Wikipedia

Banana

(Redirected fromBanana fiber)
For other uses, seeBanana (disambiguation).

Abananais an elongated, ediblefruit–botanically a berry[1]– produced by several kinds of large treelikeherbaceousflowering plantsin thegenusMusa.In some countries,cooking bananasare called plantains, distinguishing them fromdessert bananas.The fruit is variable in size, color and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich instarchcovered with apeel,which may have a variety of colors when ripe. It grows upward in clusters near the top of the plant. Almost all modern edible seedless (parthenocarp) cultivated bananas come from two wild species –Musa acuminataandMusa balbisiana,or hybrids of them.

Banana
Fruits of four differentcultivars.Left to right:plantain,red banana,apple banana,andCavendish banana
Source plant(s)Musa
Part(s) of plantFruit
UsesFood

Musaspecies are native to tropicalIndomalayaandAustralia;they were probablydomesticatedinNew Guinea.They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent to makebanana paperandtextiles,while some are grown asornamental plants.The world's largest producers of bananas in 2022 were India and China, which together accounted for approximately 26% of total production. Bananas are eaten raw or cooked in recipes varying from curries tobanana chips,fritters,fruit preserves, or simply baked or steamed.

Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between dessert "bananas" and cooking "plantains": this works well enough in the Americas and Europe, but it breaks down inSoutheast Asiawhere many more kinds of bananas are grown and eaten. The term "banana" is applied also to other members of the genusMusa,such as thescarlet banana(Musa coccinea), thepink banana(Musa velutina), and theFe'i bananas.Members of the genusEnsete,such as thesnow banana(Ensete glaucum) and the economically importantfalse banana(Ensete ventricosum) of Africa are sometimes included. Both genera are in the banana family,Musaceae.

Bananaplantationsare subject to damage by parasiticnematodesand insect pests, and tofungalandbacterialdiseases, one of the most serious beingPanama diseasewhich is caused by aFusariumfungus. This andblack sigatokathreaten the production ofCavendish bananas,the main kind eaten in the Western world, which is atriploidMusa acuminata.Plant breeders are seeking new varieties, but these are difficult to breed given that commercial varieties are seedless. To enable future breeding, bananagermplasmis conserved in multiplegene banksaround the world.

Description

The banana plant is the largestherbaceousflowering plant.[2]All the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure called acorm.[3]Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy with atreelikeappearance, but what appears to be a trunk is actually apseudostemcomposed of multiple leaf-stalks (petioles). Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as long as it is at least 60 centimetres (2.0 ft) deep, has good drainage and is not compacted.[4]They are fast-growing plants, with a growth rate of up to 1.6 metres (5.2 ft) per day.[5]

The leaves of banana plants are composed of a stalk (petiole) and a blade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem, the edges are forced apart.[3]Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions. Most are around 5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around 3 m (10 ft) to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more.[6][7]Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.[1]When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and begins to form a flower spike orinflorescence.A stem develops which grows up inside the pseudostem, carrying the immature inflorescence until eventually it emerges at the top.[3]Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, also known as the "banana heart". After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots will normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a whole isperennial.[8]The inflorescence contains many petal-likebractsbetween rows of flowers. The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rows further up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the rows of male flowers. The ovary isinferior,meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts appear at the tip of the ovary.[9]

The banana fruits develop from thebanana heart,in a large hanging cluster called abunch,made up of around nine tiers calledhands,with up to 20 fruits to a hand. A bunch can weigh 22–65 kilograms (49–143 lb).[10]The stalk ends of the fruits connect up to therachispart of the inflorescence. Opposite the stalk end, is theblossomend, where the remnants of the flower deviate the texture from the rest of the flesh inside the peel.

The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[11]There is a protective outer layer (apeelor skin) with numerous long, thin strings (Vascular bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin and the edible inner white flesh. The peel is less palatable and usually discarded after peeling the fruit, optimally done from the blossom end, but often started from the stalk end. The inner part of the common yellow dessert variety can be split lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner portions of the threecarpelsby manually deforming the unopened fruit.[12]In cultivated varieties, fertile seeds are usually absent.[13][14]

  • A corm, about 25 cm (10 in) across
  • Young plant
  • Female flowers have petals at the tip of the ovary
  • 'Tree' showing fruit andinflorescence
  • Single row planting
  • Inflorescence, partially opened

Evolution

Phylogeny

A 2011 phylogenomic analysis using nuclear genes indicates thephylogenyof some representatives of theMusaceaefamily. Major edible kinds of banana are shown inboldface.[15]

Musaceae
Musa
Clade I

Musa acuminatassp.burmannica,Banana‡,S. India to Cambodia

Musa ornata,Flowering banana of Southeast Asia

Musa acuminatassp.zebrina,Blood bananaofSumatra

Musa mannii,a wild banana ofArunachal Pradesh,India

Musa balbisiana,Plantainof South, East, and Southeast Asia

Clade II

Musa beccarii,a wild banana ofSabah

Musa coccinea,Scarlet banana of China and Vietnam

Musella lasiocarpa,Golden lotus banana of China

Ensete ventricosum,Enset or false banana of Africa

‡Manycultivated bananasare hybrids ofM. acuminataxM. balbisiana(not shown in tree).[16]

Work by Li and colleagues in 2024 identifies three subspecies ofM. acuminata,namely sspp.banksii,malaccensis,andzebrina,as contributing substantially to theBan,Dh,andZesubgenomes oftriploidcultivated bananas respectively.[17]

Taxonomy

Further information:List of banana cultivars
Musa'Nendran'cultivar,grown widely in the Indian state ofKerala

The genusMusawas created byCarl Linnaeusin 1753.[18]The name may be derived fromAntonius Musa,physician to the EmperorAugustus,or Linnaeus may have adapted the Arabic word for banana,mauz.[19]The ultimate origin ofmusamay be in theTrans–New Guinea languages,which have words similar to "#muku"; from there the name was borrowed into theAustronesian languagesand across Asia, accompanying the cultivation of the banana as it was brought to new areas, via theDravidian languagesof India, into Arabic as aWanderwort.[20]The word "banana" is thought to be of West African origin, possibly from theWolofwordbanaana,and passed intoEnglishviaSpanishorPortuguese.[21]

Musais the type genus in the familyMusaceae.TheAPG III systemassigns Musaceae to the orderZingiberales,part of thecommelinidclade of themonocotyledonousflowering plants. Some 70 species ofMusawere recognized by theWorld Checklist of Selected Plant Familiesas of January 2013;[18]several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.[22]

The classification of cultivated bananas has long been a problematic issue for taxonomists. Linnaeus originally placed bananas into two species based only on their uses as food:Musa sapientumfor dessert bananas andMusa paradisiacaforplantains.More species names were added, but this approach proved to be inadequate for the number ofcultivarsin the primarycenter of diversityof the genus, Southeast Asia. Many of these cultivars were given names that were later discovered to besynonyms.[23]

In a series of papers published from 1947 onward, Ernest Cheesman showed that Linnaeus'sMusa sapientumandMusa paradisiacawere cultivars and descendants of two wild seed-producing species,Musa acuminataandMusa balbisiana,both first described byLuigi Aloysius Colla.[24]Cheesman recommended the abolition of Linnaeus's species in favor of reclassifying bananas according to three morphologically distinct groups of cultivars – those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics ofMusa balbisiana,those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics ofMusa acuminata,and those with characteristics of both.[23]Researchers Norman Simmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed a genome-based nomenclature system in 1955. This system eliminated almost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the earlier classification of bananas based on assigning scientific names to cultivated varieties. Despite this, the original names are still recognized by some authorities, leading to confusion.[24][25]

The acceptedscientific namesfor most groups of cultivated bananas areMusa acuminataCollaandMusa balbisianaCollafor the ancestral species, andMusa×paradisiacaL.for the hybrid of the two.[16]

An unusual feature of the genetics of the banana is thatchloroplast DNAis inherited maternally, whilemitochondrial DNAis inherited paternally. This facilitates taxonomic study of species and subspecies relationships.[26]

Informal classification

In regions such as North America and Europe,Musafruits offered for sale can be divided into small sweet "bananas" eaten raw when ripe as a dessert, and large starchy "plantains" orcooking bananas,which do not have to be ripe. Linnaeus made this distinction when naming two "species" ofMusa.[27]Members of the "plantain subgroup"of banana cultivars, most important as food in West Africa and Latin America, correspond to this description, having long pointed fruit. They are described by Ploetz et al. as" true "plantains, distinct from other cooking bananas.[28]

The cooking bananas of East Africa belong to a different group, theEast African Highland bananas.[7]Further, small farmers in Colombia grow a much wider range of cultivars than large commercial plantations do,[29]and in Southeast Asia—the center of diversity for bananas, both wild and cultivated—the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" does not work. Many bananas are used both raw and cooked. There are starchy cooking bananas which are smaller than those eaten raw. The range of colors, sizes and shapes is far wider than in those grown or sold in Africa, Europe or the Americas.[27]Southeast Asian languages do not make the distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" that is made in English. Thus both Cavendish dessert bananas andSaba cooking bananasare calledpisangin Malaysia and Indonesia,kluaiin Thailand andchuốiin Vietnam.[30]Fe'i bananas,grown and eaten in the islands of the Pacific, are derived from a different wild species. Most Fe'i bananas are cooked, butKarat bananas,which are short and squat with bright red skins, are eaten raw.[31]

History

Domestication

See also:Musa acuminata,Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia,andEast African Highland bananas

The earliest domestication of bananas (Musaspp.) was from naturally occurringparthenocarpic(seedless) individuals ofMusa banksiiinNew Guinea.[32]These were cultivated byPapuansbefore the arrival ofAustronesian-speakers.Numerousphytolithsof bananas have been recovered from theKuk Swamparchaeological site and dated to around 10,000 to 6,500BP.[33][34]Foraginghumans in this area began domestication in the latePleistoceneusingtransplantationand earlycultivationmethods.[35]> By the early to middle of theHolocenethe process was complete.[35]From New Guinea, cultivated bananas spread westward intoIsland Southeast Asia.Theyhybridizedwith other (possibly independently domesticated)subspeciesofMusa acuminataas well asM. balbisianain the Philippines, northern New Guinea, and possiblyHalmahera.These hybridization events produced the triploidcultivars of bananascommonly grown today.[33]The banana was one of the key crops thatenabled farming to beginin Papua New Guinea.[36]

Spread

From Island Southeast Asia, bananas became part of the staple domesticated crops ofAustronesian peoples.[33][34]

These ancient introductions resulted in the banana subgroup now known as thetrue plantains,which include theEast African Highland bananasand thePacific plantains(theIholenaandMaoli-Popo'ulusubgroups). East African Highland bananas originated from banana populations introduced to Madagascar probably from the region betweenJava,Borneo,andNew Guinea;while Pacific plantains were introduced to the Pacific Islands from either eastern New Guinea or theBismarck Archipelago.[33]

21st century discoveries ofphytolithsin Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE[37]triggered a debate about the date of first cultivation in Africa. There is linguistic evidence that bananas were known in East Africa or Madagascar around that time.[38]The earliest prior evidence indicates that cultivation dates to no earlier than the late 6th century AD.[39]Malagasy peoplecolonized Madagascar from South East Asia around 600 AD onwards.[40]Glucanaseand two other proteins specific to bananas were found indental calculusfrom the earlyIron Age(12th century BCE)PhilistinesinTel Eraniin the southernLevant.[41]

Another wave of introductions later spread bananas to other parts of tropical Asia, particularly Indochina and the Indian subcontinent.[33]Some evidence suggests bananas were known to theIndus Valley civilisationfrom phytoliths recovered from theKot Dijiarchaeological site in Pakistan.[34]Southeast Asia remains the region ofprimary diversityof the banana. Areas of secondary diversity are found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana cultivation there.[42]

Arab Agricultural Revolution

Further information:Arab Agricultural Revolution

The banana may have been present in isolated locations elsewhere in the Middle East on the eve ofIslam.Thespread of Islamwas followed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it in Islamic texts (such as poems andhadiths) beginning in the 9th century. By the 10th century, the banana appeared in texts fromPalestineand Egypt. From there it diffused into North Africa andMuslim Iberiaduring theArab Agricultural Revolution.[43][44]An article on banana tree cultivation is included inIbn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work,Kitāb al-Filāḥa(Book on Agriculture).[45]During the Middle Ages, bananas fromGranadawere considered among the best in the Arab world.[44]Bananas were certainly grown in the ChristianKingdom of Cyprusby the late medieval period. Writing in 1458, the Italian traveller and writerGabriele Capodilistawrote favourably of the extensive farm produce of the estates at Episkopi, near modern-dayLimassol,including the region's banana plantations.[46]

Early modern spread

Further information:Columbian exchange

In theearly modern period,bananas were encountered by European explorers during theMagellan expeditionin 1521, in bothGuamand thePhilippines.Lacking a name for the fruit, the ship's historianAntonio Pigafettadescribed them as "figs more than onepalmlong. "[47][48]: 130, 132 Bananas were introduced toSouth Americaby Portuguese sailors who brought them from West Africa in the 16th century.[49]Southeast Asian banana cultivars, as well asabacagrown for fibers, were introduced to North and Central America by the Spanish from the Philippines, via theManila galleons.[50]

Plantation cultivation

Further information:History of modern banana plantations in the Americas
Plantation in the Philippines, 2010

In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists started banana plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil, and western Africa.[53]North Americans began consuming bananas on a small scale at very high prices shortly after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that the food became more widespread.[54]As late as theVictorian Era,bananas were not widely known in Europe, although they were available.[53]

The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the relatedWestern Caribbean Zone,including most ofCentral America.Plantation cultivation involved the combination of modern transportation networks of steamships and railroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed more time between harvesting and ripening. North American shippers likeLorenzo Dow BakerandAndrew Preston,the founders of theBoston Fruit Companystarted this process in the 1870s, with the participation of railroad builders likeMinor C. Keith.Development led to the multi-national giant corporations likeChiquitaandDole.[54]These companies weremonopolistic,vertically integrated(controlling growing, processing, shipping and marketing) and usually used political manipulation to buildenclave economies(internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export-oriented, contributing little to the host economy). Their political maneuvers, which gave rise to the termbanana republicfor states such as Honduras and Guatemala, included working with local elites and their rivalries to influence politics or playing the international interests of the United States, especially during theCold War,to keep the political climate favorable to their interests.[55]

Small-scale cultivation

Further information:History of peasant banana production in the Americas
Small-scale banana production, Liberia, 2013

The vast majority of the world's bananas are cultivated for family consumption or for sale on local markets. They are grown in large quantities in India, while many other Asian and African countries host numerous small-scale banana growers who sell at least some of their crop.[56]Peasants with smallholdings of 1 to 2 acres in the Caribbean produce bananas for the world market, often alongside other crops.[57]In many tropical countries, the main cultivars produce green (unripe) bananas used forcooking.Because bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide a valuable food source during thehunger seasonbetween harvests of other crops, and are thus important for globalfood security.[58]

Modern cultivation

See also:List of banana cultivars

Bananas are propagatedasexuallyfrom offshoots. The plant is allowed to produce two shoots at a time; a larger one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower" to produce fruit in 6–8 months.[8]As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.[59]They are grown in some 135 countries.[60]

Cavendish

Main article:Cavendish banana
Cultivars in theCavendishgroup dominate the world market.

In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars belonged to the triploidMusa acuminataAAA groupof Cavendish group bananas.[61]Disease is threatening the production of the Cavendish banana worldwide. It is unclear if any existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, so varioushybridisationandgenetic engineeringprograms are attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana. One such strain that has emerged is the Taiwanese Cavendish or Formosana.[62][63][64]

Ripening

Export bananas are picked green, and ripened in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country. These rooms are air-tight and filled withethylene gasto induce ripening. This mimics the normal production of this gas as a ripening hormone.[65][66]Ethylene stimulates the formation ofamylase,anenzymethat breaks down starch into sugar, influencing the taste. Ethylene signals the production ofpectinase,a different enzyme which breaks down thepectinbetween the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften as it ripens.[65][66]The vivid yellow color many consumers in temperate climates associate with bananas is caused by ripening around 18 °C (64 °F), and does not occur in Cavendish bananas ripened in tropical temperatures (over 27 °C (81 °F)), which leaves them green.[67][68]

Storage and transport

Ralstonia solanacearumon an overripe banana

Bananas are transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets.[69]To obtain maximum shelf life, harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid transport to ports, cooling, and refrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. This technology allows storage and transport for 3–4 weeks at 13 °C (55 °F). On arrival, bananas are held at about 17 °C (63 °F) and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and is distributed for final sale. Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put in a brown paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up the ripening process.[70][71]

Sustainability

The excessive use of fertilizers contributes greatly toeutrophicationin streams and lakes, harming aquatic life, while expanding banana production has led to deforestation. As soil nutrients are depleted, more forest is cleared for plantations. This causes soil erosion and increases the frequency of flooding.[72]

Voluntary sustainability standardssuch asRainforest AllianceandFairtradeare being used to address some of these issues. Banana production certified in this way grew rapidly at the start of the 21st century to represent 36% of banana exports by 2016.[73]However, such standards are applied mainly in countries which focus on the export market, such as Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Guatemala; worldwide they cover only 8–10% of production.[74]

Breeding

Mutation breedingcan be used in this crop.Aneuploidyis a source of significant variation inallotriploidvarieties. For one example, it can be a source ofTR4 resistance.Lab protocolshave been devised to screen for such aberrations and for possible resulting disease resistances.[75]WildMusaspp.provide useful resistance genetics, and are vital to breeding for TR4 resistance, as shown inintrogressedresistance from wild relatives.[76]Bananas form a hybrid-polyploidcomplex; hybrids can be diploid, triploid, tetraploid, or pentaploid, i.e. they may have 2, 3, 4, or 5 sets ofchromosomes.This makes them difficult to breed as hybrids are often sterile, in addition to the challenge of breeding seedless (parthenocarpic) varieties.[77]

TheHonduran Foundation for Agricultural Researchhas bred a seedless banana that is resistant to both Panama disease and black Sigatoka disease. The team made use of the fact that "seedless" varieties do rarely produce seeds; they obtained around fifteen seeds from some 30,000 cultivated plants, pollinated by hand with pollen from wild Asian bananas.[78]

Production and export

2022 production (in millions of tonnes)
Bananas Plantains Total
India 34.5 34.5
China 11.8 11.8
Uganda 10.4 10.4
Indonesia 9.2 9.2
Philippines 5.9 3.1 9.0
Nigeria 8.0 8.0
Ecuador 6.1 0.9 6.9
Brazil 6.9 6.9
Democratic Republic of the Congo 0.8 4.9 5.7
Cameroon 0.9 4.7 5.5
Colombia 2.5 2.5 5.0
Guatemala 4.8 0.3 5.0
Ghana 0.1 4.8 4.9
Angola 4.6 4.6
Tanzania 3.5 0.6 4.1
Rwanda 2.2 0.9 3.1
Costa Rica 2.5 0.1 2.6
Ivory Coast 0.5 2.1 2.6
Mexico 2.6 2.6
Dominican Republic 1.4 1.2 2.5
Vietnam 2.5 2.5
Peru 2.4 2.4
World 135.1 44.2 179.3
Source:FAOSTATof theUnited Nations[79]Note: Some countries distinguish between bananas and plantains, but four of the top six producers do not, thus necessitating comparisons using the total for bananas and plantains combined.

As of 2018,bananas are exported in larger volume and to a larger value than any other fruit.[62]In 2022, world production of bananas and plantains combined was 179 million tonnes, led by India and China with a combined total of 26% of global production. Other major producers were Uganda, Indonesia, the Philippines, Nigeria and Ecuador.[79]As reported for 2013, total world exports were 20 million tonnes of bananas and 859,000 tonnes of plantains.[80]Ecuador and the Philippines were the leading exporters with 5.4 and 3.3 million tonnes, respectively, and the Dominican Republic was the leading exporter of plantains with 210,350 tonnes.[80]

Pests

Bananas are damaged by a variety of pests, especially nematodes and insects.[81]

Nematodes

Banana roots are subject to damage from multiple species of parasiticnematodes.Radopholus similiscauses nematode root rot, the most serious nematode disease of bananas in economic terms.[82]Root-knot is the result of infection by species ofMeloidogyne,[83]while root-lesion is caused by species ofPratylenchus,[84]and spiral nematode root damage is the result of infection byHelicotylenchusspecies.[85]

Radopholus similisinside banana root, causing nematode root rot

Insects

Among the main insect pests of banana cultivation are two beetles that cause substantial economic losses, the banana borerCosmopolites sordidusand the banana stem weevilOdoiporus longicollis.Other significant pests includeaphidsand scarring beetles.[81]

Thebanana boreris a destructive pest that tunnels inside the plant.[81]

Diseases

Main article:List of banana and plantain diseases

Although in no danger of outright extinction, bananas of the Cavendish group, which dominate the global market, are under threat.[86]There is a need to enrich bananabiodiversityby producing diverse new banana varieties, not just focusing on the Cavendish.[87]Its predecessor 'Gros Michel', discovered in the 1820s, was similarly dominant but had to be replaced after widespread infections of Panama disease.Monocroppingof Cavendish similarly leaves it susceptible to disease and so threatens both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence farming.[86][88]Within the data gathered from the genes of hundreds of bananas, the botanist Julie Sardos has found several wild banana ancestors currently unknown to scientists, whose genes could provide a means of defense against banana crop diseases.[89]

Some commentators have remarked that those variants which could replace what much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different that most people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the banana onmonogeneticcultivation driven by short-term commercial motives.[55]Overall,fungal diseasesare disproportionately important tosmall island developing states.[90]

Panama disease

Panama diseaseFusariumfungus climbing up through the banana stem

Panama diseaseis caused by aFusariumsoilfungus,which enters the plants through the roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves, producinggelsand gums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing the plant towilt,and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts of sunlight. Prior to 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on the Gros Michel cultivar, which was highly susceptible.[91]Cavendish was chosen as the replacement for Gros Michel because, among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest qualityfruit.It requires more care during shipping,[92]and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.[93]

Fusarium wilt TR4

Fusarium wilt TR4,a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease, was discovered in 1993. This virulent form of Fusarium wilt has destroyed Cavendish plantations in several southeast Asian countries and spread to Australia and India.[87]As the soil-based fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools, the wilt spread to the Americas despite years of preventive efforts.[87]Without genetic diversity, Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4, and the disease endangers its commercial production worldwide.[94]The only known defense to TR4 isgenetic resistance.[87]This is conferred either byRGA2,a gene isolated from a TR4-resistantdiploidbanana, or by thenematode-derived Ced9.[95][96]This may be achieved bygenetic modification.[95][96]

Black sigatoka

Leaf infected withblack sigatoka

Black sigatokais a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. It is caused by theascomyceteMycosphaerella fijiensis.The disease, also called black leaf streak, has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected banana leaves used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and plantains (including the Cavendish cultivars[97]), impedingphotosynthesisby blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf. Starved for energy, fruit production falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do growripenprematurely, making them unsuitable for export. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment; spraying with fungicides may be required as often as 50 times a year. Better strategies, withintegrated pest management,are needed.[98][99]

Banana bunchy top virus

Colony of banana aphids (Pentalonia nigronervosa),vectorofbanana bunchy top virus

Banana bunchy top virusis a plant virus of the genusBabuvirus,familyNanonviridaeaffectingMusaspp. (including banana, abaca, plantain and ornamental bananas) andEnsetespp. in the familyMusaceae.[100]Banana bunchy top disease symptoms include dark green streaks of variable length in leaf veins, midribs and petioles. Leaves become short and stunted as the disease progresses, becoming 'bunched' at the apex of the plant. Infected plants may produce no fruit or the fruit bunch may not emerge from the pseudostem.[101]The virus is transmitted by the banana aphidPentalonia nigronervosaand is widespread in Southeast Asia, Asia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Oceania and parts of Africa. There is no cure, but it can be effectively controlled by the eradication of diseased plants and the use of virus-free planting material.[102]No resistant cultivars have been found, but varietal differences in susceptibility have been reported. The commercially important Cavendish subgroup is severely affected.[101]

Banana bacterial wilt

Banana bacterial wiltis a bacterial disease caused byXanthomonas campestrispv.musacearum.[103]First identified on a close relative of bananas,Ensete ventricosum,in Ethiopia in the 1960s,[104]The disease was first seen in Uganda in 2001 affecting all banana cultivars. Since then it has been diagnosed in Central and East Africa, including the banana growing regions of Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Burundi, and Uganda.[105]

Conservation of genetic diversity

The cold storage room for the banana collection atBioversity International's Musa Germplasm Transit Centre

Given the narrow range ofgenetic diversitypresent in bananas and the many threats viabiotic(pests and diseases) andabioticthreats (such asdrought) stress,conservationof the full spectrum of bananagenetic resourcesis ongoing.[106]In 2024, the economist Pascal Liu of theFAOdescribed the impact ofglobal warmingas an "enormous threat" to the world supply of bananas.[107]

Bananagermplasmis conserved in many national and regionalgene banks,and at the world's largest banana collection, the InternationalMusaGermplasm Transit Centre, managed byBioversity Internationaland hosted atKU Leuvenin Belgium.[108]SinceMusacultivars are mostly seedless, they are conserved by three main methods:in vivo(planted in field collections),in vitro(as plantlets in test tubes within a controlled environment), and bycryopreservation(meristemsconserved inliquid nitrogenat −196 °C).[106]

Genes from wild banana species are conserved asDNAand as cryopreservedpollen.[106]Seeds from wild species are sometimes conserved, although less commonly, as they are difficult to regenerate. In addition, bananas and theircrop wild relativesare conservedin situ,in the wild natural habitats where they evolved and continue to do so. Diversity is also conserved in farmers' fields where continuous cultivation, adaptation and improvement of cultivars is often carried out by small-scale farmers growing traditional local cultivars.[109]

Nutrition

Bananas, raw (Daily Value)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy371 kJ (89 kcal)
22.84 g
Sugars12.23 g
Dietary fiber2.6 g
0.33 g
1.09 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
2%
19.2 μg
Thiamine (B1)
3%
0.031 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
6%
0.073 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.665 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
7%
0.334 mg
Vitamin B6
24%
0.4 mg
Folate (B9)
5%
20 μg
Choline
2%
9.8 mg
Vitamin C
10%
8.7 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Iron
1%
0.26 mg
Magnesium
6%
27 mg
Manganese
12%
0.27 mg
Phosphorus
2%
22 mg
Potassium
12%
358 mg
Sodium
0%
1 mg
Zinc
1%
0.15 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water74.91 g
Link to USDA Database entry values are for edible portion
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[110]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[111]

A raw banana (not including the peel) is 75% water, 23%carbohydrates,1%protein,and contains negligiblefat.A reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz) supplies 89calories,24% of theDaily Valueofvitamin B6,and moderate amounts ofvitamin C,manganese,potassium,anddietary fiber,with no othermicronutrientsin significant content (table).

Although bananas are commonly thought to contain exceptional potassium content,[112][113]their actual potassium content is not high per typical food serving, having only 12% of the Daily Value for potassium (table). The potassium-content ranking for bananas among fruits, vegetables, legumes, and many other foods is medium.[114][115]

Uses

Culinary

Fruit

See also:Cooking plantainandList of banana dishes
WikibooksCookbookhas a recipe/module on

Bananas are a staplestarchfor many tropical populations. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Both the skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked. The primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas isisoamyl acetate(also known asbanana oil), which, along with several other compounds such asbutyl acetateandisobutyl acetate,is a significant contributor to banana flavor.[116]

Plantains are eaten cooked, often as fritters.[117]Pisang goreng,bananas fried with batter, is a popular street food in Southeast Asia.[118]Bananas feature inPhilippine cuisine,with desserts likemaruyabanana fritters.[119]Bananas can be made into fruit preserves.[120]Banana chipsare a snack produced from sliced and fried bananas, such as inKerala.[121]Dried bananas are ground to makebanana flour.[122]In Africa,matokebananas are cooked in a sauce with meat and vegetables such as peanuts or beans to make the breakfast dishkatogo.[123]In Western countries, bananas are used to make desserts such as banana bread.[124]

Flowers

WikibooksCookbookhas a recipe/module on

Banana flowers (also called "banana hearts" or "banana blossoms" ) are used as avegetable[125]inSouth AsianandSoutheast Asian cuisine.The flavor resembles that ofartichoke.As with artichokes, both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible.[126]

  • Banana flowers and leaves on sale in Thailand
  • Kilawin na pusô ng saging,aFilipino dishof banana flowers

Leaf

Main article:Banana leaf

Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. While generally too tough to actually be eaten, they are often used as ecologically friendly disposable food containers or as "plates" inSouth Asiaand severalSoutheast Asiancountries.[127]InIndonesian cuisine,banana leaf is employed in cooking methods likepepesandbotok;banana leaf packages containing food ingredients and spices are cooked in steam or in boiled water, or are grilled on charcoal. Certain types of tamales are wrapped in banana leaves instead of corn husks.[128]

When used so for steaming or grilling, the banana leaves protect the food ingredients from burning and add a subtle sweet flavor.[1]InSouth India,it is customary to serve traditional food on a banana leaf.[129]InTamil Nadu(India), dried banana leaves are used as to pack food and to make cups to hold liquid food items.[130]

Trunk

Main article:Banana pith

The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used inSouth AsianandSoutheast Asian cuisine.[131]Examples include the Burmese dishmohinga,and theFilipinodishesinubaranandkadyos, manok, kag ubad.[132][133]

  • Kaeng yuak,a northernThai curryof the core of the banana plant

Paper and textiles

Further information:Manila hempandBanana paper

Banana fiber harvested from the pseudostems and leaves has been used fortextilesin Asia since at least the 13th century. Both fruit-bearing and fibrous banana species have been used.[134]In the Japanese systemKijōka-bashōfu,leaves and shoots are cut from the plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots are first boiled inlyeto prepare fibers foryarn-making. These banana shoots produce fibers of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualities for specific uses. For example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable fortablecloths,while the softest innermost fibers are desirable forkimonoandkamishimo.This traditional Japanese cloth-making process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[135]Banana papercan be made either from thebarkof the banana plant, mainly for artistic purposes, or from the fibers of the stem and non-usable fruits. The paper may be hand-made or industrially processed.[136]

  • Packing Manila hemp (Musa textilis) into bales, Java
  • Weaving looms processing Manila hemp fabric
  • A modernManila hempbag

Other uses

The large leaves of bananas are locally used asumbrellas.[1]Banana peelmay have capability to extractheavy metalcontaminationfrom river water, similar to otherpurificationmaterials.[137][138]Waste bananas can be used to feedlivestock.[139]As with all living things, potassium-containing bananas emitradioactivityat low levels occurring naturally from thepotassium-40(K-40) isotope.[140]Thebanana equivalent doseof radiation was developed in 1995 as a simple teaching-tool to educate the public about the natural, small amount of K-40 radiation occurring in everyone and in common foods.[141][112]

Potential allergic reaction

Individuals with alatex allergymay experience a reaction to handling or eating bananas.[142][143]

Cultural roles

Bananas used inpujain the Hindu festival ofChhathin Northern India

Arts

TheEdo periodpoetMatsuo Bashōis named after the Japanese word chuối tây (Bashō) for theJapanese banana.TheBashōplanted in his garden by a grateful student became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his life and home.[144]

The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas"was written byFrank SilverandIrving Cohnand originally released in 1923; for many decades, it was the best-sellingsheet musicin history. Since then the song has been rerecorded several times and has been particularly popular during banana shortages.[145][146]

A person slipping on abanana peelhas been a staple ofphysical comedyfor generations. An American comedy recording from 1910 features a popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe his own such incident.[147]

The banana's suggestively phallic shape has been exploited in artworks from Giorgio de Chirico's 1913 paintingThe Uncertainty of the Poetonwards. In 2019, an exhibition ofNatalia LL's video and set of photographs showing a woman "sucking on a banana" at theWarsaw National Museumwas taken down and the museum's director reprimanded.[148]The cover artwork forthe 1967 debut albumofThe Velvet Undergroundfeatures a banana made byAndy Warhol.On the original vinyl LP version, the design allowed the listener to "peel" this banana to find a pink, peeled banana on the inside.[149]In 1989, the feministGuerilla Girlsmade a screenprint with two bananas, intentionally reminiscent of Warhol's, arranged to form a "0" to answer the question in the artwork, "How many works by women artists were in the Andy Warhol and Tremaine auctions at Sotheby's?".[150]

Italian artistMaurizio Cattelancreated a concept art piece titledComedian[151]involving taping a banana to a wall using silver duct tape. The piece was exhibited briefly at the Art Basel in Miami before being removed from the exhibition and eaten without permission in another artistic stunt titledHungry Artistby New York artistDavid Datuna.[152]

Religion and folklore

Nang Tani,the femaleghostof Thai folklore that haunts banana plants

In India, bananas serve a prominent part in many festivals and occasions ofHindus.InSouth Indian weddings,particularlyTamil weddings,banana trees are tied in pairs to form anarchas a blessing to the couple for a long-lasting, useful life.[153][154]

In Thailand, it is believed thata certain typeof banana plant may be inhabited by a spirit,Nang Tani,a type of ghost related to trees and similar plants that manifests itself as a young woman.[155]People often tie a length of colored satin cloth around the pseudostem of the banana plants.[156]

InMalay folklore,the ghost known asPontianakis associated with banana plants (pokok pisang), and its spirit is said to reside in them during the day.[157]

Racial signifier

See also:List of ethnic slurs § Banana,andRacism in sport

In European, British, and Australian sport, throwing a banana at a member of an opposing team has long been used as a form ofracial abuse.[158][159]The act, which was commonplace in England in the 1980s, is meant to taunt players ofBlack Africanancestry by equating them to apes or monkeys.[160]

See also

References

  1. ^abcdMorton, Julia F. (2013). "Banana".Fruits of warm climates.Echo Point Books & Media. pp. 29–46.ISBN978-1-62654-976-0.OCLC861735500.Archivedfrom the original on April 15, 2009 – via hort.purdue.edu.
  2. ^Picq, Claudine; INIBAP, eds. (2000).Bananas(PDF)(English ed.). Montpellier: International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantains/International Plant Genetic Resources Institute.ISBN978-2-910810-37-5.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on April 11, 2013.RetrievedJanuary 31,2013.
  3. ^abcStover & Simmonds 1987,pp. 5–17.
  4. ^Stover & Simmonds 1987,p. 212.
  5. ^Flindt, Rainer (2006).Amazing Numbers in Biology.Berlin:Springer Verlag.p. 149.ISBN978-354030146-2.
  6. ^"Musa acuminata 'Dwarf Cavendish' (AAA Group) (F)".Royal Horticultural Society.Archivedfrom the original on April 23, 2023.RetrievedJuly 8,2024.Ultimate height 2.5–4 metres
  7. ^abPloetz et al. 2007,p. 12.
  8. ^abStover & Simmonds 1987,pp. 244–247.
  9. ^Office of the Gene Technology Regulator 2008.
  10. ^"Banana plant".Britannica.RetrievedMarch 12,2024.
  11. ^Smith, James P. (1977).Vascular Plant Families.Eureka, California: Mad River Press.ISBN978-0-916422-07-3.
  12. ^Warkentin, Jon (2004)."How to make a Banana Split".University of Manitoba.Archivedfrom the original on July 29, 2014.RetrievedJuly 21,2014.
  13. ^Simmonds, N.W. (1962)."Where our bananas come from".New Scientist.16(307): 36–39.Archivedfrom the original on June 8, 2013.RetrievedJune 11,2011.
  14. ^De Langhe, Edmond (July 30, 2009)."Relevance of Banana Seeds in Archaeology"(PDF).Ethnobotany.7:271–281.doi:10.17348/era.7.0.271-281.
  15. ^Christelová, Pavla; Valárik, Miroslav; Hřibová, Eva; De Langhe, Edmond; Doležel, Jaroslav (2011)."A multi gene sequence-based phylogeny of the Musaceae (banana) family".BMC Evolutionary Biology.11(1): 103.Bibcode:2011BMCEE..11..103C.doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-103.PMC3102628.PMID21496296.
  16. ^ab"Musa paradisiaca".World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.Archivedfrom the original on April 29, 2013.RetrievedJanuary 6,2013.
  17. ^Li, Xiuxiu; Yu, Sheng; Cheng, Zhihao; Chang, Xiaojun; Yun, Yingzi; Jiang, Mengwei; et al. (2024)."Origin and evolution of the triploid cultivated banana genome".Nature Genetics.56(1): 136–142.doi:10.1038/s41588-023-01589-3.hdl:1854/LU-01HHJ2ZMPK1880RM96GMJWM4SQ.PMID38082204.
  18. ^ab"World Checklist of Selected Plant Families".Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.Archivedfrom the original on March 25, 2023.RetrievedJanuary 6,2013.
  19. ^Hyam, R.; Pankhurst, R.J. (1995).Plants and their names: a concise dictionary.Oxford:Oxford University Press.p. 329.ISBN978-0-19-866189-4.
  20. ^Schapper, Antoinette (2017). "Farming and the Trans-New Guinea family". In Robbeets, Martine; Savelyev, Alexander (eds.).Language dispersal beyond farming(PDF).John Benjamins Publishing Company.pp. 155–181.ISBN978-90-272-1255-9.which (p. 169) citesBlench, Roger(2016)."Things your classics master never told you: a borrowing from Trans New Guinea languages into Latin".Academia.edu.
  21. ^"Banana".Online Etymology Dictionary.Archivedfrom the original on July 28, 2011.RetrievedAugust 5,2010.
  22. ^Bailey, Liberty Hyde (1916).The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture.Macmillan.pp. 2076–2079.Archivedfrom the original on February 22, 2017.
  23. ^abValmayor et al. 2000.
  24. ^abStover & Simmonds 1987,Chapter 4 (genomic classification)
  25. ^Porcher, Michel H. (July 19, 2002)."Sorting Musa names".The University of Melbourne.Archivedfrom the original on March 2, 2011.RetrievedJanuary 11,2011.
  26. ^Donohue, Mark; Denham, Tim (2010). "Farming and Language in Island Southeast Asia: Reframing Austronesian History".Current Anthropology.51(2): 223–256.doi:10.1086/650991.
  27. ^abValmayor et al. 2000,p. 2.
  28. ^Ploetz et al. 2007,pp. 18–19.
  29. ^Gibert, Olivier; Dufour, Dominique; Giraldo, Andrés; Sánchez, Teresa; Reynes, Max; Pain, Jean-Pierre; et al. (2009). "Differentiation between Cooking Bananas and Dessert Bananas. 1. Morphological and Compositional Characterization of Cultivated Colombian Musaceae (Musasp.) in Relation to Consumer Preferences ".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.57(17): 7857–7869.doi:10.1021/jf901788x.PMID19691321.
  30. ^Valmayor et al. 2000,pp. 8–12.
  31. ^Englberger, Lois (2003)."Carotenoid-rich bananas in Micronesia"(PDF).InfoMusa.12(2): 2–5. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on March 9, 2016.RetrievedJanuary 22,2013.
  32. ^Nelson, Ploetz & Kepler 2006.
  33. ^abcdeDenham, Tim (October 2011). "Early Agriculture and Plant Domestication in New Guinea and Island Southeast Asia".Current Anthropology.52(S4): S379–S395.doi:10.1086/658682.hdl:1885/75070.S2CID36818517.
  34. ^abcFuller, Dorian Q.; Boivin, Nicole; Hoogervorst, Tom; Allaby, Robin (January 2, 2015)."Across the Indian Ocean: the prehistoric movement of plants and animals".Antiquity.85(328): 544–558.doi:10.1017/S0003598X00067934.
  35. ^abRoberts, Patrick; Hunt, Chris; Arroyo-Kalin, Manuel; Evans, Damian; Boivin, Nicole (August 3, 2017)."The deep human prehistory of global tropical forests and its relevance for modern conservation"(PDF).Nature Plants.3(8).Nature Portfolio:17093.doi:10.1038/nplants.2017.93.PMID28770823.Archived(PDF)from the original on October 9, 2022.
  36. ^Denham, T. P.; Haberle, S.G.; Lentfer, C.; Fullagar, R.; Field, J.; Therin, M.; Porch, N.; Winsborough, B. (2003). "Origins of Agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea".Science.301(301 (5630)): 189–193.doi:10.1126/science.1085255.JSTOR3834782.PMID12817084.
  37. ^Mbida, V.M.; Van Neer, W.; Doutrelepont, H.; Vrydaghs, L. (2000)."Evidence for banana cultivation and animal husbandry during the first millennium BCE in the forest of southern Cameroon"(PDF).Journal of Archaeological Science.27(2): 151–162.Bibcode:2000JArSc..27..151M.doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0447.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on January 14, 2012.RetrievedJanuary 20,2019.
  38. ^Zeller, Friedrich J. (2005)."Herkunft, Diversität und Züchtung der Banane und kultivierter Zitrusarten"[Origin, diversity and breeding of banana and cultivated citrus](PDF).Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, Supplement 81(in German).Archived(PDF)from the original on March 4, 2016.RetrievedSeptember 5,2014.
  39. ^Lejju, B. Julius; Robertshaw, Peter; Taylor, David (2005)."Africa's earliest bananas?"(PDF).Journal of Archaeological Science.33:102–113.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2005.06.015.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on December 2, 2007.
  40. ^Adelaar, Alexander(2016). "Austronesians in Madagascar: A critical assessment of the works of Paul Ottino and Philippe Beaujard". In Campbell, Gwyn (ed.).Early exchange between Africa and the wider Indian Ocean world(PDF).Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 77–112.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33822-4_4.ISBN978-3-319-33821-7.the beginning of any contacts between East Africa and ISEA, which dates from 300 BC or possibly earlier and involves the transfer of cultigens (including banana, yam, taro, and rice)... settlement of Madagascar by speakers of Austronesian languages. It covers a period probably beginning around the seventh-century CE
  41. ^Scott, Ashley; et al. (January 12, 2021)."Exotic foods reveal contact between South Asia and the Near East during the second millennium BCE".PNAS.118(2): e2014956117.Bibcode:2021PNAS..11814956S.doi:10.1073/pnas.2014956117.PMC7812755.PMID33419922.
  42. ^Ploetz et al. 2007,p. 7.
  43. ^Watson, Andrew M. (1974). "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700–1100".The Journal of Economic History.34(1): 8–35.doi:10.1017/S0022050700079602.JSTOR2116954.S2CID154359726.
  44. ^abcWatson, Andrew (1983). "Part 1. The chronology of diffusion: 8. Banana, plantain".Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world.New York:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-24711-5.
  45. ^Ibn al-'Awwam, Yahya(1864).Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah)[The Book of Agriculture of Ibn-al-Awam (Kitāb al-Filāḥa)] (in French). Translated by J.-J. Clement-Mullet.Paris:A. Francke Verlag. pp. 368–370 (ch. 7 - Article 48).OCLC780050566.(pp.368-370 (Article XLVIII)
  46. ^Jennings, Ronald (1992).Christians and Muslims in Ottoman Cyprus and the Mediterranean World, 1571–1640.New York: NYU Press. p. 189.ISBN978-0-8147-4181-8.
  47. ^Amano, Noel; Bankoff, Greg; Findley, David Max; Barretto-Tesoro, Grace; Roberts, Patrick (February 2021)."Archaeological and historical insights into the ecological impacts of pre-colonial and colonial introductions into the Philippine Archipelago".The Holocene.31(2): 313–330.Bibcode:2021Holoc..31..313A.doi:10.1177/0959683620941152.hdl:21.11116/0000-0006-CB04-1.S2CID225586504.
  48. ^Nowell, C.E. (1962). "Antonio Pigafetta's account".Magellan's Voyage Around the World.Northwestern University Press.hdl:2027/mdp.39015008001532.OCLC347382.
  49. ^Gibson, Arthur C."Bananas and plantains".UCLA. Archived fromthe originalon June 14, 2012.RetrievedSeptember 5,2014.
  50. ^Guzmán-Rivas, Pablo (1960)."Geographic Influences of the Galleon Trade on New Spain".Revista Geográfica.27(53): 5–81.JSTOR41888470.
  51. ^de Langhe, Edmond; de Maret, Pierre (2004)."Tracking the banana: its significance in early agriculture".In Hather, Jon G. (ed.).The Prehistory of Food: Appetites for Change.Routledge.p. 372.ISBN978-0-203-20338-5.Archivedfrom the original on February 22, 2017.
  52. ^Chambers, Geoff (2013). "Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians".eLS.John Wiley & Sons.doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2.ISBN978-0470016176.
  53. ^ab"History of Banana".Phora-sotoby. Archived fromthe originalon April 16, 2009.RetrievedApril 16,2009.
  54. ^abKoeppel, Dan (2008).Banana: The Fate of the Fruit that Changed the World.New York:Hudson Street Press.pp.51–53.ISBN978-0-452-29008-2.
  55. ^ab"Big-business greed killing the banana – Independent".The New Zealand Herald.May 24, 2008. p. A19.
  56. ^Office of the Gene Technology Regulator 2008,pp. 7–8.
  57. ^Clegg, Peter "The Development of the Windward Islands Banana Export Trade: Commercial Opportunity and Colonial NecessityArchivedOctober 8, 2010, at theWayback Machine,"Society for Caribbean Studies Annual Conference Papers1 (2000)
  58. ^d'Hont, A.; Denoeud, F.; Aury, J.M.; Baurens, F. C.; Carreel, F.; Garsmeur, O.; et al. (2012)."The banana (Musa acuminata) genome and the evolution of monocotyledonous plants".Nature.488(7410): 213–217.Bibcode:2012Natur.488..213D.doi:10.1038/nature11241.PMID22801500.
  59. ^"How bananas are grown".Banana Link.Archivedfrom the original on September 6, 2016.RetrievedSeptember 2,2016.
  60. ^"Where bananas are grown".ProMusa.2013.Archivedfrom the original on October 25, 2016.RetrievedOctober 24,2016.
  61. ^"Apples and oranges are the top U.S. fruit choices".USDAEconomic Research Service.RetrievedFebruary 13,2023.
  62. ^abGittleson, Kim (February 1, 2018)."Battling to save the world's bananas".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on March 26, 2018.RetrievedApril 18,2018.
  63. ^Wang, Xiaoyi; Yu, Renbo; Li, Jingyang (January 13, 2021)."Using Genetic Engineering Techniques to Develop Banana Cultivars With Fusarium Wilt Resistance and Ideal Plant Architecture".Frontiers in Plant Science.11.doi:10.3389/fpls.2020.617528.PMC7838362.PMID33519876.
  64. ^Canine, Craig (October 2005)."Building A Better Banana".Smithsonian Magazine.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  65. ^ab"Fruit Ripening".Archivedfrom the original on July 21, 2011.RetrievedFebruary 17,2010.
  66. ^ab"Ethylene Process".Argonne National Laboratory. Archived fromthe originalon March 24, 2010.RetrievedFebruary 17,2010.
  67. ^Ding, Phebe; Ahmad, S.H.; Razak, A.R.A.; Shaari, N.; Mohamed, M.T.M. (2007)."Plastid ultrastructure, chlorophyll contents, and colour expression during ripening of Cavendish banana (Musa acuminata'Williams') at 17°C and 27°C "(PDF).New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science.35(2): 201–210.Bibcode:2007NZJCH..35..201D.doi:10.1080/01140670709510186.S2CID83844509.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on March 16, 2012.RetrievedJuly 16,2011.
  68. ^Sugianti, Cicih; Imaizumi, Teppei; Thammawong, Manasikan; Tsuta, Mizuki; Nagata, Masayasu; Nakano, Kohei (2024). "Time–temperature tolerance of harvested green bananas exposed to high temperatures".Scientia Horticulturae.329:112970.doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2024.112970.
  69. ^Arias, Pedro (2003).The World Banana Economy, 1985-2002.Food and Agriculture Organization.ISBN978-9251050576.
  70. ^"How to Ripen Bananas".Chiquita.Archived fromthe originalon August 4, 2009.RetrievedAugust 15,2009.
  71. ^Bebber, Daniel P. (2023)."The long road to a sustainable banana trade".Plants, People, Planet.5(5): 662–671.doi:10.1002/ppp3.10331.hdl:10871/131107.
  72. ^Cohen, Rebecca (June 12, 2009)."Global issues for breakfast: The banana industry and its problems FAQ (Cohen mix)".SCQ.Archivedfrom the original on June 5, 2020.RetrievedJune 5,2020.
  73. ^Voora, V.; Larrea, C.; Bermudez, S. (2020).Global Market Report: Bananas.State of Sustainability Initiatives(Report).
  74. ^Voora, Vivek; Bermudez, Steffany; Farrell, Johanna Joy; Larrea, Cristina; Luna, Erika (March 2023)."Banana Prices and Sustainability"(PDF).International Institute for Sustainable Development.p. 8.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  75. ^Jankowicz-Cieslak, Joanna; Ingelbrecht, Ivan (2022). Jankowicz-Cieslak, Joanna; Ingelbrecht, Ivan L. (eds.).Efficient Screening Techniques to Identify Mutants with TR4 Resistance in Banana: Protocols.Berlin: Plant Breeding and Genetics Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture,International Atomic Energy Agency,United NationsFood and Agriculture Organization.p. 142.doi:10.1007/978-3-662-64915-2.ISBN978-3-662-64914-5.OCLC1323245754.S2CID249207968.
  76. ^Ismaila, Abubakar Abubakar; Ahmad, Khairulmazmi; Siddique, Yasmeen; et al. (2023)."Fusariumwilt of banana: Current update and sustainable disease control using classical and essential oils approaches ".Horticultural Plant Journal.9(1).Elsevier:1–28.Bibcode:2023HorPJ...9....1I.doi:10.1016/j.hpj.2022.02.004.S2CID247265619.Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences via KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. – Chinese Society for Horticultural Science and Institute of Vegetables and Flowers.
  77. ^Das, Sukhen Chandra; Balamohan, T.N.; Poornima, K.; Bergh, I. Van den (August 20, 2018)."Studies of Ploidy Assessment in Some Synthetic Hybrids of Banana (Musa spp.)".International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences.7(08): 3251–3264.doi:10.20546/ijcmas.2018.708.347.
  78. ^Pearce, Fred (January 18, 2003)."Going bananas"(PDF).New Scientist.177(2378): 27.Archived(PDF)from the original on February 17, 2020.
  79. ^ab"FAOSTAT".fao.org.RetrievedMarch 16,2024.
  80. ^ab"Banana and plantain exports in 2013, Crops and livestock products/Regions/World list/Export quantity (pick lists)".Food and Agriculture Organization,Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2017.Archivedfrom the original on May 11, 2017.RetrievedJanuary 6,2018.
  81. ^abcPadmanaban, B. (2018). "Pests of Banana".Pests and Their Management.Singapore: Springer Singapore. pp. 441–455.doi:10.1007/978-981-10-8687-8_13.ISBN978-981-10-8686-1.
  82. ^Sekora, N. S. and W. T. Crow.Burrowing nematode,Radopholus similis.EENY-542. University of Florida IFAS. 2012.
  83. ^Jonathan, E.I.; Rajendran, G. (2000)."Pathogenic effect of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita on banana, Musa sp".Indian Journal of Nematology.30(1): 13–15.
  84. ^Nyang’au, Douglas; Atandi, Janet; Cortada, Laura; Nchore, Shem; Mwangi, Maina; Coyne, Danny (August 30, 2021). "Diversity of nematodes on banana (Musa spp.) in Kenya linked to altitude and with a focus on the pathogenicity of Pratylenchus goodeyi".Nematology.24(2): 137–147.doi:10.1163/15685411-bja10119.hdl:1854/LU-8735041.
  85. ^Zuckerman, B.M.; Strich-Hariri, D. (1963). "The life stages of Helicotylenchus multicinctus (Cobb) in banana roots".Nematology.9(3).E.J. Brill:347–353.doi:10.1163/187529263x00872.
  86. ^ab"A future with no bananas?".New Scientist.May 13, 2006.Archivedfrom the original on January 18, 2021.RetrievedDecember 9,2006.
  87. ^abcdKarp, Myles (August 12, 2019)."The banana is one step closer to disappearing".National Geographic.Archived fromthe originalon September 13, 2019.RetrievedSeptember 14,2019.
  88. ^Montpellier, Emile Frison (February 8, 2003)."Rescuing the banana".New Scientist.Archived fromthe originalon March 11, 2007.RetrievedDecember 9,2006.
  89. ^Whang, Oliver (October 17, 2022)."The Search Is on for Mysterious Banana Ancestors".The New York Times.RetrievedOctober 21,2022.
  90. ^Thomas, Adelle; Baptiste, April; Martyr-Koller, Rosanne; Pringle, Patrick; Rhiney, Kevon (October 17, 2020)."Climate Change and Small Island Developing States".Annual Review of Environment and Resources.45(1).Annual Reviews:1–27.doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-083355.
  91. ^Barker, C.L. (November 2008). "Conservation: Peeling Away".National Geographic Magazine.
  92. ^Frost, Natasha (February 28, 2018)."A Quest for the Gros Michel, the Great Banana of Yesteryear".Atlas Obscura.Archivedfrom the original on July 24, 2020.RetrievedJuly 24,2019.
  93. ^Lessard, William (1992).The Complete Book of Bananas.W.O. Lessard. pp. 27–28.ISBN978-0963316103.
  94. ^"Risk assessment of Eastern African Highland Bananas and Plantains against TR4"(PDF).International Banana Symposium.2012. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on April 7, 2014.RetrievedApril 6,2014.
  95. ^abDale, James; James, Anthony; Paul, Jean-Yves; et al. (November 14, 2017)."Transgenic Cavendish bananas with resistance to Fusarium wilt tropical race 4".Nature Communications.8(1): 1496.Bibcode:2017NatCo...8.1496D.doi:10.1038/s41467-017-01670-6.PMC5684404.PMID29133817.
  96. ^ab"Researchers Develop Cavendish Bananas Resistant to Panama Disease".ISAAA (International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications) Crop Biotech Update.February 24, 2021.RetrievedSeptember 2,2021.
  97. ^Holmes, Bob (April 20, 2013). "Go Bananas".New Scientist.218(2913): 9–41.(Also atHolmes, Bob (April 20, 2013)."Nana from heaven? How our favourite fruit came to be".New Scientist.Archivedfrom the original on April 24, 2013.RetrievedApril 19,2013.)
  98. ^Marín, D.H.; Romero, R. A.; Guzmán, M.; Sutton, T.B. (2003). "Black sigatoka: An increasing threat to banana cultivation".Plant Disease.87(3).American Phytopathological Society(APS): 208–222.doi:10.1094/PDIS.2003.87.3.208.PMID30812750.
  99. ^"Mycosphaerella fijiensisv2.0 ".Joint Genome Institute,U.S. Department of Energy. 2013. Archived fromthe originalon February 28, 2014.RetrievedAugust 13,2013.
  100. ^National Biological Information Infrastructure & IUCN/SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group.Banana Bunchy Top VirusArchivedApril 22, 2016, at theWayback Machine.Global Invasive Species Database. N.p., July 6, 2005.
  101. ^abThomas, J.E. (ed). 2015.MusaNet Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement ofMusaGermplasmArchivedSeptember 28, 2018, at theWayback Machine.3rd edition. MusaLit, Bioversity International, Rome
  102. ^Thomas, J.E.; Iskra-Caruana, M-L.; Jones, D.R. (1994)."MusaDisease Fact Sheet N° 4. Banana Bunchy Top Disease "(PDF).INIBAP.Archived(PDF)from the original on October 2, 2018.RetrievedOctober 2,2018.
  103. ^Tushemereirwe, W.; Kangire, A.; Ssekiwoko, F.; Offord, L.C.; Crozier, J.; Boa, E.; Rutherford, M.; Smith, J.J. (2004). "First report ofXanthomonas campestrispv.musacearumon banana in Uganda ".Plant Pathology.53(6): 802.doi:10.1111/j.1365-3059.2004.01090.x.
  104. ^Bradbury, J.F.; Yiguro, D. (1968). "Bacterial wilt of Enset (Ensete ventricosa) incited byXanthomonas musacearum".Phytopathology.58:111–112.
  105. ^Mwangi, M.; Bandyopadhyay, R.; Ragama, P.; Tushemereirwe, R.K. (2007). "Assessment of banana planting practices and cultivar tolerance in relation to management of soilborneXanthomonas campestrispv.musacearum".Crop Protection.26(8): 1203–1208.Bibcode:2007CrPro..26.1203M.doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2006.10.017.
  106. ^abc"Banana".Genebank Platform.2018.Archivedfrom the original on September 10, 2018.RetrievedSeptember 10,2018.
  107. ^McGrath, Matt (March 12, 2024)."Banana prices to go up as temperatures rise, says expert".BBC News.RetrievedMarch 12,2024.
  108. ^"International Musa Germplasm Transit Centre".Bioversity International.2018.Archivedfrom the original on September 10, 2018.RetrievedSeptember 10,2018.
  109. ^"Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use ofMusaGenetic Resources (B. Laliberté, compiler) ".Montpellier, France:Bioversity International.2016.
  110. ^United States Food and Drug Administration(2024)."Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels".FDA.Archivedfrom the original on March 27, 2024.RetrievedMarch 28,2024.
  111. ^National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.).Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium.The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US).ISBN978-0-309-48834-1.PMID30844154.Archivedfrom the original on May 9, 2024.RetrievedJune 21,2024.
  112. ^abEdwards, Gordon (2019)."About radioactive bananas"(PDF).Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility.Archived(PDF)from the original on May 15, 2017.RetrievedApril 24,2019.
  113. ^Kraft, S. (August 4, 2011)."Bananas! Eating Healthy Will Cost You; Potassium Alone $380 Per Year".Medical News Today.Archivedfrom the original on October 25, 2014.RetrievedOctober 25,2014.
  114. ^"Ranking of potassium content per 100 grams in common foods (" Foundation "only for search filter)".FoodData Central,United States Department of Agriculture.2023.RetrievedFebruary 26,2023.
  115. ^"What you need to know about potassium".EatRight Ontario, Dietitians of Canada. 2019.Archivedfrom the original on May 3, 2019.RetrievedApril 24,2019.
  116. ^Mui, Winnie W.Y.; Durance, Timothy D.; Scaman, Christine H. (2002). "Flavor and Texture of Banana Chips Dried by Combinations of Hot Air, Vacuum, and Microwave Processing".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.50(7): 1883–1889.doi:10.1021/jf011218n.PMID11902928."Isoamyl acetate (9.6%) imparts the characteristic aroma typical of fresh bananas (13, 17−20), while butyl acetate (8.1%) and isobutyl acetate (1.4%) are considered to be character impact compounds of banana flavor."
  117. ^Williams, Patrick."Roast bream with fried plantain fritters and coconut sauce".BBC.RetrievedMarch 12,2024.
  118. ^Kraig, Bruce;Sen, Colleen Taylor(2013).Street Food around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture.ABC-CLIO.p. 183.ISBN978-1-59884-955-4.
  119. ^Tsao, Kimberley (February 15, 2023)."Turon, maruya, bitso-bitso and banana cue make it to Taste Atlas's list of 100 most popular deep-fried desserts in the world".GMA News.RetrievedMarch 12,2024.
  120. ^Aimi Azira, S.; Wan Zunairah, W.I.; Nor Afizah, M.; M.A.R., Nor-Khaizura; S., Radhiah; M.R., Ismail Fitry; Z.A., Nur Hanani (September 10, 2021)."Prevention of browning reaction in banana jam during storage by physical and chemical treatments".Food Research.5(5): 55–62.doi:10.26656/fr.2017.5(5).046.
  121. ^Pereira, Ignatius (April 13, 2013)."The taste of Kerala".The Hindu.Chennai, India.Archivedfrom the original on December 28, 2013.RetrievedJanuary 3,2014.
  122. ^Coghlan, Lea (May 13, 2014)."Business goes bananas".Queensland Country Life.
  123. ^"The king of all Uganda breakfasts".Monitor. March 31, 2012.RetrievedJuly 19,2024.
  124. ^"Banana bread".BBC Good Food.RetrievedJuly 19,2024.
  125. ^Solomon, C. (1998).Encyclopedia of Asian Food(Periplus ed.). Australia:New Holland Publishers.ISBN978-0-85561-688-5.Archived fromthe originalon June 3, 2008.RetrievedMay 17,2008.
  126. ^Watson, Molly (June 21, 2022)."Banana Flowers".The Spruce Eats.Archivedfrom the original on May 14, 2014.See also the link on that page for Banana Flower Salad.
  127. ^Nace, Trevor (March 25, 2019)."Thailand Supermarket Ditches Plastic Packaging For Banana Leaves".Forbes.Archivedfrom the original on March 26, 2019.RetrievedMarch 26,2019.
  128. ^"Banana leaves transform texture of chicken tamales".The San Diego Union-Tribune.December 7, 2022.
  129. ^Grover, Neha (December 27, 2022)."Why South Indians Eat On Banana Leaves - Health Benefits And More".NDTV.RetrievedMarch 12,2024.
  130. ^Kora, Aruna Jyothi (2019)."Leaves as dining plates, food wraps and food packing material: Importance of renewable resources in Indian culture".Bulletin of the National Research Centre.43(1).doi:10.1186/s42269-019-0231-6.
  131. ^Robert, Claudia Saw Lwin; Pe, Win; Hutton, Wendy (February 4, 2014).The Food of Myanmar: Authentic Recipes from the Land of the Golden Pagodas.Tuttle Publishing.ISBN978-1-4629-1368-8.
  132. ^Polistico, Edgie (2017). "Inubaran".Philippine Food, Cooking, & Dining Dictionary.Anvil Publishing.ISBN9786214200870.
  133. ^Polistico, Edgie (2017). "Kadyos, Manok, Kag Ubad".Philippine Food, Cooking, & Dining Dictionary.Anvil Publishing.ISBN9786214200870.
  134. ^Hendrickx, Katrien (2007).The Origins of Banana-fibre Cloth in the Ryukyus, Japan.Leuven UniversityPress. p. 188.ISBN978-9058676146.Archivedfrom the original on March 27, 2018.
  135. ^"Traditional Crafts of Japan – Kijoka Banana Fiber Cloth".Association for the Promotion of Traditional Craft Industries.Archivedfrom the original on November 4, 2006.RetrievedDecember 11,2006.
  136. ^Gupta, K.M. (November 13, 2014).Engineering Materials: Research, Applications and Advances.CRC Press.ISBN978-148225798-4.Archivedfrom the original on March 27, 2018.
  137. ^Minard, Anne (March 11, 2011)."Is That a Banana in Your Water?".National Geographic.Archived fromthe originalon April 26, 2011.RetrievedMarch 15,2011.
  138. ^Castro, Renata S.D.; Caetano, LaéRcio; Ferreira, Guilherme; Padilha, Pedro M.; Saeki, Margarida J.; Zara, Luiz F.; et al. (2011)."Banana Peel Applied to the Solid Phase Extraction of Copper and Lead from River Water: Preconcentration of Metal Ions with a Fruit Waste".Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research.50(6): 3446–3451.doi:10.1021/ie101499e.Archivedfrom the original on December 22, 2019.RetrievedSeptember 3,2019.
  139. ^Heuzé, V.; Tran, G.; Archimède, H.; Renaudeau, D.; Lessire, M. (2016)."Banana fruits".Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO.Archivedfrom the original on February 21, 2018.RetrievedFebruary 20,2018.Last updated on March 25, 2016, 10:36
  140. ^Frame, Paul (January 20, 2009)."General information about K-40".Oak Ridge National Laboratory.Archivedfrom the original on December 23, 2017.RetrievedApril 24,2019.
  141. ^Mansfield, Gary (March 7, 1995)."Banana equivalent dose".Internal Dosimetry,Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,University of California.Archivedfrom the original on August 17, 2011.RetrievedApril 24,2019.
  142. ^Pollart, S.M.; Warniment, C.; Mori, T. (December 2009)."Latex allergy".American Family Physician.80(12): 1413–8.PMID20000303.
  143. ^Taylor, J.S.; Erkek, E. (2004)."Latex allergy: diagnosis and management".Dermatologic Therapy.17(4): 289–301.doi:10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04024.x.PMID15327474.S2CID24748498.
  144. ^Shirane, Haruo (1998).Traces of Dreams: Landscape, Cultural Memory, and the Poetry of Bashō.Stanford:Stanford University Press.p. 64.ISBN978-0-8047-3099-0.
  145. ^Shaw, Arnold (1987).""Yes! We have No Bananas" / "Charleston" (1923) ".The Jazz Age: Popular Music in 1920s.Oxford University Press. p. 132.ISBN9780195060829.Archivedfrom the original on February 23, 2017.
  146. ^Dan Koeppel (2005)."Can This Fruit Be Saved?".Popular Science.267(2): 60–70.Archivedfrom the original on February 22, 2017.
  147. ^Stewart, Cal."Collected Works of Cal Stewart part 2".Uncle Josh in a Department Store (1910).The Internet Archive.RetrievedNovember 17,2010.
  148. ^Jones, Jonathan (April 30, 2019)."Bananas in art: a short history of the salacious, disturbing and censored fruit".The Guardian.
  149. ^Bill DeMain (December 11, 2011)."The Stories Behind 11 Classic Album Covers".mental_floss. Archived fromthe originalon October 28, 2012.RetrievedJanuary 6,2013.
  150. ^Armstrong, Annie (December 17, 2019)."A Guide to the Banana In (Feminist) Art History".Vice.RetrievedJuly 19,2024.
  151. ^O'Neil, Luke (December 6, 2019)."One banana, what could it cost? $120,000 – if it's art".The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on December 30, 2019.RetrievedDecember 25,2019.
  152. ^Pogrebin, Robin (December 8, 2019)."Banana Splits: Spoiled by Its Own Success, the $120,000 Fruit Is Gone".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on December 15, 2019.RetrievedDecember 25,2019.
  153. ^"Banana trees in weddings".Indian Mirror.Archivedfrom the original on August 24, 2019.RetrievedAugust 24,2019.
  154. ^"Legends, myths and folklore of the banana tree in India - its use in traditional culture".EarthstOriez. May 2, 2017.Archivedfrom the original on August 24, 2019.RetrievedAugust 24,2019.
  155. ^"Banana Tree Prai Lady Ghost".Thailand-amulets.net. March 19, 2012.Archivedfrom the original on November 8, 2012.RetrievedAugust 26,2012.
  156. ^"Spirits".Thaiworldview.Archivedfrom the original on June 30, 2012.RetrievedAugust 26,2012.
  157. ^"Pontianak- South East Asian Vampire".Castleofspirits. Archived fromthe originalon July 20, 2014.RetrievedMay 13,2014.
  158. ^Mills, Charles W.; Hund, Wulf D. (February 29, 2016)."Comparing black people to monkeys has a long, dark simian history".The Conversation.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  159. ^Jackson, Allison (May 13, 2014)."The ugly, racist trend of tossing bananas at black soccer players continues".The World.Agence France-Presse,GlobalPost.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.
  160. ^Evans, Richard (August 22, 2016)."Richard Evans: Throwing bananas at black sportsmen has been recognised as racism across Europe for decades".The Advertiser.Adelaide.RetrievedJuly 13,2024.

Bibliography

Wikimedia Commons has media related toBananas.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Banana&oldid=1258545809#Fiber"