TheBahamian pineyardsare atropical and subtropical coniferous forestecoregion inthe Bahamasand theTurks and Caicos Islands.
| Bahamian pineyards | |
|---|---|
 South Andros,The Bahamas | |
 Ecoregion territory (in red) | |
| Ecology | |
| Realm | Neotropical |
| Biome | tropical and subtropical coniferous forests |
| Borders | |
| Geography | |
| Area | 2,100 km2(810 sq mi) |
| Countries | |
| Conservation | |
| Conservation status | Critical/endangered |
Geography
editThe Bahamian pineyards cover an area of 2,100 km2(810 sq mi).[1][2]Pineyards are found on four of the northern islands in the Bahamas:Andros,Abaco,Grand Bahama,where they cover half of the island,[3]andNew Providence,as well as theCaicos Islands.
Origin and history
editDespite having a rich modern flora and fauna and being critically important to native andendemicspecies of the Bahamas, preservedpollenrecords collected fromsinkholesindicate that the pineyards, or at least the ones of the northern Bahamas (Abaco, Grand Bahama, New Providence, and Andros) have a largelyanthropogenicorigin. Prior to the arrival of theLucayan people,the northern Bahamas were originally covered inBahamian dry forestscomposed primarily ofpoisonwood(Metopium toxiferum),gumbo-limbo(Bursera simaruba), andFabaceae,Arecaceae,Eugenia,andSolanumspecies, with a uniquereptile-dominated faunal community: the top herbivore of this habitat was theextinctAlbury's tortoise(Chelonoidis alburyorum) and the top predator was thenow-extirpatedCuban crocodile(Crocodylus rhombifer). The presence of conifers likePinusandJuniperuswas likely minimal and localized around this time.[4]
Following the arrival of the Lucayans around830CE,large reptiles became extinct or extirpated within 1–2 centuries, and the original hardwood forests were cleared between875and1090CEby increasing harvesting forfirewoodand a newly introducedfire regimefor the purposes ofcassavacultivation, leading to the islands having a more open habitat increasingly dominated by weedy,secondary-successionalspecies such assouthern bayberry(Myrica cerifera),West Indian nettle tree(Trema lamarckianum) andVachelliaspecies. Pollen records indicate that the pine population significantly increased after970CE, with the modernpyrogenicpine forests being established by1200CE. An expansion ofBarbados juniper(Juniperus barbadensis) also happened at the expense of the pines between 1400 and 1500.[4]
Between 1510 and 1765, after most of the Lucayans had beenenslavedby theSpaniardsand taken toHispaniola,a series ofhurricanesled to the inundation of most of the low-lying pineyards with these being taken over bymangroves,causing the pineyards to be restricted to upland areas. However, there was a new expansion of pineyards after theAmerican RevolutionwhenLoyaliststook over the islands and reintroduced a fire regime for agricultural opportunities. However, over next three centuries, human activities post-colonization again lead to a decline in the extent of the pineyards.[4]
Flora
editPineyards are dominated by Bahamian pine (Pinus caribaeavar.bahamensis), while pinepink (Bletia purpurea), bushy beard grass (Andropogon glomeratus), southern bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), Florida clover ash (Tetrazygia bicolor), Bahamian trumpet tree (Tabebuia bahamensis), West Indian snowberry (Chiococca alba), devil's gut (Cassytha filiformis), poisonwood (Metopium toxiferum), coontie (Zamia integrifolia) and thatch palm (Coccothrinax argentata) grow in theunderstory.Without regularwildfires,pineyards are supplanted by broadleafedcoppice.Young Bahamian pines require extensive amounts of sunlight to grow, and are resistant to fire once they become adults.[5]
Fauna
editFauna found in the pine forests include reptiles, such as rock iguanas (Cyclurasp.) and boas (Epicratessp.), and birds, such as theWest Indian woodpecker(Melanerpes superciliaris),Bahama woodstar(Calliphlox evelynae),Bahama yellowthroat(Geothlypis rostrata), the possibly-extinctBahama nuthatch(Sitta insularis),Bahama oriole(Icterus northropi),Bahama warbler(Setophaga flavescens) andBahama swallow(Tachycineta cyaneoviridis).Kirtland's warblers(Dendroica kirtlandii)migrateevery year fromjack pineforests in theLower Peninsula of Michiganto spend the winter in the Bahamian pineyards.[6]The only mammal found is thebuffy flower bat(Erophylla sezekorni). Many of these species are endemic to this habitat and depend on the pines, and are threatened by activities such as deforestation and storm damage that have led to declines in the extent of the forest.
Threats
editIncreased logging of junipers after colonization and the pines themselves after the 20th century has again lead to a decline in the extent of the pineyards, which has been compounded byinvasive speciessuch as thebeach sheoak(Casuarina equisetifolia) and the increasing frequency of hurricanes due toclimate change;HurricanesFrances,Jeanne,and especiallyDorianhave all dealt massive, lasting damage to the pineyards.[4]At least one species ofbird,the Bahama nuthatch (Sitta insularis) may have been driven to extinction in 2019 as a result of HurricanesMatthewandDorian;a distinct population of theBahama oriolefromAbacowas also extirpated in the 1990s followingHurricane Andrew.[7][8]Evidence indicates that tropical hardwood forests such as the ones that formerly covered the Bahamas are naturally much more resilient to hurricane damage than pine-dominated ones; due to this, the special vulnerability of the pineyards ecosystem to climatic extremes may be due to its anthropogenic origin.[4]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^"Bahamian pine forests".Terrestrial Ecoregions.World Wildlife Fund.Retrieved2009-01-15.
- ^"Fire Management Assessment of the Caribbean Pine (Pinus caribea) Forest Ecosystems on Andros, Abaco and Eleuthera Islands, Bahamas "(PDF).TNC Global Fire Initiative.The Nature Conservancy.September 2004. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2008-12-01.Retrieved2009-01-16.
- ^Moultrie, Erika."The Ecosystems of Grand Bahama Island".Grand Bahama Island Tourism Board.Retrieved2009-01-15.
- ^abcdeFall, Patricia L.; Hengstum, Peter J. van; Lavold-Foote, Lisa; Donnelly, Jeffrey P.; Albury, Nancy A.; Tamalavage, Anne E. (2021-03-09)."Human arrival and landscape dynamics in the northern Bahamas".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.118(10): e2015764118.Bibcode:2021PNAS..11820157F.doi:10.1073/pnas.2015764118.ISSN0027-8424.PMC7958357.PMID33649214.
- ^"Ecosystems Of The Bahamas".The Commonwealth of The Bahamas.Retrieved2009-01-15.
- ^World Wildlife Fund, ed. (2001)."Bahamian pine forests".WildWorld Ecoregion Profile.National Geographic Society. Archived fromthe originalon 2010-03-08.Retrieved2009-01-15.
- ^"Hurricane Dorian May Have Caused a Critically Endangered Bird to Go Extinct".
- ^"Bahama Oriole".American Bird Conservancy.Retrieved2021-03-11.
