century,[71]as did the sequence of asanas,Surya Namaskar(Salute to the Sun). A different sun salutation, theAditya Hridayam,is certainly ancient, as it is described in the "Yuddha Kaanda" Canto 107 of theRamayana.[72]Surya Namaskar in its modern form was created by theRajaofAundh,Bhawanrao Shriniwasrao Pant Pratinidhi;[73][74][75]K. Pattabhi Jois defined the variant forms Surya Namaskar A and B for Ashtanga Yoga, possibly derived from Krishnamacharya.[76]Surya Namaskar can be seen as "a modern,physical culture-oriented rendition "of the simple ancient practice of prostrating oneself to the sun.[77]

In 1966, Iyengar's classicLight on Yogawas able to describe some 200 asanas,[78]consisting of about 50 main poses with their variations.[79]Sjoman observes that whereas many traditional asanas are named for objects (likeVrikshasana,tree pose), legendary figures (likeMatsyendrasana,the sageMatsyendra's pose), or animals (likeKurmasana,tortoise pose), "an overwhelming eighty-three"[79]of Iyengar's asanas have names that simply describe the body's position (likeUtthita Parsvakonasana,"Extended Side Angle Pose" ); these are, he suggests, the ones "that have been developed later".[79]A name following this pattern is Shatkonasana, "Six Triangles Pose", described in 2015.[80]Mittra illustrated 908 poses and variations in his 1984Master Yoga Chart,and many more have been created since then.[78][80]The number of asanas has thus grown increasingly rapidly with time, as summarised in the table.

Sjoman notes that the names of asanas have been used "promiscuous[ly]", in a tradition of "amalgamation and borrowing" over the centuries, making their history difficult to trace.[81]The presence of matching names is not proof of continuity, since the same name may mean a different pose, and a pose may have been known by multiple names at different times.[81]The estimates here are therefore based on actual descriptions of the asanas.

Estimates of the number of asanas
No. of asanas Sanskrit Transliteration English Author Date Evidence supplied
2 गोरक्ष शतक Goraksha Shataka Goraksha's Century Gorakshanatha 10th-11th century DescribesSiddhasana,Padmasana;[82][83]84 claimed[c]
4 शिव संहिता Shiva Samhita Shiva's Compendium - 15th century 4 seated asanas described, 84 claimed; 11 mudras[84]
15 हठ योग प्रदीपिका Hatha Yoga Pradipika A Small Light on Hatha Yoga SvamiSvatmarama 15th century 15 asanas described,[84]4 (Siddhasana,Padmasana,BhadrasanaandSimhasana) named as important[31]
32 घेरंड संहिता Gheranda Samhita Gheranda's Collection Gheranda 17th century Descriptions of 32 seated, backbend, twist, balancing and inverted asanas, 25 mudras[36][84]
52 हठ रत्नावली Hatha Ratnavali A Treatise On Hatha Yoga Srinivasa 17th century 52 asanas described, out of 84 named[h][34][35]
84 जोग प्रदीपिका Joga Pradipika A Small Light on Yoga Ramanandi Jayatarama 1830 84 asanas and 24 mudras in rare illustrated edition of 18th century text[85]
37 योग सोपान Yoga Sopana Stairway to Yoga Yogi Ghamande 1905 Describes and illustrates 37 asanas, 6 mudras, 5 bandhas[85]
c. 200 योग दीपिका Yoga Dipika Light on Yoga B. K. S. Iyengar 1966 Descriptions and photographs of each asana[86]
908 — — Master Yoga Chart Dharma Mittra 1984 Photographs of each asana[87]

The graph shows the rapid growth in number of asanas in the 20th century.

GS=Goraksha Sataka;ShS=Shiva Samhita;HYP=Hatha Yoga Pradipika;HR=Hatha Ratnavali;GhS=Gheranda Samhita;JP=Joga Pradipika;YS=Yoga Sopana;LoY=Light on Yoga;DM=Dharma Mittra

Purposes

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Spiritual

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The lion pose,Simhasana,is named for anavatarofVishnuin the form of the man-lionNarasimha.India, 12th Century

The asanas of hatha yoga originally had a spiritual purpose withinHinduism,the attainment ofsamadhi,a state of meditative consciousness.[88]The scholar of religionAndrea Jainnotes that medieval Hatha Yoga was shared among yoga traditions, from Shaivite Naths to Vaishnavas, Jains andSufis;in her view, its aims too varied, including spiritual goals involving the "tantric manipulation of the subtle body", and at a more physical level, destroying poisons.[89]Singleton describes Hatha Yoga's purpose as "the transmutation of the human body into a vessel immune from mortal decay", citing theGheranda Samhita'smetaphor of anearthenwarepot that requires the fire of yoga to make it serviceable.[90]Mallinson and Singleton note that the purposes of asana practice were, until around the fourteenth century, firstly to form a stable platform for pranayama, mantra repetition (japa), and meditation, practices that in turn had spiritual goals; and secondly to stop the accumulation ofkarmaand instead acquire ascetic power,tapas,something that conferred "supernatural abilities".Hatha Yoga added the ability to cure diseases to this list.[91]Not all Hindu scriptures agreed that asanas were beneficial. The 10th centuryGaruda Puranastated that "the techniques of posture do not promote yoga. Though called essentials, they all retard one's progress," while early yogis often practised extreme austerities (tapas) to overcome what they saw as the obstacle of the body in the way of liberation.[92]

The yoga scholar and practitionerTheos Bernard,in his 1944Hatha Yoga: The Report of a Personal Experience,stated that he was "prescribed... a group of asanas[i]calculated to bring a rich supply of blood to the brain and to various parts of the spinal cord.. [and] a series of reconditioning asanas to stretch, bend, and twist the spinal cord "followed when he was strong enough by the meditation asanas.[94]Bernard named the purpose of Hatha Yoga as "to gain control of the breath" to enable pranayama to work, something that in his view required thorough use of thesix purifications.[95]

Asanas work in different ways from conventional physical exercises, according toSatyananda Saraswati"placing the physical body in positions that cultivate awareness, relaxation and concentration".[96]Leslie Kaminoffwrites inYoga Anatomythat from one point of view, "all of asana practice can be viewed as a methodical way of freeing up the spine, limbs, and breathing so that the yogi can spend extended periods of time in a seated position."[97]

Iyengar observed that the practice of asanas "brings steadiness, health, and lightness of limb. A steady and pleasant posture produces mental equilibrium and prevents fickleness of mind." He adds that they bring agility, balance, endurance, and "great vitality", developing the body to a "fine physique which is strong and elastic without being muscle-bound". But, Iyengar states, their real importance is the way they train the mind, "conquer[ing]" the body and making it "a fit vehicle for the spirit".[98]

Names of asanas illustrating spiritual evolution[99]
Asana Level
Vishnu's Couch,
Salute to the Sun		 Gods
Virabhadra,
Matsyendra		 Heroes,
sages
Dog Mammals
Pigeon Birds
Cobra Reptiles
Fish,
Frog		 Aquatic
animals
Locust Invertebrates
Tree Plants
Mountain Inanimate

Iyengar saw it as significant that asanas are named after plants, insects, fish and amphibians, reptiles, birds, and quadrupeds; as well as "legendary heroes", sages, andavatarsof Hindu gods, in his view "illustrating spiritual evolution".[99]For instance, the lion pose,Simhasana,recalls the myth ofNarasimha,half man, half lion, and an avatar ofVishnu,as told in theBhagavata Purana.[100]The message is, Iyengar explains, that while performing asanas, the yogi takes the form of different creatures,from the lowest to the highest,not despising any "for he knows that throughout the whole gamut of creation... there breathes the same Universal Spirit." Through mastery of the asanas, Iyengar states, dualities like gain and loss, or fame and shame disappear.[99]

Sjoman argues that the concept of stretching in yoga can be looked at through one of Patanjali'sYoga Sutras,2.47, which says that [asanas are achieved] by loosening (śaithilya) the effort (prayatna) and meditating on the endless (ananta). Sjoman points out that this physical loosening is to do with the mind's letting go of restrictions, allowing the natural state of "unhindered perfect balance" to emerge; he notes that one can only relax through effort, "as only a muscle that is worked is able to relax (that is, there is a distinction between dormancy and relaxation)."[101]Thus asanas had a spiritual purpose, serving to explore the conscious and unconscious mind.[102]

Heinz Grillconsiders thesoulin our human existence to be a central link between the manifest body and the unmanifest spirit. Therefore it should not be the sense-attached, bodily-involved consciousness that motivates yoga practice, but spiritual thoughts. According to Grill, this path from above to below is essential, because “the soul lives in the receptivity of giving and not in the receptivity of earthly taking.”[103]For the practice he has written a book calledThe Souldimension of Yoga,which has already been translated into many languages.

Exercise

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Further information:Science of yoga

Since the mid-20th century, asanas have been used, especially in theWestern world,asphysical exercise.[104]In this context, their "overtly Hindu" purpose is masked but its "ecstatic... transcendent... possibly subversive" elements remain.[105]That context has led to a division of opinion amongChristians,some asserting that it is acceptable as long as they are aware of yoga's origins, others stating that hatha yoga's purpose is inherently Hindu, making Christian yoga an evident contradiction[106][107]or indeed "diametrically opposed to Christianity".[108]A similar debate has taken place in a Muslim context; under Crown PrinceMohammed bin Salman,yoga, formerly banned as a Hindu practice, has been legalised,[109]while mainly-HinduBalihas held a yoga competition in defiance of a ruling by Indonesia's Muslim Ulema Council.[110]

In a secular context, the journalists Nell Frizzell andReni Eddo-Lodgehave debated (inThe Guardian) whether Western yoga classes represent "cultural appropriation". In Frizzell's view, yoga has become a new entity, a long way from theYoga Sutrasof Patanjali, and while some practitioners are culturally insensitive, others treat it with more respect. Eddo-Lodge agrees that Western yoga is far from Patanjali, but argues that the changes cannot be undone, whether people use it "as a holier-than-thou tool, as a tactic to balance out excessive drug use, or practised similarly to its origins with the spirituality that comes with it".[111]

From a Hindu perspective, the practice of asanas in the Western world as physical exercise is sometimes seen as yoga that has lost its way. In 2012, theHindu American Foundationran a "Take Back Yoga" campaign to emphasise yoga's roots in Hinduism.[112]

For women

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"Seal" posture fromMary Bagot Stack'sBuilding the Body Beautiful,1931. It closely resemblesSalabhasana,locust pose; she had learnt some asanas in India in 1912.[113]
Main article:Yoga for women

In the West, yoga is practiced mainly by women. For example, in Britain in the 1970s, women formed between 70 and 90 percent of most yoga classes, as well as most of the yoga teachers. It has been suggested that yoga was seen as a support for women in the face of male-dominated medicine, offering an alternative approach for chronic medical conditions, as well as to beauty and ageing, and it offered a way of meeting other women.[114]Singleton notes that women in yoga are in the tradition ofMollie Bagot Stack's 1930 League of Health and Beauty, influenced by Stack's visit to India in 1912 when she learnt some asanas, and in turn ofGenevieve Stebbins's Harmonic Gymnastics.[113]

Effects

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Asanas have, or are claimed to have, multiple effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful. These include the conscious usage of groups of muscles,[115]effects on health,[116]and possible injury especially in the presence of known contraindications.[117]

Muscle usage

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A 2014 study indicated that different asanas activated particular groups of muscles, varying with the skill of the practitioners, from beginner to instructor. The eleven asanas in the Surya Namaskar sequences A and B (ofAshtanga Vinyasa Yoga) were performed by beginners, advanced practitioners and instructors. The activation of 14 groups of muscles was measured with electrodes on the skin over the muscles. Among the findings, beginners usedpectoral musclesmore than instructors, whereas instructors useddeltoid musclesmore than other practitioners, as well as thevastus medialis(which stabilises the knee). The yoga instructor Grace Bullock writes that such patterns of activation suggest that asana practice increases awareness of the body and the patterns in which muscles are engaged, making exercise more beneficial and safer.[115][118]

Claimed benefits

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Further information:Yoga as therapyandHatha Yoga Pradipika

Medievalhatha yogatexts make a variety of claims for the benefits brought by the asanas, both spiritual and physical. TheHatha Yoga Pradipika(HYP) states that asanas in general, described as the first auxiliary of hatha yoga, give "steadiness, good health, and lightness of limb." (HYP 1.17)[119]Specific asanas, it claims, bring additional benefits; for example,MatsyendrasanaawakensKundaliniand makes thesemensteady; (HYP 1.27)Paschimottanasana"stokes up the digestive fire, slims the belly and gives good health"; (HYP 1.29)Shavasana"takes away fatigue and relaxes the mind"; (HYP 1.32)Siddhasana"bursts open the door to liberation"; (HYP 1.35) whilePadmasana"destroys all diseases" (HYP 1.47) and if done together with retention of the breath in pranayama confers liberation. (HYP 1.44–49)[120]These claims lie within a tradition across all forms of yoga that practitioners can gainsupernatural powers,but with ambivalence about their usefulness, since they may obstruct progress towards liberation.[121]Hemachandra'sYogashastra(1.8–9) lists the magical powers, which include healing, the destruction of poisons, the ability to become as small as an atom or to go wherever one wishes, invisibility, and shape-shifting.[122]

The Indian Minister for Women and Child Development,Maneka Gandhi,joining a programme of yoga forpregnant womenin 2018

The asanas have been popularised in the Western world by claims about their health benefits, attained not by medieval hatha yoga magic but by the physical and psychological effects of exercise and stretching on the body.[123]The history of such claims was reviewed by William J. Broad in his 2012 bookThe Science of Yoga.Broad argues that while the health claims for yoga began as Hindu nationalist posturing, it turns out that there is ironically[116]"a wealth of real benefits".[116]

Physically, the practice of asanas has been claimed to improve flexibility, strength, and balance; to alleviate stress and anxiety, and to reduce the symptoms oflower back pain.[3][4]Claims have been made about beneficial effects on specific conditions such asasthma,[3][4]chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,[3][4]anddiabetes.[5]There is evidence that practice of asanas improves birth outcomes[4]and physical health and quality of life measures in the elderly,[4]and reduces sleep disturbances[3]andhypertension.[124][125]Iyengar yoga is effective at least in the short term for both neck pain and low back pain.[126]

Contra-indications

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TheNational Institutes of Healthnotes that yoga is generally safe "when performed properly", though people with some health conditions, older people, and pregnant woman may need to seek advice. For example, people withglaucomaare advised not to practise inverted postures.[127]TheYoga Journalprovides separate lists of asanas that it states are "inadvisable" and should be avoided or modified for each of the following medical conditions:asthma;back injury;carpal tunnel syndrome;diarrhoea;headache;heart problems;high blood pressure;insomnia;knee injury;low blood pressure;menstruation;neck injury;pregnancy;andshoulder injury.[117]

The practice of asanas has sometimes been advised against duringpregnancy,but that advice has been contested by a 2015 study which found no ill-effects from any of 26 asanas investigated. The study examined the effects of the set of asanas on 25 healthy women who were between 35 and 37 weeks pregnant. The authors noted that apart from their experimental findings, they had been unable to find any scientific evidence that supported the previously published concerns, and that on the contrary there was evidence including from systematic review that yoga was suitable for pregnant women, with a variety of possible benefits.[128][129]

Common practices

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TheYoga Sutras2:46 state that asanas, hereNatarajasana,should be "steady and comfortable".

In theYoga Sutras,the only rulePatanjalisuggests for practicing asana is that it be "steady and comfortable".[2]The body is held poised with the practitioner experiencing no discomfort. When control of the body is mastered, practitioners are believed to free themselves from dualities such as heat and cold, hunger and satiety, or joy and grief.[130]This is the first step toward relieving suffering by letting go of attachment.[131]

Traditional and modern guidance

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Different schools of yoga, such as Iyengar andThe Yoga Institute,agree that asanas are best practised with a rested body on an empty stomach, after having a bath.[132][133]From the point of view ofsports medicine,asanas function as active stretches, helping to protectmusclesfrom injury; these need to be performed equally on both sides, the stronger side first if used forphysical rehabilitation.[134]

Surya Namaskar

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Adho Mukha Svanasana,downward-facing dog pose, is performed at least once and often twice inSurya Namaskar,the Salute to the Sun.[135]
Main article:Surya Namaskar

Surya Namaskar, the Salute to the Sun, commonly practiced in most forms of modern yoga, links up to twelve asanas in a dynamically expressed yoga series. A full round consists of two sets of the series, the second set moving the opposing leg first. The asanas includeAdho Mukha Svanasana(downward dog), the others differing from tradition to tradition with for instance a choice ofUrdhva Mukha Svanasana(upward dog) orBhujangasana(cobra) for one pose in the sequence.[136]Schools, too, differ in their approaches to the sequence; for example, in Iyengar Yoga, variations such as insertingMaricyasana IandPascimottanasanaare suggested.[137]

Balasana

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Main article:Balasana

A gentle, restorativeyoga posewhere the body kneels, sits back onto heels, and stretches forward, lowering the forehead to the ground, rela xing the neck, spine, hips, and legs. Start on the floor with your knees together and big toes touching. Sit back on your heels. Exhale as you fold in half and place your chest over (or on) your thighs. Lengthen your arms out in front of you or down by the side with palms up. Stay for 30 sec to a few minutes and just breathe.

Benefits

  • A stretch for the lower back and hips, which can also alleviate stress.
  • Soothes and relaxes the mind

Styles

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In the Western world, asanas are taught in differing styles by the various schools of yoga. Some poses like Trikonasana are common to many of them, but not always performed in the same way. Some independently documented approaches are described below.[138][139]

Utthitha Trikonasana,an important pose inIyengar Yoga,using a prop, ayoga brick.The pose requires the practitioner to work different parts of the body in different directions.

Iyengar Yoga"emphasises precision and alignment",[140]and prioritises correct movement over quantity, i.e. moving a little in the right direction is preferred to moving more but in a wrong direction. Postures are held for a relatively long period compared to other schools of yoga; this allows the muscles to relax and lengthen, and encourages awareness in the pose. Props including belts, blocks and blankets are freely used to assist students in correct working in the asanas.[140][139]Beginners are introduced early on to standing poses, executed with careful attention to detail. For example, in Trikonasana, the feet are often jumped apart to a wide stance, the forward foot is turned out, and the centre of the forward heel is exactly aligned with the centre of the arch of the other foot.[138]

Sivananda Yogapractices the asanas, hatha yoga, as part ofraja yoga,with the goal of enabling practitioners "" to sit in meditation for a long time ".[138]There is little emphasis on the detail of individual poses; teachers rely on the basic instructions given in the books by Sivananda and Swami Vishnu-devananda.[138]In Trikonasana, the top arm may be stretched forward parallel to the floor rather than straight up.[138] Sivananda Yoga identifies a group of 12 asanas as basic.[141]These are not necessarily the easiest poses, nor those that every class would include.[142]Trikonasana is the last of the 12, whereas in other schools it is one of the first and used to loosen the hips in preparation for other poses.[138]

Eka Pada Bakasana (One-legged Crane),an asana inAshtanga Vinyasa Yoga's Advanced series

InAshtanga Vinyasa Yoga,poses are executed differently from Iyengar Yoga. "Vinyasa" means flowing, and the poses are executed relatively rapidly, flowing continuously from one asana to the next using defined transitional movements.[138][139]The asanas are grouped into six series, one Primary, one Intermediate, and four Advanced. Practice begins and ends with the chanting ofmantras,followed by multiple cycles of the Sun Salutation, which "forms the foundation of Ashtanga Yoga practice", and then one of the series.[143][144]Ashtanga Vinyasa practice emphasises aspects of yoga other than asanas, includingdrishti (focus points),bandhas (energy locks),and pranayama.[138]

Kripalu Yogauses teachers from other asana traditions, focussing on mindfulness rather than using effort in the poses. Teachers may say "allow your arms to float up" rather than "bring up your arms".[138]The goal is to use the asanas "as a path of transformation."[138]The approach is in three stages: firstly instruction in body alignment and awareness of the breath during the pose; secondly, holding the pose long enough to observe "unconscious patterns of tension in the body-mind";[138]and thirdly, through "deep concentration and total surrender", allowing oneself "to be moved byprana".[138]In Trikonasana, the teacher may direct pupils' attention to pressing down with the outer edge of the back foot, lifting the arch of the foot, and then experimenting with "micro-movements", exploring where energy moves and how it feels.[138]

InBikram Yoga,as developed byBikram Choudhury,there is a fixed sequence of 26 poses,[139]in which Trikonasana is ninth, its task to focus on opening the hips. The Bikram version of Trikonasana is a different pose (Parsvakonasana) from that in Iyengar Yoga.[138]The position of the feet is seen as critically important, along with proper breathing and the distribution of weight: about 30% on the back foot, 70% on the front foot.[138]

Apart from the brands, many independent teachers, for example in Britain, offer an unbranded "hatha yoga".[113]

Types

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Further information:List of asanas

Asanas can be classified in different ways, which may overlap: for example, by the position of the head and feet (standing,sitting,reclining, inverted), by whether balancing is required, or by the effect on the spine (forward bend,backbend,twist), giving a set of asana types agreed by most authors.[145][146][147]Mittra uses his own categories such as "Floor & Supine Poses".[63]Darren Rhodes and others add "Core strength",[148][149][150]while Yogapedia andYoga Journalalso add "Hip-opening" to that set.[151][152] The table shows an example of each of these types of asana, with the title and approximate date of the earliest document describing (not only naming) that asana.

Types of asana, with dates and examples
Type Described Date Example English Image
Standing TK 20th C. Parsvakonasana Side angle
Sitting
Meditation		 GS1:10–12 10th–11th C. Siddhasana Accomplished
Reclining HYP1:34 15th C. Shavasana Corpse
Inverted HY 11th C. Sirsasana Yoga
headstand
Balancing VS 13th C. Kukkutasana Cockerel
Forward bend HYP1:30 15th C. Paschimottanasana Seated Forward Bend
Backbend HYP1:27 15th C. Dhanurasana Bow
Twisting HYP1.28–29 15th C. Ardha
Matsyendrasana		 Half Lord of
the Fishes
Hip-opening HYP1:20 15th C. Gomukhasana Cow Face
Core strength ST 19th C. Navasana Boat

In culture

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In religious art

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Jambhala,the Buddhist god of riches, seated inLalitasana.Nepal, 1643
Further information:Lotus position

ReligiousIndian artmakes use of a variety of seated asanas for figures ofBuddha,Shiva,and other gods and religious figures. Most are meditation seats, especially the lotus position, Padmasana, butLalitasanaand its "royal ease" variant are not.[153][154]Jaintirthankarasare often shown seated in the meditation asanas Siddhasana and Padmasana.[155][156]

In literature

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The actressMariel Hemingway's 2002autobiographyFinding My Balance: A Memoir with Yogadescribes how she used yoga to recover balance in her life after a dysfunctional upbringing: among other things, her grandfather, the novelistErnest Hemingway,killed himself shortly before she was born, and her sisterMargauxkilled herself with a drug overdose. Each chapter is titled after an asana, the first being "Mountain Pose, orTadasana",the posture of standing in balance. Other chapters are titled after poses including Trikonasana, Virabhadrasana,Janusirsasana,Ustrasana,Sarvangasana, and finallyGarudasana,in each case with some life lesson related to the pose. For example, Garudasana, "a balancing posture with the arms and legs intricately intertwined... requires some flexibility, a lot of trust, and most of all, balance"; the chapter recounts how she, her husband and her daughters all came close to drowning in canoes offKauai,Hawaii.[157][158]

Among yoganovelsis the author and yoga teacherEdward Vilga's 2014Downward Dog,named for Adho Mukha Svanasana, which paints a humorously unflattering picture of a man of the world who decides to become a private yoga teacher in New York society.[159][160]Ian Fleming's 1964 novelYou Only Live Twicehas the action heroJames Bondvisiting Japan, where he "assiduously practised sitting in the lotus position."[161]The critic Lisa M. Dresner notes that Bond is mirroring Fleming's own struggles with the pose.[162]

Notes

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  1. ^Paśupati,"Lord of beasts", is a name of the later Hindu godShiva.
  2. ^Alakhis 100,000
  3. ^ab84's symbolism may derive from its astrological and numerological properties: it is the product of 7, the number of planets inastrology,and 12, the number ofsigns of the zodiac,while innumerology,7 is the sum of 3 and 4, and 12 is the product, i.e. 84 is (3+4)×(3×4).[29]
  4. ^The posture has the left arm supporting the body and the left leg behind the neck, as inChakorasana,and Omkarasana, but with the right arm bent, not supporting the body.
  5. ^TheHatha Ratnavali's list of 84 asanas is
  6. ^The 11 are Karmukasana, Hamsasana,Cakrasana,Kurmasana,Citrapitha,Goraksasana,Angusthasana,Vyaghrasana,Sara(la)bhasana,Krauncasana,Drdhasana.
  7. ^The 32 "useful" asanas of theGheranda Samhitaare:Siddhasana,Padmasana,Bhadrasana,Muktasana,Vajrasana,Svastikasana,Simhasana,Gomukhasana,Virasana,Dhanurasana,Mritasana,Guptasana,Matsyasana,Matsyendrasana,Gorakshanasana,Paschimottanasana,Utkatasana,Sankatasana,Mayurasana,Kukkutasana,Kurmasana,Uttanakurmakasana,Uttana Mandukasana,Vrikshasana,Mandukasana,Garudasana,Vrishasana,Shalabhasana,Makarasana,Ushtrasana,Bhujangasana,andYogasana.[36]
  8. ^84 names of asanas are listed; not all can now be identified.
  9. ^Bernard's book contains 37 photographs of himself performing asanas and mudras.[93]

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