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Aṣṭādhyāyī

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TheAṣṭādhyāyī(Sanskrit:[ɐ.ʂʈaː.ˈdʰjaː.jiː],Devanagari:अष्टाध्यायी) is a grammar text that describes a form of theSanskritlanguage.

Authored by Sanskrit philologist and scholarPāṇiniand dated to around 350 BCE,[1]it describes the language as current in his time, specifically the dialect and register of an élite of model speakers, referred to by Pāṇini himself asśiṣṭa.The work also accounts both for some features specific to the olderVedicform of the language, as well as certain dialectal features current in the author's time.

TheAṣṭādhyāyīemploys aderivationalsystem to describe the language, where real speech is derived from posited abstract utterances formed by means of affixes added to bases under certain conditions.

The Aṣṭādhyāyī is supplemented by three ancillary texts:Akṣarasamāmnāya,Dhātupāṭha[A]andGaṇapāṭha.[B][2]

Palm-leaf pagefrom a version ofAṣṭādhyāyīinGrantha script.

Etymology

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Aṣṭādhyāyīis made of two wordsaṣṭa-,'eight' andadhyāya-,'chapter', thus meaning eight-chaptered, or 'the book of eight chapters'.[3]

Background

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Grammatical tradition

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By 1000 BCE, a large body of hymns composed in the oldest attested form of theProto-Indo-Aryan languagehad been consolidated into theRigveda,which formed the canonical basis of the Vedic religion, being transmitted from generation to generation entirely orally.

In the course of the following centuries, as the popular speech evolved, growing concern among the guardians of the Vedic religion that the hymns be passed on without 'corruption' led to the rise of a vigorous, sophisticated grammatical tradition involving the study of linguistic analysis, in particular phonetics alongside grammar. The high point of this centuries-long endeavour was Pāṇini'sAṣṭādhyāyī,which eclipsed all others before him.[4][5][6]

While not the first, theAṣṭādhyāyīis the oldest linguistic and grammar text, and one of the oldest Sanskrit texts, surviving in its entirety. Pāṇini refers to older texts such as theUnādisūtra,Dhātupāṭha,andGaṇapāthabut some of these have only survived in part.[7]

Arrangement

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TheAṣṭādhyāyīconsists of 3,995 sūtras[C]in eight chapters, which are each subdivided into four sections or pādas. There are different types of sūtras, with thevidhisūtra– operational rules, being the main one. The other, ancillary sūtras, are:[8]

  • paribhāṣā– metarules
  • adhikāra– headings
  • atideśa-sūtra– extension rules
  • niyama-sūtra– restrictive rules
  • pratiṣedha- & niṣedha-sūtra– negation rules
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TheAṣṭādhyāyīis the foundation ofVyākaraṇa,one of the Vedic ancillary fields (Vedāṅgas),[9]and complements others such as theNiruktas,Nighaṇṭus,andŚikṣā.[10]Regarded as extremely compact without sacrificing completeness, it would become the model for later specialist technical texts orsūtras.[11]

Method

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The text takes material from lexical lists (Dhātupāṭha,Gaṇapātha) as input and describes algorithms to be applied to them for the generation of well-formed words. It is highly systematised and technical. Inherent in its approach are the concepts of thephoneme,themorphemeand theroot.[a]A consequence of his grammar's focus on brevity is its highly unintuitive structure, reminiscent of modern notations such as the "Backus–Naur form".[citation needed]His sophisticated logical rules and technique have been widely influential in ancient and modern linguistics.[citation needed]

Pāṇini makes use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology, and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced.[13][b]

Commentarial tradition

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TheAṣṭādhyāyī,composed in an era when oral composition and transmission was the norm, is staunchly embedded in that oral tradition. In order to ensure wide dissemination, Pāṇini is said to have preferred brevity over clarity[15]– it can be recited end-to-end in two hours. This has led to the emergence of a great number of commentaries[α]of his work over the centuries, which for the most part adhere to the foundations laid by Pāṇini's work.[16][4]

The most famous and among the most ancient of theseBhāṣyasis theMahābhāṣya[c][17]of Patañjali.[18][19][d][e][f]Non-Hindu texts and traditions on grammar emerged after Patañjali, some of which include the Sanskrit grammar text of Jainendra of Jainism and the Chandra school of Buddhism.

Critical responses

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In theAṣṭādhyāyī,language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, defines the linguistic expression and a classic that set the standard for Sanskrit language.[21]

Rules

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The first two sutras are as follows:

1.1.1vṛddhir ādaiC[i]
1.1.2adeṄ guṇaḥ[ii]

In these sutras, the letters which here are put into the upper case actually are special meta-linguisticsymbols;they are calledIT[iii]markers or, by later writers such as Katyayana and Patanjali,anubandhas(see below). TheCandṄrefer toShiva Sutras4 ( "ai,au,C ") and 3 ( "e,o,Ṅ "), respectively, forming what are known as thepratyāhāras "comprehensive designations"aiC,eṄ.They denote the list of phonemes {ai,au} and {e,o} respectively. TheT[iv]appearing (in its variant form /d/) in both sutras is also anITmarker: Sutra 1.1.70 defines it as indicating that the preceding phoneme doesnotrepresent a list, but a single phoneme, encompassing all supra-segmental features such as accent and nasality. For further example,āT[v]andaT[vi]representā[vii]anda[viii]respectively.

When a sutra defines the technical term, the term defined comes at the end, so the first sutra should have properly beenādaiJ vṛddhirinstead ofvṛddhir ādaiC.However the orders are reversed to have a good-luck word at the very beginning of the work;vṛddhirhappens to mean 'prosperity' in its non-technical use.

Thus the two sutras consist of a list of phonemes, followed by a technical term; the final interpretation of the two sutras above is thus:

1.1.1: {ā,ai,au} are calledvṛ́ddhi.
1.1.2: {a,e,o} are calledguṇa.

At this point, one can see they are definitions of terminology:guṇaandvṛ́ddhiare the terms for the full and the lengthenedIndo-European ablautgrades, respectively.

List ofITmarkers

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Markers calleditoranubandhaare defined in P. 1.3.2 through P. 1.3.8. These definitions refer only to items taught in the grammar or its ancillary texts such at theDhātupāṭha;this fact is made clear in P. 1.3.2 by the wordupadeśe,which is then continued in the following six rules byanuvṛtti,Ellipsis.As theseanubandhas are metalinguistic markers and not pronounced in the final derived form,pada(word), they are elided by P. 1.3.9tasya lopaḥ– 'There is elision of that (i.e. any of the preceding items which have been defined as anit).' Accordingly, Pāṇini defines theanubandhas as follows:

  1. Nasalized vowels, e.g.bhañjO.Cf. P. 1.3.2.
  2. A final consonant (haL). Cf. P. 1.3.3.
    2. (a) except a dental,mandsin verbal or nominal endings. Cf. P. 1.3.4.
  3. Initialñiṭuḍu.Cf. P 1.3.5
  4. Initialṣof asuffix(pratyaya). Cf. P. 1.3.6.
  5. Initial palatals and cerebrals of a suffix. Cf. P. 1.3.7
  6. Initiall,ś,and velars but not in ataddhita'secondary' suffix. Cf. P. 1.3.8.

A few examples of elements that containits are as follows:

  • suPnominal suffix
  • Ś-IT
    • Śistrong case endings
    • Śluelision
    • ŚaPactive marker
  • P-IT
    • luPelision
    • āPā-stems
      • CāP
      • ṬāP
      • ḌāP
    • LyaP(7.1.37)
  • L-IT
  • K-IT
    • Ktvā
    • luKelision
  • saNDesiderative
  • C-IT
  • M-IT
  • Ṅ-IT
    • ṄíCausative
    • Ṅiiī-stems
      • ṄīP
      • ṄīN
      • Ṅī’Ṣ
    • tiṄverbal suffix
    • lUṄAorist
    • lIṄPrecative
  • S-IT
  • GHUclass of verbal stems (1.1.20)
  • GHI(1.4.7)

Auxiliary texts

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Pāṇini'sAṣṭādhyāyīhas three associated texts.

  • TheŚiva Sūtrasare a brief but highly organised list of phonemes.
  • TheDhātupāṭhais a lexical list of verbal roots (dhātu) sorted by present class.
  • TheGaṇapāṭhais a lexical list of nominal stems grouped (gaṇa,"group" ) by common properties.

Śiva Sūtras

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Main article:Śiva Sūtras

TheŚiva Sūtrasdescribe a phonemic notational system in the fourteen initial lines preceding theAṣṭādhyāyī.The notational system introduces different clusters of phonemes that serve special roles in themorphologyof Sanskrit, and are referred to throughout the text. Each cluster, called apratyāhāra,ends with a dummy sound called ananubandha(the so-calledITindex), which acts as a symbolic referent for the list. Within the main text, these clusters, referred through theanubandhas,are related to various grammatical functions.

Dhātupāṭha

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TheDhātupāṭhais a lexicon of Sanskritverbal roots(dhātu) of classical Sanskrit, indicating their properties and meanings. There are approximately 2300 roots inDhātupāṭha.Of these, 522 roots are often used in classical Sanskrit.

Dhātupāṭhais organised by the ten present classes of Sanskrit, i.e. the roots are grouped by the form of their stem in thepresent tense.

The ten present classes of Sanskrit are:

  1. bhv-ādayaḥ(i.e.,bhū-ādayaḥ) – root-full grade+athematic presents
  2. ad-ādayaḥ– root presents
  3. juhoty-ādayaḥ(i.e.,juhoti-ādayaḥ) – reduplicated presents
  4. div-ādayaḥ–yathematic presents
  5. sv-ādayaḥ(i.e.,su-ādayaḥ) –nupresents
  6. tud-ādayaḥ– root-zero grade+athematic presents
  7. rudh-ādayaḥ–n-infix presents
  8. tan-ādayaḥ–nopresents
  9. kry-ādayaḥ(i.e.,krī-ādayaḥ) –nipresents
  10. cur-ādayaḥ–ayapresents (causatives, denominatives etc.)

The above names are composed of the first verbal root in each class followed byādayaḥ"etc.; and next" –bhv-ādayaḥthus means "the class starting withbhū".

The small number of class 8 verbs are a secondary group derived from class 5 roots, and class 10 is a special case, in that any verb can form class 10 presents, then assuming causative meaning. The roots specifically listed as belonging to class 10 are those for which any other form has fallen out of use (causativedeponents,so to speak, and denominatives).

Gaṇapāṭha

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TheGaṇapāṭhais a list of groups of primitive nominal stems (roots) used by theAṣṭādhyāyī.

Examples of groups include:

  1. Listing of verbal prefixes (upasarga).
  2. Listing of pronouns ( "pronoun" is not an accurate translation but is commonly used as the list includes 'he', 'she', 'it', but also 'all' (from which the group gets its name), 'that').

Commentary

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After Pāṇini, theMahābhāṣyaofPatañjalion the Aṣṭādhyāyī is one of the three most famous works in Sanskrit grammar. It was withPatañjalithat Indian linguistic science reached its definite form. The system thus established is extremely detailed as tośikṣā(phonology,including accent) andvyākaraṇa(morphology). Syntax is scarcely touched, butnirukta(etymology) is discussed, and these etymologies naturally lead tosemanticexplanations. People interpret his work to be a defence of Pāṇini, whosesūtrasare elaborated meaningfully. He also attacksKātyāyanarather severely. But the main contributions ofPatañjalilies in the treatment of the principles of grammar enunciated by him.

Other information

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Pāṇini's work has been one of the important sources of cultural, religious, and geographical information aboutancient India,with he himself being referred to as aHinduscholar of grammar and linguistics.[22][23][24]His work, for example, illustrates the wordVasudeva(4.3.98) as a proper noun in an honorific sense, that can equally mean a divine or an ordinary person. This has been interpreted by scholars as attesting the significance of god Vasudeva (Krishna) or the opposite.[25]The concept ofdharmais attested in his sutra 4.4.41 as,dharmam caratior "he observes dharma (duty, righteousness)" (cf.Taittiriya Upanishad1.11).[26][27]Much social, geographical and historical information has been thus inferred from a close reading of Pāṇini's grammar.[28]

Editions

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  • Rama Nath Sharma,The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini (6 Vols.),2001,ISBN8121500516[29]
  • Otto Böhtlingk,Panini's Grammatik1887, reprint 1998ISBN3-87548-198-4[30]
  • Katre, Sumitra M.,Astadhyayi of Panini,Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987. Reprint Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989.ISBN0-292-70394-5
  • Misra, Vidya Niwas,The Descriptive Technique of Panini,Mouton and Co., 1966.
  • Vasu, Srisa Chandra,The Ashṭádhyáyí of Páṇini.Translated into English, Indian Press, Allahabad, 1898.[31]

Notes

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  1. ^His rules have a reputation for perfection[12]– that is, they tersely describe Sanskrit morphology unambiguously and completely.
  2. ^"Udayanastates that a technical treatise orśāstra,in any discipline, should aspire to clarity (vaiśadya), compactness (laghutā), and completeness (kṛtsnatā). A compilation ofsūtrasmaximises compactness and completeness, at the expense of clarity. Abhāṣyais complete and clear, but not compact. A group of sūtras, a 'section' or prakaraṇa of the whole compilation, is clear and compact, but not complete. The sūtras achieve compactness i) by making sequence significant, ii) letting one item stand for or range over many, and iii) using grammar and lexicon artificially. The background model is always Pāṇini's grammar for the Sanskrit language, theAṣṭādhyāyī,which exploits a range of brevity-enabling devices to compose what has often been described as the tersest and yet most complete grammar of any language. "The monumental multi-volume grammars published in the 20th century (for Sanskrit, theAltindische Grammatik1896–1957) of course set new standards in completeness, but the Aṣṭādhyāyī remains unrivalled in terms of terseness.[14]
  3. ^great commentary
  4. ^Patañjali may or may not be the same person as the one who authoredYogasūtras
  5. ^TheMahābhāṣyais more than a commentary on Aṣṭādhyāyī. It is the earliest known philosophical text of the Hindu Grammarians.
  6. ^The earliest secondary literature on the primary text of Pāṇini are by Kātyāyana (~3rd century BCE) and Patanjali (~2nd century BCE).[20]

Glossary

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  1. ^dhātu:root,pāṭha:reading, lesson
  2. ^gaṇa:class
  3. ^aphoristic threads

Traditional glossary and notes

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  1. ^bhāṣyas

Brahmic notes

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Brahmic transliteration
  1. ^(वृद्धिरादैच्। १।१।१)
  2. ^(अदेङ्गुणः। १।१।२)
  3. ^इत्)
  4. ^त्
  5. ^आत्
  6. ^अत्
  7. ^आ
  8. ^अ

References

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  1. ^Lubin 2024,p. 21: "'[B]rahmins' (Skt. brāhmaṇa) [...] produced the mantras, exegeses, and ritual codes of the Vedic tradition, along with the earliest Vedāṅgas, or 'limbs of the Veda'—ancillary works expounding various aspects of language and ritual. Most notable among these was Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight Lessons,' c. 350 BCE), a foundational grammatical work that has set the standards for proper Sanskrit usage ever since".
  2. ^Cardona, §1-3.
  3. ^Monier Monier-Williams
  4. ^abBurrow, §2.1.
  5. ^Coulson, p. xv.
  6. ^Whitney, p. xii.
  7. ^Cardona, §4.
  8. ^Cardona (1997) §10.
  9. ^Harold G. Coward 1990,pp. 13–14, 111.
  10. ^James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vyākaraṇa" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N-Z, Rosen Publishing,ISBN0-8239-2287-1,pages 476, 744-745, 769
  11. ^Jonardon Ganeri,Sanskrit Philosophical Commentary(PDF),archived(PDF)from the original on 2020-11-27,retrieved2021-03-19
  12. ^Bloomfield, L., 1929, "Review of Liebich, Konkordanz Pāṇini-Candra", Language 5, 267–276.
  13. ^Angot, Michel.L'Inde Classique,pp.213–215. Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 2001.ISBN2-251-41015-5
  14. ^In the 1909Imperial Gazetteer of India,it was still possible to describe it as "at once the shortest and the fullest grammar in the world".Sanskrit LiteratureArchived2021-04-21 at theWayback Machine,The Imperial Gazetteer of India,vol. 2 (1909), p. 263.
  15. ^Whitney, p. xiii
  16. ^Coulson, p xvi.
  17. ^Cardona 1997,pp. 243–259.
  18. ^Harold G. Coward 1990,p. 16.
  19. ^Harold G. Coward 1990,pp. 16–17.
  20. ^Tibor Kiss 2015,pp. 71–72.
  21. ^Louis Renou & Jean Filliozat.L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes,vol.II pp.86–90,École française d'Extrême-Orient,1953, reprinted 2000.ISBN2-85539-903-3.
  22. ^Steven Weisler; Slavoljub P. Milekic (2000).Theory of Language.MIT Press. p. 44.ISBN978-0-262-73125-6.,Quote:"The linguistic investigations of Panini, the notable Hindu grammarian, can be..."
  23. ^Morris Halle (1971).The Sound Pattern of Russian: A Linguistic and Acoustical Investigation.Walter de Gruyter. p. 88.ISBN978-3-11-086945-3.,Quote:"The problem was, however, faced by the Hindu grammarian Panini, who apparently was conscious of the grammatical implications of his phonetic classificatory scheme."
  24. ^John Bowman (2005).Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture.Columbia University Press. pp. 728 (Panini, Hindu grammarian, 328).ISBN978-0-231-50004-3.
  25. ^R. G. Bhandarkar (1910),Vasudeva of Panini IV, iii, 98Archived2023-02-10 at theWayback Machine,The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, (Jan., 1910), pp. 168-170
  26. ^Rama Nath Sharma (1999).The Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini: English translation of adhyāyas four and five.Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 377.ISBN978-81-215-0747-9.;
    Sanskrit:४.४.४१ धर्मं चरति ।,अष्टाध्यायी ४, Wikisource
  27. ^Peter Scharf (2014).Ramopakhyana – The Story of Rama in the Mahabharata.Routledge. p. 192.ISBN978-1-136-84655-7.
  28. ^VĀSUDEVA S. AGARVĀLĀ (1963).India as known to Pāṇini. A study of the cultural material in the Ashṭādhyāyī. (Radha Kumud Mookerji Endowment Lectures for 1952.) [With a plate and folding maps.]Varanasi.OCLC504674962.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  29. ^"The Astadhyayi of Panini (6 Vols.) by Rama Nath Sharma at Vedic Books".vedicbooks.net.Archivedfrom the original on 2016-09-23.Retrieved2016-09-22.
  30. ^"Paninis Grammatik, Otto von Böhtlingk, Leipzig 1887 – Heidelberg University Library".Retrieved2023-01-08.
  31. ^BooksI,III,IV,V,VI,VII,VIII.

Bibliography

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