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Anatolia

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For other uses, seeAnatolia (disambiguation).
"Asia Minor" redirects here. For other uses, seeAsia Minor (disambiguation).

Anatolia(Turkish:Anadolu), also known asAsia Minor,[a]is a peninsula inWest Asiathat makes up the majority of the land area ofTurkey.It is the westernmost protrusion ofAsiaand is geographically bounded by theMediterranean Seato the south, theAegean Seato the west, theTurkish Straitsto the northwest, and theBlack Seato the north. The eastern and southeastern limits have been expanded either to the entirety of Asiatic Turkey[1]or to an imprecise line from theBlack Seato theGulf of Alexandretta.[2]Topographically, theSea of Marmaraconnects the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea through theBosporusand theDardanelles,and separates Anatolia fromThraceinSoutheast Europe.

Anatolia
Asia Minor
Anadolu(Turkish)
Satellite imagery centred on Anatolia, which accounts for the bulk of modern-dayTurkey
Map of Anatolia (dark green), which is delineated by an imprecise line from theGulf of Alexandrettato theBlack Sea[1][2]
Etymology"The East" (fromGreek:Ἀνατολή,Anatolḗ)
Geography
LocationWest Asia
Coordinates39°N35°E/ 39°N 35°E/39; 35
TypePeninsula
Area537,886 km2(207,679 sq mi)[3]
Capital and largest cityAnkara(pop. 5,803,482)
Demographics
DemonymAnatolian
Languages
Others:
Ethnic groups
Additional information
Time zone

During theNeolithic,Anatolia was an early centre for thedevelopment of farmingafter it originated in the adjacentFertile Crescent.Beginning around 9,000 years ago, there was a major migration ofAnatolian Neolithic FarmersintoEurope,with their descendants coming to dominate the continent as far west as theIberian Peninsulaand theBritish Isles.

Theearliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia,who were neitherIndo-EuropeannorSemitic,were gradually absorbed by the incoming Indo-EuropeanAnatolian peoples,who spoke the now-extinctAnatolian languages.The major Anatolian languages includedHittite,Luwian,andLydian;other local languages, albeit poorly attested, includedPhrygianandMysian.TheHurro-Urartian languageswere spoken throughoutMitanniin the southeast, whileGalatian,aCeltic language,was spoken throughoutGalatiain the central peninsula. Among the other peoples who established a significant presence inancient Anatoliawere theGalatians,theHurrians,theAssyrians,theArmenians,theHattians,and theCimmerians,as well as some of theancient Greek tribes,including theIonians,theDorians,and theAeolians.In the era ofclassical antiquity(seeClassical Anatolia), the Anatolian languages were largely replaced by theGreek language,which came to further dominate the region during theHellenistic periodand theRoman period.

TheByzantine periodsaw the decline of Greek influence throughout the peninsula as theByzantine–Seljuk warsenabled the incomingSeljuk Turksto establish a foothold in the region. Thus, the process of Anatolia'sTurkificationbegan under theSeljuk Empirein the late 11th century and continued under theOttoman Empireuntil the early 20th century, when theOttoman dynastycollapsed in theaftermath of World War I.Between 1894 and 1924, millions of non-Turkic peoplesandChristianswere suppressed andremoved by the Ottoman Turkish authoritiesfrom the bulk of the area of modern-day Turkey. Nonetheless, a variety of non-Turkic languagescontinue to be spoken by ethnic minorities in Anatolia today, includingArabic,Kurdish,Neo-Aramaic,Armenian,theNorth Caucasian languages,Laz,Georgian,and Greek.

Geography

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Main article:Geography of Turkey
Europe during theLast Glacial Maximum,c. 20,000 years ago. Anatolia was connected to the European mainland untilc. 5600 BCE,[7][8][9]when the meltingice sheetscaused thesea levelin theMediterraneanto rise around 120 m (390 ft),[8][9]triggering the formation of theTurkish Straits.[7][8][9]As a result, two formerlakes(theSea of Marmaraand theBlack Sea)[7]were connected to theMediterranean Sea,which separated Anatolia from Europe.

Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from theGulf of Alexandrettato theBlack Sea,[10]coterminous with theAnatolian Plateau.This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition ofMerriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary.[2]Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by theArmenian Highlands,and theEuphratesbefore that river bends to the southeast to enterMesopotamia.[11]To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from theOrontesvalley inSyriaand the Mesopotamian plain.[11]

Following theArmenian genocide,Western Armeniawas renamedtheEastern Anatolia Regionby the newly established Turkish government.[12][13]In 1941, with theFirst Geography Congresswhich divided Turkey intoseven geographical regionsbased on differences in climate and landscape, the easternprovinces of Turkeywere placed into theEastern Anatolia Region,[14]which largely corresponds to the historical region ofWestern Armenia(named as such after the division ofGreater Armeniabetween theRoman/Byzantine Empire(Western Armenia) andSassanid Persia(Eastern Armenia) in 387 AD). Vazken Davidian terms the expanded use of "Anatolia" to apply to territory in eastern Turkey that was formerly referred to asArmenia(which had a sizeableArmenianpopulation before theArmenian genocide) an "ahistorical imposition" and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring to the Ottoman East as "Eastern Anatolia".[15][12][13]

The highest mountain in theEastern Anatolia Region(also the highest peak in theArmenian Highlands) isMount Ararat(5123 m).[16]TheEuphrates,Aras,KarasuandMurat riversconnect the Armenian Highlands to theSouth Caucasusand the Upper Euphrates Valley. Along with theÇoruh,these rivers are the longest in the Eastern Anatolia Region.[17]

Etymology

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The English-language nameAnatoliaderives from theGreekἈνατολή(Anatolḗ) meaning "the East" and designating (from a Greek point of view) eastern regions in general. The Greek word refers to the direction where the sun rises, coming fromἀνατέλλωanatello'(Ι) rise up', comparable to terms in other languages such as "levant"from Latinlevo'to rise', "orient"from Latinorior'to arise, to originate',Hebrewמִזְרָחmizraḥ'east' fromזָרַחzaraḥ'to rise, to shine',Aramaicמִדְנָחmidnaḥfromדְּנַחdenaḥ'to rise, to shine'.[18][19]

The use of Anatolian designations has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to theAeolian,IonianandDoriancolonies situated along the eastern coasts of theAegean Sea,but also encompassing eastern regions in general. Such use of Anatolian designations was employed during the reign of Roman EmperorDiocletian(r. 284–305), who created theDiocese of the East,known in Greek as the Eastern Diocese, but completely unrelated to the regions of Asia Minor. In their widest territorial scope, Anatolian designations were employed during the reign of Roman EmperorConstantine I(306–337), who created thePraetorian prefecture of the East,known in Greek as the Eastern Prefecture, encompassing all eastern regions of theLate Roman Empireand spanning fromThracetoEgypt.

Only after the loss of other eastern regions during the 7th century and the reduction ofByzantineeastern domains to Asia Minor, that region became the only remaining part of theByzantine East,and thus commonly referred to (in Greek) as the Eastern part of the Empire. At the same time, theAnatolic Theme(Ἀνατολικὸν θέμα/ "the Eastern theme" ) was created, as a province (theme) covering the western and central parts of Turkey's present-dayCentral Anatolia Region,centered aroundIconium,but ruled from the city ofAmorium.[20][21]

The Latinized form "Anatolia",with its-iaending, is probably aMedieval Latininnovation.[19]The modern Turkish formAnadoluderives directly from the Greek nameAνατολή(Anatolḗ). The Russian male nameAnatoly,the FrenchAnatoleand plainAnatol,all stemming from saintsAnatolius of Laodicea(d. 283) andAnatolius of Constantinople(d. 458; the firstPatriarch of Constantinople), share the same linguistic origin.

Names

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Further information:Place name changes in Turkey

The oldest known name for any region within Anatolia is related to its central area, known as the "Land ofHatti"– a designation that was initially used for the land of ancientHattians,but later became the most common name for the entire territory under the rule of ancientHittites.[22]

The first recorded name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula, though not particularly popular at the time, wasἈσία(Asía),[23]perhaps from an Akkadian expression for the "sunrise" or possibly echoing the name of theAssuwa leaguein western Anatolia.[citation needed]The Romans used it as the name of theirprovince,comprising the west of the peninsula plus the nearbyAegean Islands.As the name "Asia" broadened its scope to apply to the vaster region east of the Mediterranean, some Greeks inLate Antiquitycame to use the name Asia Minor (Μικρὰ Ἀσία,Mikrà Asía), meaning "Lesser Asia" to refer to present-day Anatolia, whereas the administration of the Empire preferred the description Ἀνατολή (Anatolḗ;lit. 'the East').

TheendonymῬωμανία (Rōmanía"the land of the Romans, i.e. the Eastern Roman Empire" ) was understood as another name for the province by the invadingSeljuq Turks,who founded aSultanate of Rûmin 1077. Thus (land of the)Rûmbecame another name for Anatolia. By the 12th century Europeans had started referring to Anatolia asTurchia.[24]

During the era of theOttoman Empire,many mapmakers referred to the mountainous plateau in eastern Anatolia asArmenia.Other contemporary sources called the same areaKurdistan.[25]Geographers have usedEast Anatolian plateau,Armenian plateauand theIranian plateauto refer to the region; the former two largely overlap.[26]While a standard definition of Anatolia refers to the entire Asian side of Turkey, according to archaeologist Lori Khatchadourian, this difference in terminology "primarily result[s] from the shifting political fortunes and cultural trajectories of the region since the nineteenth century".[26]

Turkey'sFirst Geography Congressin 1941 created twogeographical regions of Turkeyto the east of the Gulf of Iskenderun-Black Sea line, theEastern Anatolia Regionand theSoutheastern Anatolia Region,[27]the former largely corresponding to the western part of the Armenian Highlands, the latter to the northern part of the Mesopotamian plain. According toRichard Hovannisian,this changing of toponyms was "necessary to obscure all evidence" of theArmenianpresence as part of the policy ofArmenian genocide denialembarked upon by the newly established Turkish government and what Hovannisian calls its "foreign collaborators".[28]

History

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Main article:History of Anatolia

Prehistoric Anatolia

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ThehengesinGöbekli Tepewere erected as far back as 9600 BC.
Main article:Prehistory of Anatolia

Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to thePaleolithic.[29]Neolithic settlements includeÇatalhöyük,Çayönü,Nevali Cori,Aşıklı Höyük,Boncuklu Höyük,Hacilar,Göbekli Tepe,Norşuntepe,Köşk Höyük,andYumuktepe.Çatalhöyük (7.000 BCE) is considered the most advanced of these.[30]Recent advances in archaeogenetics have confirmed that thespread of agriculturefrom the Middle East to Europe was strongly correlated with themigrationofearly farmers from Anatoliaabout 9,000 years ago, and was not just a cultural exchange.[31]Anatolian Neolithic farmers derived most of their ancestry from localAnatolian hunter-gatherers,suggesting that agriculture was adopted in site by these hunter-gatherers and not spread bydemic diffusioninto the region.[32]Anatolian derived Neolithic Farmers would subsequently spread across Europe, as far west as the Iberian Peninsula and the British Isles,[33][34]as well as to theMaghreb.[35]Most modern Europeans derive a significant part of their ancestry from these Neolithic Anatolian farmers.[36]

NeolithicAnatolia has beenproposedas thehomelandof theIndo-European language family,although linguists tend to favour alater originin the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that theAnatolian languages,the earliest attested branch of Indo-European, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BCE.[37][38]

Ancient Anatolia

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Main articles:List of ancient kingdoms of AnatoliaandAncient regions of Anatolia

The earliest historical data related to Anatolia appear during theBronze Ageand continue throughout theIron Age.The most ancient period in thehistory of Anatoliaspans from the emergence of ancientHattians,up to the conquest of Anatolia by theAchaemenid Empirein the 6th century BCE.

Hattians and Hurrians

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Main articles:HattiansandHurrians

The earliest historically attested populations of Anatolia were theHattiansin central Anatolia, andHurriansfurther to the east. The Hattians were an indigenous people, whose main center was the city ofHattush.Affiliation ofHattian languageremains unclear, whileHurrian languagebelongs to a distinctive family ofHurro-Urartian languages.All of those languages are extinct; relationships with indigenouslanguages of the Caucasushave been proposed,[39]but are not generally accepted. The region became famous for exporting raw materials. Organized trade between Anatolia andMesopotamiastarted to emerge during the period of theAkkadian Empire,and was continued and intensified during the period of theOld Assyrian Empire,between the 21st and the 18th centuries BCE. Assyrian traders were bringing tin and textiles in exchange for copper, silver or gold. Cuneiform records, datedc. 20th century BCE,found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony ofKanesh,use an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.[40][41][42]

Hittite Anatolia (18th–12th century BCE)

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Main article:Hittites
The Sphinx Gate inHattusa

Unlike the Akkadians and Assyrians, whose Anatolian trading posts were peripheral to their core lands inMesopotamia,theHittiteswere centered atHattusa(modern Boğazkale) in north-central Anatolia by the 17th century BCE. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, theHittite language,ornesili(the language of Nesa) in Hittite. The Hittites originated from local ancient cultures that grew in Anatolia, in addition to the arrival of Indo-European languages. Attested for the first time in the Assyrian tablets ofNesaaround 2000 BCE, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BCE, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the widely acceptedKurgan theoryon theProto-Indo-European homeland,however, the Hittites (along with the other Indo-Europeanancient Anatolians) were themselves relatively recentimmigrantsto Anatolia from the north. However, they did not necessarily displace the population genetically; they assimilated into the former peoples' culture, preserving the Hittite language.

The Hittites adopted the Mesopotamiancuneiform script.In the Late Bronze Age,Hittite New Kingdom(c. 1650 BCE) was founded, becoming an empire in the 14th century BCE after the conquest ofKizzuwatnain the south-east and the defeat of theAssuwa leaguein western Anatolia. The empire reached its height in the 13th century BCE, controlling much of Asia Minor, northwesternSyria,and northwest upper Mesopotamia. However, the Hittite advance toward the Black Sea coast was halted by the semi-nomadic pastoralist and tribalKaskians,a non-Indo-European people who had earlier displaced thePalaic-speakingIndo-Europeans.[43]Much of the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war with the rival empires ofEgypt,Assyriaand theMitanni.[44]

TheAncient Egyptianseventually withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire.[44]The Assyrians and Hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories inSyria.The Assyrians had better success than the Egyptians, anne xing much Hittite (and Hurrian) territory in these regions.[45]

Post-Hittite Anatolia (12th–6th century BCE)

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TheTheatre at Halicarnassus(modernBodrum) was built in the 4th century BC byMausolus,thePersiansatrap(governor) ofCaria.TheMausoleum at Halicarnassuswas one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World.[46][47]
TheLibrary of CelsusinEphesuswas built by theRomansin 114–117.[48]TheTemple of Artemisin Ephesus, built by kingCroesusofLydiain the 6th century BC, was one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World.[49]

After 1180 BCE, during theLate Bronze Age collapse,the Hittite Empire disintegrated into several independentSyro-Hittite states,subsequent to losing much territory to theMiddle Assyrian Empireand being finally overrun by thePhrygians,another Indo-European people who are believed to have migrated from theBalkans.The Phrygian expansion into southeast Anatolia was eventually halted by the Assyrians, who controlled that region.[45]

Luwians

Another Indo-European people, theLuwians,rose to prominence in central and western Anatoliac. 2000BCE.Their languagebelonged to the same linguistic branch asHittite.[50]The general consensus amongst scholars is that Luwian was spoken across a large area of western Anatolia, including (possibly)Wilusa(Troy), the Seha River Land (to be identified with theHermosand/orKaikosvalley), and the kingdom of Mira-Kuwaliya with its core territory of the Maeander valley.[51]From the 9th century BCE, Luwian regions coalesced into a number of states such asLydia,Caria,andLycia,all of which hadHellenicinfluence.

Arameans

Arameansencroached over the borders of south-central Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the Hittite empire, and some of the Syro-Hittite states in this region became an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans. These became known asSyro-Hittite states.

Neo-Assyrian Empire
Fairy chimneys inCappadocia

From the 10th to late 7th centuries BCE, much of Anatolia (particularly the southeastern regions) fell to theNeo-Assyrian Empire,including all of theSyro-Hittite states,Tabal,Commagene,theCimmeriansandScythians,and swathes ofCappadocia.

The Neo-Assyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series of civil wars followed by a combined attack byMedes,Persians,Scythians and their ownBabylonianrelations. The last Assyrian city to fall wasHarranin southeast Anatolia. This city was the birthplace of the last king ofBabylon,the AssyrianNabonidusand his son and regentBelshazzar.Much of the region then fell to the short-lived Iran-basedMedian Empire,with the Babylonians and Scythians briefly appropriating some territory.

Cimmerian and Scythian invasions

From the late 8th century BCE, a new wave of Indo-European-speaking raiders entered northern and northeast Anatolia: theCimmeriansandScythians.The Cimmerians overranPhrygiaand the Scythians threatened to do the same toUrartuandLydia,before both were finally checked by the Assyrians.

Early Greek presence
TheSebasteion(left) andTetrapylon(right) inAphrodisiasofCaria,which was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site List in 2017.

The north-western coast of Anatolia was inhabited by Greeks of theAchaean/Mycenaeanculture from the 20th century BCE, related to the Greeks of southeastern Europe and theAegean.[52]Beginning with theBronze Age collapseat the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the west coast of Anatolia was settled byIonian Greeks,usurping the area of the related but earlierMycenaean Greeks.Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greekcity-stateswere established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia (Pre-Socratic philosophy).[52]

Classical Anatolia

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Main article:Classical Anatolia

InClassical antiquity,Anatolia was described by the Ancient Greek historianHerodotusand later historians as divided into regions that were diverse in culture, language, and religious practices.[53]The northern regions includedBithynia,Paphlagonia,andPontus;to the west wereMysia,Lydia,and Caria; andLycia,Pamphylia,andCiliciabelonged to the southern shore. There were also several inland regions:Phrygia,Cappadocia,Pisidia,andGalatia.[53]Languages spoken included the late survivingAnatolic languages,Isaurian,[54]andPisidian,Greek in western and coastal regions,Phrygianspoken until the 7th century CE,[55]local variants ofThracianin the northwest, theGalatian variant of GaulishinGalatiauntil the 6th century CE,[56][57][58]Cappadocianin the homonymous region,[59]Armenianin the east, andKartvelian languagesin the northeast.

Anatolia is known as the birthplace of mintedcoinage(as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears inMesopotamiaat a much earlier date) as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BCE in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during theGreekandRomaneras.[60][61]

During the 6th century BCE, all of Anatolia was conquered by thePersianAchaemenid Empire,the Persians having usurped theMedesas thedominant dynasty of Persia.In 499 BCE, theIoniancity-states on the west coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule. TheIonian Revolt,as it became known, though quelled, initiated theGreco-Persian Wars,which ended in a Greek victory in 449 BCE, and the Ionian cities regained their independence. By thePeace of Antalcidas(387 BCE), which ended theCorinthian War,Persia regained control over Ionia.[62][63]

In 334 BCE, theMacedonianGreek kingAlexander the Greatconquered the Anatolian peninsula from the Achaemenid Persian Empire.[64]Alexander's conquest opened up the interior of Asia Minor to Greek settlement and influence.

Sanctuary of the Kings ofCommageneonMount Nemrut(1st century BCE)

Following the death of Alexander the Great and the subsequent breakup of theMacedonian Empire,Anatolia was ruled by a series of Hellenistic kingdoms, such as theAttalids of Pergamumand theSeleucids,the latter controlling most of Anatolia. A period of peacefulHellenizationfollowed, such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BCE. In 133 BCE the last Attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to theRoman Republic;western and central Anatolia came underRoman control,butHellenistic cultureremained predominant.

Mithridates VI Eupator,ruler of theKingdom of Pontusin northern Anatolia, waged war against theRoman Republicin the year 88 BCE in order to halt the advance of Romanhegemonyin theAegean Searegion. Mithridates VI sought to dominate Asia Minor and theBlack Searegion, waging several hard-fought but ultimately unsuccessful wars (theMithridatic Wars) to break Roman dominion over Asia and theHellenic world.[65]He has been called the greatest ruler of the Kingdom of Pontus.[66]Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus byPompey,brought all of Anatolia underRoman control,except for the southeastern frontier with theParthian Empire,which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of military conflicts that culminated in theRoman–Parthian Wars(54 BCE – 217 CE).

Early Christian period

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Main articles:Christianity as the Roman state religionandSpread of Christianity
Further information:Christianity in late antiquityandCrisis of the Third Century
Roman Empirein 117 CE at its greatest extent, at the time ofTrajan's death.
vassal states[67]
TheSeven churches of Asia

After thefirst division of the Roman Empire,Anatolia became part of theEastern Roman Empire,otherwise known as the Byzantine Empire orByzantium.[68]In the 1st century CE, Anatolia becameone of the first places where Christianity spread,so that by the 4th century CE, western and central Anatolia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking.[68]

Byzantine Anatolia was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated places in theLater Roman Empire.Anatolia's wealth grew during the 4th and 5th centuries thanks, in part, to thePilgrim's Roadthat ran through the peninsula. Literary evidence about the rural landscape stems from theChristian hagiographiesof the 6th-centuryNicholas of Sionand 7th-centuryTheodore of Sykeon.Large and prosperous urban centers of Byzantine Anatolia includedAssos,Ephesus,Miletus,Nicaea,Pergamum,Priene,Sardis,andAphrodisias.[68]

From the mid-5th century onwards, urbanism was affected negatively and began to decline, while the rural areas reached unprecedented levels of prosperity in the region.[68]Historians and scholars continue to debate the cause of the urban decline in Byzantine Anatolia between the 6th and 7th centuries,[68]variously attributing it to thePlague of Justinian(541), theByzantine–Sasanian War(602–628), and theArab invasion of the Levant(634–638).[69]

Medieval period

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Further information:Byzantine Anatolia
See also:List of states in late medieval Anatolia
Byzantine Anatoliaand theByzantine-Arab frontier zonein the mid-9th century

In the 10 years following theBattle of Manzikertin 1071, theSeljuk Turksfrom Central Asia migrated over large areas of Anatolia, with particular concentrations around the northwestern rim.[70]The Turkish language and the Islamic religion were gradually introduced as a result of the Seljuk conquest, and this period marks the start of Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking, to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking (although ethnic groups such as Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians remained numerous and retained Christianity and their native languages). In the following century, the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern Anatolia. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Byzantine Empire and the SeljukSultanate of Rûm,with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.[71]

Settlements and regions affected during the first wave ofTurkish invasionsin Asia Minor (11th–13th century)

In 1255, theMongolsswept through eastern and central Anatolia, and would remain until 1335. TheIlkhanategarrison was stationed nearAnkara.[71][72]After the decline of the Ilkhanate from 1335 to 1353, theMongol Empire's legacy in the region was theUyghurEretna Dynastythat was overthrown byKadi Burhan al-Dinin 1381.[73]

By the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by variousAnatolian beyliks.Smyrna fell in 1330, and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia, Philadelphia, fell in 1390. TheTurkmenBeyliks were under the control of the Mongols, at least nominally, through declining Seljuk sultans.[74][75]The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of theMongolIlkhanids.[76]TheOsmanlirulerOsman Iwas the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320s; they bear the legend "Minted by Osman son of Ertugrul".[77]Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to asovereign,it can be considered that the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, had become formally independent from the Mongol Khans.[78]

Ottoman Empire

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Further information:Ottoman Empire
Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empirebetween 1359 and 1683

Among theTurkishleaders, theOttomansemerged as great power underOsman Iand his sonOrhan.[79][80]TheAnatolian beylikswere successively absorbed into the risingOttoman Empireduring the 15th century.[81]It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, orOttoman Turks,came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known.[82]The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking ofHalicarnassus(modernBodrum) from theKnights of Saint John.[83]

Modern times

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Further information:History of Turkey
Ethnic map of Asia Minor in 1905–06

With the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of theRussian Empirein theCaucasus,many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainlyCircassians,Tatars,Azeris,Lezgis,Chechensand severalTurkicgroups left their homelands and settled in Anatolia. As the Ottoman Empire further shrank in theBalkanregions and then fragmented during theBalkan Wars,much of the non-Christian populations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Muslims (Bosniaks,Albanians,Turks,Muslim BulgariansandGreek Muslimssuch as theVallahadesfromGreek Macedonia), were resettled in various parts of Anatolia, mostly in formerly Christian villages throughout Anatolia.

St. Polycarp Kilisesi Church, in modern dayIzmir.

A continuous reverse migration occurred since the early 19th century, when Greeks from Anatolia,Constantinopleand Pontus area migrated toward the newly independentKingdom of Greece,and also towards theUnited States,the southern part of theRussian Empire,Latin America, and the rest of Europe.

Mosque inAnkara

Following the Russo-PersianTreaty of Turkmenchay(1828) and the incorporation of Eastern Armenia into the Russian Empire, another migration involved the large Armenian population of Anatolia, which recorded significant migration rates from Western Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) toward the Russian Empire, especially toward its newly established Armenian provinces.[84]

Anatolia remainedmulti-ethnicuntil the early 20th century (see therise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire). During World War I, theArmenian genocide,theGreek genocide(especially inPontus), and theAssyrian genocidealmost entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities ofArmenian,Greek,andAssyrianpopulations in Anatolia and surrounding regions. Following theGreco-Turkish War of 1919–1922,most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced out during the 1923population exchange between Greece and Turkey.Of the remainder, most have left Turkey since then, leaving fewer than 5,000 Greeks in Anatolia today.[85]According to Morris and Ze'evi, 4 million christians were ethnically cleansed from Asia minor by the Turks from 1894 to 1924.[86]

Geology

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Salty shores ofLake Tuz

Anatolia's terrain is structurally complex. A centralmassifcomposed of uplifted blocks and downfoldedtroughs,covered by recentdepositsand giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Aegean, Mediterranean, and the Black Sea coasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of theKızıl River,the coastal plains ofÇukurovaand the valley floors of theGediz Riverand theBüyük Menderes Riveras well as some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly aroundLake Tuz(Salt Lake) and theKonyaBasin (Konya Ovasi).

There are two mountain ranges in southern Anatolia: theTaurusand theZagrosmountains.[87]

Climate

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Main article:Climate of Turkey
  • Temperatures of Anatolia
  • Ankara(central Anatolia)
  • Antalya(southern Anatolia)
  • Van(eastern Anatolia)

Anatolia has a varied range of climates. The central plateau is characterized by a continental climate, with hot summers and cold snowy winters. The south and west coasts enjoy a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild rainy winters, and warm dry summers.[88]The Black Sea and Marmara coasts have a temperate oceanic climate, with warm, foggy summers and much rainfall throughout the year.

Ecoregions

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Mediterranean climateis prevalent in theTurkish Riviera
Anatolia's dry central plateau

There is a diverse number of plant and animal communities.

The mountains and coastal plain of northern Anatolia experience a humid and mild climate. There aretemperate broadleaf, mixedandconiferousforests. The central and eastern plateau, with its driercontinental climate,has deciduous forests and forest steppes. Western and southern Anatolia, which have aMediterranean climate,containMediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrubecoregions.

A panorama of thePontic Mountainsin theBlack Sea Regionof northern Anatolia, Turkey

Demographics

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Main article:Demographics of Turkey

The largest cities in Anatolia (aside from the Asian side ofIstanbul) areAnkara,İzmir,Bursa,Antalya,Konya,Adana,İzmit,Mersin,Manisa,Kayseri,Samsun,Balıkesir,Kahramanmaraş,Aydın,Adapazarı,Denizli,Muğla,Eskişehir,Trabzon,Ordu,Afyonkarahisar,Sivas,Tokat,Zonguldak,Kütahya,Çanakkale,OsmaniyeandÇorum.All have populations of more than 500,000.[citation needed]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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  1. ^Additional alternative names includeAsian/Asiatic Turkey,theAnatolian Peninsula,and theAnatolian Plateau.

References

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Citations

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  1. ^ab
    • McColl 2014,p. 922: "Thrace, its European area, is about the size of VERMONT at 9,412 square mi (24,378 square km). Its Asian area (Asia Minor) is called Anatolia and covers 291,971 square mi (756,202 square km)"
    • Cohen 2008,p. 125: "Anatolia, [Gr.=sunrise], Asiatic part of Turkey; its area covers 97% of all Turkey"
    • Tockner, Uehlinger & Robinson 2009:"About 97% of the country is in Asia Minor (Anatolia) and 3% in Europe (Thrace)"
    • "Turkey".The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.Retrieved20 February2024.:"the 97% of the country in Asia is referred to as Anatolia"
    • "Anatolia".Encyclopedia Britannica.Retrieved29 February2024.:"Anatolia, the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey"
    • Steadman & McMahon 2011,p. 466
    • Howard 2016,p. 7
    • Helen Chapin Metz, ed. (1995)."Turkey: A Country Study | Geography".Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.Retrieved31 May2024.:"The Asian part of the country is known by a variety of names--Asia Minor, Asiatic Turkey, the Anatolian Plateau, and Anatolia (Anadolu)"
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Sources

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Further reading

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Library resourcesabout
Anatolia
  • Akat, Yücel, Neşe Özgünel, and Aynur Durukan. 1991.Anatolia: A World Heritage.Ankara: Kültür Bakanliǧi.
  • Brewster, Harry. 1993.Classical Anatolia: The Glory of Hellenism.London: I. B. Tauris.
  • Donbaz, Veysel, and Şemsi Güner. 1995.The Royal Roads of Anatolia.Istanbul: Dünya.
  • Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. 2013.Empire, Authority, and Autonomy In Achaemenid Anatolia.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Gates, Charles, Jacques Morin, and Thomas Zimmermann. 2009.Sacred Landscapes In Anatolia and Neighboring Regions.Oxford: Archaeopress.
  • Mikasa, Takahito, ed. 1999.Essays On Ancient Anatolia.Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
  • Takaoğlu, Turan. 2004.Ethnoarchaeological Investigations In Rural Anatolia.İstanbul: Ege Yayınları.
  • Taracha, Piotr. 2009.Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia.Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
  • Taymaz, Tuncay, Y. Yilmaz, and Yildirim Dilek. 2007.The Geodynamics of the Aegean and Anatolia.London: Geological Society.
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  • Media related toAnatoliaat Wikimedia Commons
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