TheBattle of France(French:bataille de France;10 May – 25 June 1940), also known as theWestern Campaign(German:Westfeldzug), theFrench Campaign(Frankreichfeldzug,campagne de France) and theFall of France,during theSecond World Warwas theGermaninvasion of theLow Countries(Belgium,Luxembourgand theNetherlands) andFrance.The invasion plan for the Low Countries and France was calledFall Gelb(Case Yellow).Fall Rot(Case Red) was planned to finish off the French and British after theevacuation at Dunkirk.The Low Countries and France were defeated and occupied by Axis troops down to theDemarcation line.In November 1942, Wehrmacht troops alsooccupied Vichy Franceending land operations on theWestern Frontuntil theNormandy landingsbegan on 6 June 1944.
| Battle of France | |||||||||
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Axis armies
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Allied armies | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
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Germany:141 divisions 7,378 guns[2] 2,445 tanks[2] 5,638 aircraft[3][c] 3,300,000 troops[4] Italians in the Alps 22 divisions 3,000 guns 300,000 troops Total: 3,600,000 troops |
Allies:135 divisions 13,974 guns 3,383–4,071 French tanks[2][5] <2,935 aircraft[3][d] 3,300,000 troops French in the Alps 5 divisions ~150,000 troops Total: 3,450,000 troops | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
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Germany: Total: 162,587 |
73,000 killed 240,000 wounded 15,000 missing[g] 1,756,000 captured 2,233 aircraft lost[24] 1,749 French tanks lost[h] 689 British tanks lost[i] Total: 2,084,000 | ||||||||
On 3 September 1939,FranceandBritaindeclared war on Nazi Germany, over the Germaninvasion of Polandon 1 September. In early September 1939, France began the limitedSaar Offensivebut by mid-October had withdrawn to their start lines. Starting 10 May 1940,Wehrmachtarmiesinvaded Belgium,Luxembourg,the Netherlands,and parts of France.
InFall Gelb( "Case Yellow" ), German armoured units madea surprise pushthrough theArdennesand then along theSommevalley, cutting off and surrounding theAlliedunits that had advanced into Belgium to meet the German armies there.British,Belgianand French forces were pushed back to the sea by the Germans where the British and French navies evacuated the encircled elements of theBritish Expeditionary Force(BEF) and the French and Belgian armies fromDunkirkinOperation Dynamo.
German forces beganFall Rot( "Case Red" ) on 5 June 1940. The remaining Allieddivisionsin France, sixty French and two British, made a determined stand on the Somme andAisnerivers but were defeated by the German combination ofair superiorityand armoured mobility.Italyentered the war on the German side on 10 June 1940 and began theItalian invasion of France.German armies outflanked theMaginot Lineand pushed deep into France, occupying Paris unopposed on 14 June. After the flight of the French government and the collapse of theFrench Army,German commanders met with French officials on 18 June to negotiate an end to hostilities.
On 22 June 1940, theSecond Armistice at Compiègnewas signed by France and Germany. The neutralVichy governmentled by MarshalPhilippe Pétainreplaced the Third Republic and German military occupation began along the FrenchNorth Sea and Atlantic coastsand their hinterlands. The Italian invasion of France over the Alps took a small amount of ground and after thearmistice,Italyoccupieda small area in the south-east. The Vichy regime retained thezone libre(free zone) in the south. Following theAllied invasion of French North Africain November 1942, inCase Anton,the Germans and Italians took control of the zone untilFrance was liberatedby the Allies in 1944.
Background
editMaginot Line
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During the 1930s, the French built theMaginot Line,fortifications along theborder with Germany.[26][page needed]The line was intended to economise on manpower and deter a German invasion across the Franco–German border by diverting it into Belgium, which could then be met by the best divisions of theFrench Army.The war would take place outside French territory,avoidingthe destruction of theFirst World War.[27][28]The main section of the Maginot Line ran from the Swiss border and ended atLongwy;the hills and woods of theArdennesregion were thought to cover the area to the north.[29]GeneralPhilippe Pétaindeclared the Ardennes to be "impenetrable" as long as "special provisions" were taken to destroy an invasion force as it emerged from the Ardennes by apincer attack.The French commander-in-chief,Maurice Gamelin,also believed the area to be safe from attack, noting it "never favoured large operations". French war games, held in 1938, of a hypothetical German armoured attack through the Ardennes, left the army with the impression that the region was still largely impenetrable and that this, along with the obstacle of theMeuse River,would allow the French time to bring up troops into the area to counter any attack.[30]
German invasion of Poland
editIn 1939, theUnited KingdomandFranceoffered military support toPolandin the likely case of a German invasion.[31]At dawn on 1 September 1939, the Germaninvasion of Polandbegan.Franceand theUnited Kingdom declared waron 3 September, after an ultimatum for German forces immediately to withdraw their forces from Poland was not answered.[32]Australia and New Zealand also declared war on 3 September, South Africa on 6 September and Canada on 10 September. While British and French commitments to Poland were met politically, theAlliesfailed to fulfil their military obligations to Poland, later called theWestern betrayalby the Poles. The possibility of Soviet assistance to Poland had ended with theMunich Agreementof 1938, after which theSoviet Unionand Germany eventually negotiated theMolotov–Ribbentrop Pact,which included an agreement to partition Poland. The Allies settled on a long-war strategy in which they would complete the rearmament plans of the 1930s while fighting a defensive land war against Germany and weakening itswar economywith a tradeblockade,ready for an eventual invasion of Germany.[33]
Phoney War
edit
On 7 September, in accordance with theFranco-Polish alliance,France began theSaar Offensivewith an advance from the Maginot Line 5 km (3 mi) into theSaar.France had mobilised 98divisions(all but 28 of them reserve or fortress formations) and 2,500 tanks against a German force consisting of 43 divisions (32 of them reserves) and no tanks. The French advanced until they met the thin and undermannedSiegfried Line.On 17 September, Gamelin gave the order to withdraw French troops to their starting positions; the last of them left Germany on 17 September, the day of theSoviet invasion of Poland.Following the Saar Offensive, a period of inaction called thePhoney War(the FrenchDrôle de guerre,joke war or the GermanSitzkrieg,sitting war) set in between the belligerents.Adolf Hitlerhad hoped that France and Britain would acquiesce in the conquest of Poland and quickly make peace. On 6 October, in aspeech to the Reichstaghe made a peace offer to the Western powers.[34][35][36]
German strategy
editFall Gelb(Case Yellow)
editOn 9 October 1939, Hitler issuedFührer-DirectiveNumber6 (Führer-Anweisung N°6).[34]Hitler recognised the necessity of military campaigns to defeat the Western European nations, preliminary to the conquest of territory in Eastern Europe, to avoid atwo-front warbut these intentions were absent from Directive N°6.[37]The plan was based on the seemingly more realistic assumption that German military strength would have to be built up for several years. Only limited objectives could be envisaged and were aimed at improving Germany's ability to survive a long war in the west.[38]Hitler ordered a conquest of theLow Countriesto be executed at the shortest possible notice to forestall the French and prevent Alliedair powerfrom threatening the industrial area of theRuhr.[39]It would also provide the basis for a long-term air and sea campaign against Britain. There was no mention in the directive of a consecutive attack to conquer the whole of France, although the directive read that as much as possible of the border areas in northern France should be occupied.[37][40]
On 10 October 1939, Britain refused Hitler's offer of peace and on 12 October, France did the same. The pre-war German codename of plans for a campaign in the Low Countries wasAufmarschanweisung N°1, Fall Gelb(Deployment Instruction No. 1, Case Yellow). Colonel-GeneralFranz Halder(Chief of the General StaffOberkommando des Heeres[OKH]), presented the first plan forFall Gelbon 19 October.[41]Fall Gelbentailed an advance through the middle of Belgium;Aufmarschanweisung N°1envisioned a frontal attack, at a cost of half million German soldiers to attain the limited goal of throwing the Allies back to theRiver Somme.German strength in 1940 would then be spent and only in 1942 could the main attack against France begin.[42]When Hitler raised objections to the plan and wanted an armoured breakthrough, as had happened in the invasion of Poland, Halder and Brauchitsch attempted to dissuade him, arguing that while the fast-moving mechanised tactics were effective against a "shoddy" Eastern European army, they would not work against a first-rate military like the French.[43]
Hitler was disappointed with Halder's plan and initially reacted by deciding that the Army should attack early, ready or not, hoping that Allied unreadiness might bring about an easy victory. Hitler proposed an invasion on 25 October 1939 but accepted that the date was probably unrealistic. On 29 October, Halder presentedAufmarschanweisung N°2, Fall Gelb,with a secondary attack on the Netherlands.[44]On 5 November, Hitler informedWalther von Brauchitschthat he intended the invasion to begin on 12 November. Brauchitsch replied that the military had yet to recover from the Polish campaign and offered to resign; this was refused but two days later Hitler postponed the attack, giving poor weather as the reason for the delay.[45][46]More postponements followed, as commanders persuaded Hitler to delay the attack for a few days or weeks, to remedy some defect in the preparations or to wait for better weather. Hitler also tried to alter the plan, which he found unsatisfactory; his weak understanding of how poorly prepared Germany was for war and how it would cope with losses of armoured vehicles were not fully considered. Though Poland had been quickly defeated, many armoured vehicles had been lost and were hard to replace. This led to the German effort becoming dispersed; the main attack would remain in central Belgium, secondary attacks would be undertaken on the flanks. Hitler made such a suggestion on 11 November, pressing for an early attack on unprepared targets.[47]
Halder's plan satisfied no-one; GeneralGerd von Rundstedt,the commander ofArmy Group A(Heeresgruppe A) recognised that it did not adhere to the classic principles ofBewegungskrieg(war of manoeuvre) that had guided German strategy since the 19th century. A breakthrough was needed to encircle and destroy the main body of Allied forces. The most practical place to achieve this would be in the region ofSedan,which lay in the sector of Army Group A. On 21 October, Rundstedt agreed with hischief of staff,GeneralleutnantErich von Manstein,that an alternative operational plan to reflect these principles was needed, by making Army Group A as strong as possible at the expense ofArmy Group Bto the north.[48]
Manstein plan
edit
While Manstein was formulating new plans inKoblenz,GeneralleutnantHeinz Guderian,commander of theXIX Army Corps,was lodged in a nearby hotel.[49]Manstein was initially considering a move north from Sedan, directly in the rear of the main Allied mobile forces in Belgium. When Guderian was invited to contribute to the plan during informal discussions, he proposed that most of thePanzerwaffeshould be concentrated at Sedan. This concentration of armour would advance to the west to theEnglish Channel,without waiting for the main body of infantry divisions. This might lead to a strategic collapse of the enemy, avoiding the relatively high number of casualties normally caused by aKesselschlacht(cauldron battle).[50]
Such a risky independent use of armour had been widely discussed in Germany before the war but OKH doubted such an operation could work.[50]Manstein's general operational ideas won immediate support from Guderian, who understood the terrain, having experienced the conditions with theGerman Armyin 1914 and 1918.[51]Manstein wrote his first memorandum outlining the alternative plan on 31 October. In it he avoided mentioning Guderian and played down the strategic part of the armoured units, to avoid unnecessary resistance.[52]Six more memoranda followed between 31 October 1939 and 12 January 1940, each becoming more radical. All were rejected byOKHand nothing of their content reached Hitler.[51]
Mechelen incident
editOn 10 January 1940, a German aircraft, carrying a staff officer with theLuftwaffeplans for an offensive through central Belgium to the North Sea, force-landed nearMaasmechelen(Mechelen) in Belgium. The documents were captured but Allied intelligence doubted that they were genuine. In the full moon period in April 1940, another Allied alert was called for a possible attack on the Low Countries or Holland, an offensive through the Low Countries to outflank the Maginot Line from the north, an attack on the Maginot Line or an invasion through Switzerland. None of the contingencies anticipated the German attack through the Ardennes but after the loss of theLuftwaffeplans, the Germans assumed that the Allied appreciation of German intentions would have been reinforced.AufmarschanweisungN°3,Fall Gelb,an amendment to the plan on 30 January, was only a revision of details. On 24 February, the main German effort was moved south to the Ardennes.[53]Twenty divisions (including seven panzer and three motorised divisions) were transferred fromHeeresgruppe Bopposite Holland and Belgium toHeeresgruppe Afacing the Ardennes. French military intelligence uncovered a transfer of German divisions from the Saar to the north of the Moselle but failed to detect the redeployment from the Dutch frontier to theEifel–Mosellearea.[54]
Adoption of the Manstein plan
edit
On 27 January, Manstein was sacked as Chief of Staff of Army Group A and appointed commander of an army corps inEast Prussia.To silence Manstein, Halder had instigated his transfer toStettinon 9 February. Manstein's staff brought his case to Hitler, who had independently suggested an attack at Sedan, against the advice of OKH. On 2 February, Hitler was told of Manstein's plan and on 17 February, Hitler summoned Manstein, GeneralRudolf Schmundt(Chief of Personnel of the German Army) and GeneralAlfred Jodl,the Chief of Operations ofOberkommando der Wehrmacht(OKW, Supreme Command of the Armed Forces), to a conference.[55]The next day, Hitler ordered Manstein's thinking to be adopted, because it offered the possibility of decisive victory.[56]Hitler recognised the breakthrough at Sedan only in tactical terms, whereas Manstein saw it as a means to an end. He envisaged an operation to the English Channel and the encirclement of the Allied armies in Belgium; if the plan succeeded, it could have a strategic effect.[57]
Halder then went through an "astonishing change of opinion", accepting that theSchwerpunktshould be at Sedan. He had no intention of allowing an independent strategic penetration by the sevenPanzerdivisions of Army Group A. Much to the dismay of Guderian, this element was absent from the new plan,Aufmarschanweisung N°4, Fall Gelb,issued on 24 February.[44]The bulk of the German officer corps was appalled and called Halder the "gravedigger of thePanzerforce ". Even when adapted to more conventional methods, the new plan provoked a storm of protest from the majority of German generals. They thought it utterly irresponsible to create a concentration of forces in a position impossible to adequately resupply, along routes that could be cut easily by the French. If the Allies did not react as expected, the German offensive could end in catastrophe. Their objections were ignored and Halder argued that, as Germany's strategic position seemed hopeless anyway, even the slightest chance of decisive victory should be grasped.[58]Shortly before the invasion, Hitler, who had spoken to forces on the Western Front and who was encouraged by thesuccess in Norway,confidently predicted the campaign would take only six weeks. He was most excited over the plannedmilitary gliderattack on Fort Eben-Emael.[59]
Allied strategy
editEscaut plan/Plan E
edit
On 3 September 1939, French military strategy had been settled, taking in analyses of geography, resources and manpower. The French Army would defend in the east (right flank) and attack on the west (left flank) by advancing into Belgium, to fight forward of theFrench frontier.The extent of the forward move was dependent on events, which were complicated when Belgium ended theFranco-Belgian Accord of 1920after the GermanRemilitarisation of the Rhinelandon 7 March 1936. The neutrality of the Belgian state was reluctant openly to co-operate with France but information was communicated about Belgian defences. By May 1940, there had been an exchange of the general nature of French and Belgian defence plans but little co-ordination against a German offensive to the west,through Luxembourgand eastern Belgium. The French expected Germany to breach Belgian neutrality first, providing a pretext for French intervention or that the Belgians would request support when an invasion was imminent. Most of the French mobile forces were assembled along the Belgian border, ready to forestall the Germans.[60]
A prompt appeal for help from the Belgians might give the French time to reach the German–Belgian frontier but if not, there were three feasible defensive lines further back. A practicable line existed fromGivettoNamur,across theGembloux Gap(la trouée de Gembloux),Wavre,Louvainand along theDyle riverto Antwerp, which was 70–80 km (43–50 mi) shorter than the alternatives. A second possibility was a line from the French border toCondé,Tournai,along the Escaut (Scheldt) toGhentand thence toZeebruggeon theNorth Seacoast, possibly further along the Scheldt (Escaut) to Antwerp, which became the Escaut plan/Plan E. The third possibility was along field defences of the French border from Luxembourg toDunkirk.For the first fortnight of the war, Gamelin favoured Plan E, because of the example of the fast German advances in Poland. Gamelin and the other French commanders doubted that they could move any further forward before the Germans arrived. In late September, Gamelin issued a directive toGénéral d'arméeGaston Billotte,commander of the 1st Army Group,
...assuring the integrity of the national territory and defending without withdrawing the position of resistance organised along the frontier....
— Gamelin[61]
giving the 1st Army Group permission to enter Belgium, to deploy along the Escaut according to Plan E. On 24 October, Gamelin directed that an advance beyond the Escaut was only feasible if the French moved fast enough to forestall the Germans.[62]
Dyle plan/Plan D
editBy late 1939, the Belgians had improved their defences along theAlbert Canaland increased the readiness of the army; Gamelin andGrand Quartier Général(GQG) began to consider the possibility of advancing further than the Escaut. By November, GQG had decided that a defence along the Dyle Line was feasible, despite the doubts of GeneralAlphonse Georges,commander of the North-Eastern Front, about reaching the Dyle before the Germans. The British had been lukewarm about an advance into Belgium, but Gamelin persuaded them; on 9 November, the Dyle plan was adopted. On 17 November, a session of theSupreme War Councildeemed it essential to occupy the Dyle Line and Gamelin issued a directive that day detailing a line from Givet to Namur, the Gembloux Gap, Wavre, Louvain and Antwerp. For the next four months, the Dutch and Belgian armies laboured over their defences, theBritish Expeditionary Force(BEF) expanded and the French army received more equipment and training. Gamelin also considered a move towardsBredain the Netherlands; if the Allies prevented a German occupation of Holland, the ten divisions of the Dutch army would join the Allied armies, control of the North Sea would be enhanced and the Germans would be denied bases for attacks on Britain.[63]
By May 1940, the 1st Army Group was responsible for the defence of France from the Channel coast south to the Maginot Line. TheSeventh Army(Général d'arméeHenri Giraud), BEF (GeneralLord Gort), First Army (Général d'arméeGeorges Maurice Jean Blanchard) and Ninth Army (Général d'arméeAndré Corap) were ready to advance to the Dyle Line, by pivoting on the right (southern) Second Army. The Seventh Army would take over west of Antwerp, ready to move into Holland and the Belgians were expected to delay a German advance, then retire from the Albert Canal to the Dyle, from Antwerp to Louvain. On the Belgian right, the BEF was to defend about 20 km (12 mi) of the Dyle from Louvain to Wavre with nine divisions and the First Army, on the right of the BEF, was to hold 35 km (22 mi) with ten divisions from Wavre across the Gembloux Gap to Namur. The gap from the Dyle to Namur north of the Sambre, withMaastrichtandMonson either side, had few natural obstacles and was a traditional route of invasion, leading straight to Paris. The Ninth Army would take post south of Namur, along the Meuse to the left (northern) flank of the Second Army.[64]
The Second Army was the right (eastern) flank army of the 1st Army Group, holding the line fromPont à Bar6 km (3.7 mi) west of Sedan toLonguyon.GQG considered that the Second and Ninth armies had the easiest task of the army group, dug in on the west bank of the Meuse on ground that was easily defended and behind the Ardennes, a considerable obstacle, the traversing of which would give plenty of warning of a German attack in the centre of the French front. After the transfer from the strategic reserve of the Seventh Army to the 1st Army Group, seven divisions remained behind the Second and Ninth armies and more could be moved from behind the Maginot Line. All but one division were either side of the junction of the two armies, GQG being more concerned about a possible German attack past the north end of the Maginot Line and then south-east through the Stenay Gap, for which the divisions behind the Second Army were well placed.[65]
Breda variant
edit
If the Allies could control the Scheldt Estuary, supplies could be transported to Antwerp by ship and contact established with the Dutch Army along the river. On 8 November, Gamelin directed that a German invasion of the Netherlands must not be allowed to progress around the west of Antwerp and gain the south bank of the Scheldt. The left flank of the 1st Army Group was reinforced by the Seventh Army, containing some of the best and most mobile French divisions, which moved from the general reserve by December. The role of the army was to occupy the south bank of the Scheldt and be ready to move into Holland and protect the estuary by holding the north bank along the Beveland Peninsula (now theWalcheren–Zuid-Beveland–Noord-Bevelandpeninsula) in theHolland Hypothesis.[66]
On 12 March 1940, Gamelin discounted dissenting opinion at GQG and decided that the Seventh Army would advance as far as Breda, to link with the Dutch. Georges was told that the role of the Seventh Army on the left flank of the Dyle manoeuvre would be linked to it and Georges notified Billotte that if it were ordered to cross into the Netherlands, the left flank of the army group was to advance toTilburgif possible and certainly to Breda. The Seventh Army was to take post between the Belgians and Dutch by passing the Belgians along the Albert Canal and then turning east, a distance of 175 km (109 mi), when the Germans were only 90 km (56 mi) distant from Breda. On 16 April, Gamelin also made provision for a German invasion of the Netherlands but not Belgium, by changing the deployment area to be reached by the Seventh Army; the Escaut plan would only be followed if the Germans forestalled the French move into Belgium.[66]
Allied intelligence
editIn the winter of 1939–40, the Belgian consul-general inColognehad anticipated the angle of advance that Manstein was planning. Through intelligence reports, the Belgians deduced that German forces were concentrating along the Belgian and Luxembourg frontiers. In March 1940,Swissintelligence detected six or sevenPanzerdivisionson the German-Luxembourg-Belgian border and more motorised divisions were detected in the area. French intelligence were informed through aerial reconnaissance that the Germans were constructingpontoon bridgesabout halfway over theOur Riveron the Luxembourg–German border. On 30 April, the French military attaché inBernwarned that the centre of the German assault would come on the Meuse at Sedan, sometime between 8 and 10 May. These reports had little effect on Gamelin, as did similar reports from neutral sources such as theVaticanand a French sighting of a 100 km-long (60 mi) line of German armoured vehicles on the Luxembourg border trailing back inside Germany.[67][68]
Prelude
editGerman Army
editGermany had mobilised 4,200,000 men of theHeer(German Army), 1,000,000 of theLuftwaffe(German Air Force), 180,000 of theKriegsmarine(German Navy) and 100,000 of theWaffen-SS(military arm of the Nazi Party). When consideration is made for those in Poland, Denmark and Norway, the Army had 3,000,000 men available for the offensive starting on 10 May 1940. These manpower reserves were formed into 157 divisions. Of these, 135 were earmarked for the offensive, including 42 reserve divisions. The German forces in the west in May and June deployed some 2,439 tanks and 7,378 guns.[69]In 1939–40, 45 per cent of the army was at least 40 years old and 50 per cent of all the soldiers had just a few weeks' training. The German Army was far from motorised; ten per cent of their army was motorised in 1940 and could muster only 120,000 vehicles, compared with the 300,000 of the French Army. All of the British Expeditionary Force was motorised.[70]Most of the German logistical transport consisted of horse-drawn vehicles.[71]Only 50 per cent of the German divisions available in 1940 were fit for operations, often being worse equipped than the German army of 1914 or their equivalents in the British and French Armies. In the spring of 1940, the German Army was semi-modern; a small number of the best-equipped and "elitedivisions were offset by many second and third rate divisions ".[72]
Army Group A, commanded by Gerd von Rundstedt, comprised45+1⁄2divisions, including sevenPanzerand was to execute the main movement effort through the Allied defences in the Ardennes. The manoeuvre carried out by the Germans is sometimes referred to as a"Sichelschnitt",the German translation of the phrase "sickle cut" coined byWinston Churchillafter the event. It involved three armies (the4th,12thand16th) and had threePanzercorps. The XV had been allocated to the 4th Army but the XLI (Reinhardt) and the XIX (Guderian) were united with the XIV Army Corps of two motorised infantry divisions on a special independent operational level inPanzergruppe Kleist(XXII Corps).[73]Army Group B (Fedor von Bock), comprised29+1⁄2divisions including three armoured, was to advance through the Low Countries and lure the northern units of the Allied armies into a pocket. It was composed of the6thand18thArmies. Army Group C, (GeneralWilhelm Ritter von Leeb) comprising 18 divisions of the 1st and 7th Armies, was to prevent a flanking movement from the east and with launching small holding attacks against the Maginot Line and the upperRhine.[74]
Communications
editWireless proved essential to German success in the battle. German tanks had radio receivers that allowed them to be directed by platoon command tanks, which had voice communication with other units. Wireless allowed tactical control and far quicker improvisation than the opponent. Some commanders regarded the ability to communicate to be the primary method of combat and radio drills were considered to be more important than gunnery. Radio allowed German commanders to co-ordinate their formations, bringing them together for a mass firepower effect in attack or defence. The French numerical advantage in heavy weapons and equipment, which was often deployed in "penny-packets" (dispersed as individual support weapons) was offset. Most French tanks also lacked radio and orders between infantry units were typically passed by telephone or verbally.[75]
The German communications system permitted a degree of communication between air and ground forces. Attached toPanzerdivisions were theFliegerleittruppen(Tactical Air Control Partytroops) in wheeled vehicles. There were too fewSd.Kfz. 251command vehicles for all of the army but the theory allowed the army in some circumstances to callLuftwaffeunits tosupport an attack.FliegerkorpsVIII,equipped withJunkers Ju 87dive-bombers (Stukas), was to support the dash to the Channel if Army Group A broke through the Ardennes and kept a Ju 87 and a fighter group on call. On average, they could arrive to support armoured units within 45–75 minutes of orders being issued.[76]
Tactics
edit
The German army conductedcombined armsoperations of mobile offensive formations, with well-trained artillery, infantry, engineer and tank formations, integrated intoPanzerdivisions. The elements were united by wireless communication, which enabled them to work together at a quick tempo and exploit opportunities faster than the Allies.Panzerdivisions could conduct reconnaissance, advance to contact or defend and attack vital positions and weak spots. Captured ground would be occupied by infantry and artillery as pivot points for further attacks. Although many German tanks were outgunned by their opponents, they could lure Allied tanks onto the divisional anti-tank guns.[77]The avoidance of tank-versus-tank engagements conserved German tanks for the next stage of the offensive, units carrying supplies for three to four days' operations. ThePanzerdivisions were supported by motorised and infantry divisions.[78]
German tank battalions (Panzer-Abteilungen) were to be equipped with thePanzerkampfwagenIIIandPanzerkampfwagenIVtanks but shortages led to the use of lightPanzerkampfwagenIIand even lighterPanzerkampfwagenIinstead.[citation needed]The German Army lacked a heavy tank like the FrenchChar B1;French tanks were better designs, more numerous, with superior armour and armament but slower and with inferior mechanical reliability than the German designs.[79][80]Although the German Army was outnumbered in artillery and tanks, it possessed some advantages over its opponents. The newer GermanPanzershad a crew of five: commander, gunner, loader, driver, and mechanic. Having a trained individual for each task allowed a logical division of labour. French tanks had smaller crews; the commander had to load the main gun, distracting him from observation and tactical deployment.[75]The Germans enjoyed an advantage through the theory ofAuftragstaktik(mission command) by which officers,NCOsand men were expected to use their initiative and had control over supporting arms, rather than the slower, top-down methods of the Allies.[81]
Luftwaffe
editArmy Group B had the support of 1,815 combat aircraft, 487 transport aircraft and 50 gliders; 3,286 combat aircraft supported Army Groups A and C. TheLuftwaffewas the most experienced, well-equipped and well-trained air force in the world. The combined Allied total was 2,935 aircraft, about half the size of theLuftwaffe.[82]TheLuftwaffecould provide close support withdive-bombersandmedium bombersbut was a broadly based force, intended to support national strategy and could carry out operational, tactical andstrategic bombingoperations. Allied air forces were mainly intended for army co-operation but theLuftwaffecould flyair superioritymissions, medium-rangeinterdiction,strategic bombing and close air support operations, depending on circumstances. It was not aPanzerspearhead arm, since in 1939 fewer than 15 per cent ofLuftwaffeaircraft were designed for close support as this was not its main role.[83][84]
Flak
editThe Germans had an advantage in anti-aircraft guns (Fliegerabwehrkanone[Flak]), with 2,60088 mm (3.46 in)heavyFlakguns and 6,70037 mm (1.46 in)and20 mm (0.79 in).LightFlakrefers to the number of guns in the German armed forces, including the anti-aircraft defence of Germany and the equipment of training units. (A 9,300-gunFlakcomponent with the field army would have needed more troops than the British Expeditionary Force.) The 88 mm Flak had anelevationof −3° to +85° and could be used as artillery i.e. against panzers.[85]The armies which invaded the west had 85 heavy and 18 lightbatteriesbelonging to theLuftwaffe,48 companies of lightFlakintegral to divisions of the army and 20 companies of lightFlakallocated as army troops, a reserve in the hands of HQs above corps, about 700 88 mm (3.46 in) and 180 37 mm (1.46 in) guns manned byLuftwaffeground units and 816 20 mm (0.79 in) guns manned by the army.[86]
Allies
editFrance had spent a higher percentage of itsGNPfrom 1918 to 1935 on its military than othergreat powers[example needed]and the government had added a large rearmament effort in 1936.[citation needed]France mobilised about one-third of the male population between the ages of 20 and 45, bringing the strength of its armed forces to 5,000,000.[87]Only 2,240,000 of these served in army units in the north. The British contributed a total strength of 897,000 men in 1939, rising to 1,650,000 by June 1940.[dubious–discuss]Dutch and Belgian manpower reserves amounted to 400,000 and 650,000, respectively.[88]
Armies
edit
The French Army had 117 divisions, of which 104 (including 11 in reserve) were for the defence of the north. The British contributed 13 divisions in the BEF, three of which were untrained and poorly-armed labour divisions. Twenty-two Belgian, ten Dutch and twoPolishdivisions were also part of the Allied order of battle. British artillery strength amounted to 1,280 guns, Belgium fielded 1,338 guns, the Dutch 656 guns and France 10,700 guns, giving an Allied total of about 14,000 guns, 45 per cent more than the Germans. The French Army was also more motorised than its opponent, which still relied on horses. Although the Belgians, British and Dutch had few tanks, the French had 3,254, outnumbering the Germans.[89][90]
Despite several partial mobilisations since 1936, during the full mobilisation in September 1939, officers were unfamiliar with their duties, technical experts were simultaneously expected to hand over their vehicles, report to recruitment centres and were also exempt from service as essential workers. Reservists flooded the depots leading to shortages of beds and poor sanitary conditions. The army lacked 150,000 pairs of trousers, 350,000 blankets, 415,000 tents and 600,000 pairs of boots. Recruits often left their centres and returned home or drank excessively as they waited around for someone to take charge and integrate them. This was a disastrous process not too dissimilar from that of 1870, though the main German blow fell on Poland initially and not France.[91]
The French mechanised light and heavy armoured divisions (DLM and DCr) were new and not thoroughly trained. Reserve B Divisions were composed of reservists above 30 years old and ill-equipped. A serious qualitative deficiency was a lack of anti-aircraft artillery, mobile anti-tank artillery and wireless, despite the efforts of Gamelin to produce mobile artillery units.[87][92]Only 0.15 per cent of military spending between 1923 and 1939 had been on radio and other communications equipment; to maintain signals security, Gamelin used telephones and couriers to communicate with field units.[93]
French tactical deployment and the use of mobile units at theoperational levelof war was also inferior to that of the Germans.[87]The French had 3,254 tanks on the north-eastern front on 10 May, against 2,439 German tanks. Much of the armour was distributed for infantry support, each army having a tankbrigade(groupement) of about ninety light infantry tanks. With so many tanks available, the French could still concentrate a considerable number of light, medium and heavy tanks in armoured divisions, which in theory were as powerful as German panzer divisions.[94]Only French heavy tanks generally carried wireless but these were unreliable, hampering communication and making tactical manoeuvre difficult, compared to German units. In 1940, French military theorists still mainly considered tanks as infantry support vehicles and French tanks were slow (except for theSOMUA S35) compared to their German rivals, enabling German tanks to offset their disadvantages by out-manoeuvring French tanks. On several occasions, the French were not able to achieve the same tempo as German armoured units.[87]The state of training was also unbalanced, with the majority of personnel trained only to man static fortifications. Very little training for mobile action was carried out between September 1939 and May 1940.[95]
Deployment
edit
The French Army comprised three army groups; the 2nd and 3rd Army Groups defended the Maginot Line to the east; the 1st Army Group (General Gaston Billotte) was on the western (left) flank, ready to move into the Low Countries. Initially positioned on the left flank near the coast, the Seventh Army, reinforced by aDivision Légère Mécanique(DLM, mechanised light division), was intended to move to the Netherlands via Antwerp. To the south of the Seventh Army were the motorised divisions of the BEF, which would advance to the Dyle Line on the right flank of the Belgian army, from Leuven (Louvain) to Wavre. The First Army, reinforced by two DLM and with aDivision Cuirassée(DCR, Armoured Division) in reserve, would defend the Gembloux Gap between Wavre and Namur. The southernmost army involved in the move forward into Belgium was the FrenchNinth Army,which had to cover the Meuse sector between Namur to the north of Sedan.[27]
Gort expected to have two or three weeks to prepare for the Germans to advance 100 km (60 mi) to the Dyle but the Germans arrived in four days.[96]TheSecond Armywas expected to form the "hinge" of the movement and remain entrenched. It was to face the elite German armoured divisions in their attack at Sedan. It was given low priority for manpower, anti-aircraft and anti-tank weapons and air support, consisting of five divisions; two were over-age reservistSerie Bdivisions and the3rd North African Division.[97][98]Considering their training and equipment, they had to cover a long front and formed a weak point of the French defence system. GQG had anticipated that the Ardennes Forest would be impassable to tanks, even though Belgian army and French intelligence warned them of long armour and transport columns crossing the Ardennes and being stuck in a huge traffic-jam for some time. Frenchwar gamesin 1937 and 1938 had shown that the Germans could penetrate the Ardennes; Corap called it "idiocy" to think that the enemy could not get through. Gamelin ignored the evidence, as it was not in line with his strategy.[99]
Air forces
edit
TheArmée de l'Airhad1,562 aircraft,RAF Fighter Command680 andRAF Bomber Commandcould contribute about392 aircraft.[82]Some Allied types, like theFairey Battle,were approaching obsolescence. In the fighter force, only the BritishHawker Hurricane,the USCurtiss Hawk 75and theDewoitine D.520were a match for the GermanMesserschmitt Bf 109,the D.520 being more manoeuvrable although being slightly slower.[100][101]On 10 May 1940, only 36 D.520s had been delivered. The Allies outnumbered the Germans infighter aircraft,with 81 Belgian, 261 British and 764 French fighters (1,106) against 836 German Bf 109s. The French and British had more aircraft in reserve.[102]
In early June 1940, the French aviation industry was producing a considerable number of aircraft, with an estimated reserve of nearly 2,000 but a chronic lack of spare parts crippled this fleet. Only about 599 (29 per cent) were serviceable, of which 170 were bombers.[103]The Germans had six times more medium bombers than the French.[93][102]Despite its disadvantages, theArmée de l'Airperformed far better than expected, destroying 916 enemy aircraft in air-to-air combat, a kill ratio of 2.35:1. Almost a third of the French victories were accomplished by French pilots flying the Curtiss Hawk 75, which accounted for 12.6 per cent of the French single-seat fighter force.[104]
Anti-aircraft defence
edit
In addition to 580 13 mm (0.5 in) machine guns assigned to civilian defence, the French Army had 1,15225 mm (0.98 in) anti-aircraft guns,with 20020 mm (0.79 in) auto-cannonin the process of delivery and 68875 mm (2.95 in) gunsand 24 90 mm (3.54 in) guns, the latter having problems with barrel wear. There were also forty First World War-vintage 105 mm (4.1 in) anti-aircraft guns available.[105]The BEF had ten regiments ofQF 3.7-inch(94 mm) heavy anti-aircraft guns, the most advanced in the world and7+1⁄2regiments ofBofors 40 mmlight anti-aircraft guns, about 300 heavy and 350 light anti-aircraft guns.[106]The Belgians had two heavy anti-aircraft regiments and were introducing Bofors guns for divisional anti-aircraft troops. The Dutch had 84 75 mm (2.95 in), 39 elderly 60 mm (2.36 in), seven 100 mm (3.9 in), 232 20 mm (0.79 in) 40 mm (1.57 in) anti-aircraft guns and several hundred First World War-vintageSpandau M.25 machine gunson anti-aircraft mountings.[86]
Battle
editNorthern front
editAt 21:00 on 9 May, the code wordDanzigwas relayed to all German army divisions, beginningFall Gelb.Security was so tight that many officers, due to the constant delays, were away from their units when the order was sent.[59]German forces occupiedLuxembourgvirtually unopposed.[107]Army Group B launched itsfeintoffensive during the night into the Netherlands and Belgium. On the morning of 10 May,Fallschirmjäger(paratroopers) from the7thFliegerDivisionand22ndLuftlandeDivision(Kurt Student) executed surprise landings atThe Hague,on the road toRotterdamand against the BelgianFort Eben-Emaelwhich helped the advance of Army Group B.[108]The French command reacted immediately, sending the 1st Army Group north in accordance with Plan D. This move committed their best forces, diminishing their fighting power by the partial disorganisation it caused and their mobility by depleting their fuel stocks. By the time the French Seventh Army crossed the Dutch border, they found the Dutch already in full retreat and withdrew into Belgium to protect Antwerp.[109]
Invasion of the Netherlands
editTheLuftwaffeeffort over the Netherlands comprised 247 medium bombers, 147 fighters, 424Junkers Ju 52transports and 12Heinkel He 59seaplanes. The Dutch Air Force (Militaire Luchtvaartafdeling,ML) had a strength of 144 combat aircraft, half of which were destroyed on the first day. The remainder of the ML was dispersed and accounted for only a handful ofLuftwaffeaircraft shot down. The ML managed 332 sorties, losing 110 aircraft.[110]The German 18th Army captured bridges during theBattle of Rotterdam,bypassing theNew Water Linefrom the south and penetratingFortress Holland.A separate operation organised by theLuftwaffe,theBattle for The Hague,failed.[111]Airfields around Ypenburg,Ockenburg,and Valkenburg were captured in a costly success, with many transport aircraft lost; the Dutch army re-captured the airfields by the end of the day.[112]Ninety-six aircraft in all were lost to Dutch artillery-fire.[111]LuftwaffeTransportgruppenoperations resulted in 125 Ju 52s destroyed and 47 damaged, a 50 per cent loss. The airborne operation also cost 50 per cent of the German paratroopers: 4,000 men, including 20 per cent of its NCOs and 42 per cent of its officers; of these casualties, 1,200 were madeprisoners of warand evacuated to Britain.[113]
The French Seventh Army failed to block the German armoured reinforcements from the9thPanzerDivision,which reached Rotterdam on 13 May. That same day in the east, following theBattle of the Grebbeberg,in which a Dutch counter-attack to contain a German breach failed, the Dutch retreated from theGrebbe lineto the New Water Line. The Dutch Army, still largely intact, surrendered in the evening of 14 May after theBombing of RotterdambyHeinkel He 111medium bombers ofKampfgeschwader54(Bomber Wing 54), an act which has remained controversial. The Dutch Army considered its strategic situation to have become hopeless and feared destruction of other Dutch cities. Thecapitulationdocument was signed on 15 May, but Dutch forces continued fighting in theBattle of Zeelandwith Seventh Army and in thecolonies.Queen Wilhelminaestablished agovernment in exilein Britain.[114]Dutch casualties amounted to 2,157 army, 75 air force, and 125 Navy personnel; 2,559 civilians were also killed.[115]
Invasion of Belgium
edit
The Germans quickly established air superiority over Belgium. Having completed thoroughphotographic reconnaissance,they destroyed 83 of the 179 aircraft of theAeronautique Militairewithin the first 24 hours of the invasion. The Belgians flew 77 operational missions but this contributed little to the air campaign. TheLuftwaffewas assured air superiority over the Low Countries.[116]Because Army Group B's composition had been so weakened compared to the earlier plans, the feint offensive by the 6th Army was in danger of stalling immediately, since the Belgian defences on the Albert Canal position were very strong. The main approach route was blocked by Fort Eben-Emael, a large fortress then generally considered the most modern in Europe, which controlled the junction of the Meuse and the Albert Canal.[117]
Delay might endanger the outcome of the entire campaign, because it was essential that the main body of Allied troops be engaged before Army Group A established bridgeheads. To overcome this difficulty, the Germans resorted to unconventional means in the Battle of Fort Eben-Emael. In the early hours of 10 May,DFS 230gliders landed on top of the fort and unloaded assault teams that disabled the main gun cupolas withhollow charges.The bridges over the canal were seized by German paratroopers. The Belgians launched considerable counterattacks which were broken up by theLuftwaffe.Shocked by a breach in its defences just where they had seemed the strongest, the Belgian Supreme Command withdrew its divisions to theKW-linefive days earlier than planned. Similar operations against the bridges in the Netherlands, at Maastricht, failed. All were blown up by the Dutch and only one railway bridge was taken, which held up the German armour on Dutch territory for a short time.[118][119]
The BEF and the French First Army were not yet entrenched and the news of the defeat on the Belgian border was unwelcome. The Allies had been convinced Belgian resistance would have given them several weeks to prepare a defensive line at the Gembloux Gap. The XVIPanzerkorps(GeneralErich Hoepner) consisting of the3rdPanzerDivisionand the4thPanzerDivision,was launched over the newly captured bridges in the direction of the Gembloux Gap. This seemed to confirm the expectations of the French Supreme Command that the GermanSchwerpunkt(point of main effort, centre of gravity) would be at that point. Gembloux was located between Wavre and Namur, on flat, ideal tank terrain. It was also an unfortified part of the Allied line. To gain time to dig in there,René Prioux,commanding the Cavalry Corps of the French First Army, sent the 2nd DLM and 3rd DLM towards the German armour atHannut,east of Gembloux. They would provide a screen to delay the Germans and allow sufficient time for the First Army to dig in.[120]
Battles of Hannut and Gembloux
edit
TheBattle of Hannut(12–13 May) was the largest tank battle yet fought, with about 1,500armoured fighting vehiclesinvolved. The French knocked out about 160 German tanks for a loss of 105 machines including 30Somua S35tanks.[121]The Germans were left in control of the battlefield after the French made a planned withdrawal and were able to repair many of their knocked-out tanks. The net German loss amounted to 20 tanks of the 3rdPanzerDivision and 29 of the 4thPanzerDivision.[122]Prioux had achieved a tactical and operational success for the French by fulfilling his objective of delaying the panzer divisions until the First Army had time to arrive and dig in.[123][121]The German attack had engaged the First Army to the north of Sedan, which was the most important objective that Hoepner had to achieve but had failed to forestall the French advance to the Dyle or to destroy the First Army. On 14 May, having been held up at Hannut, Hoepner attacked again, against orders, in theBattle of Gembloux.This was the only occasion when German tanks frontally attacked a fortified position during the campaign. The1st Moroccan Divisionrepulsed the attack and another 42 tanks of the 4thPanzerDivision were knocked out, 26 being written off. This second French defensive success was nullified by events further south at Sedan.[124]
Central front
editArdennes
edit
The advance of Army Group A was to be delayed by Belgian motorised infantry and French mechanised cavalry divisions (DLC,Divisions Légères de Cavalerie) advancing into the Ardennes. The main resistance came from the Belgian 1stChasseurs Ardennais,the 1st Cavalry Division, reinforced by engineers and the French5eDivision Légère de Cavalerie(5th DLC).[125]The Belgian troops blocked roads, held up the 1st Panzer Division at Bodange for about eight hours and then retired northwards too quickly for the French, who had not arrived. The Belgian barriers proved ineffective when not defended; German engineers were not disturbed as they dismantled the obstacles. The French had insufficient anti-tank capacity to block the surprisingly large number of German tanks they encountered and quickly gave way, withdrawing behind the Meuse.[126]
The German advance was hampered by the number of vehicles trying to force their way along the poor road network.Panzergruppe Kleisthad more than 41,140 vehicles, which had only four march routes through the Ardennes.[126]French reconnaissance aircrews had reported German armoured convoys by the night of 10/11 May but this was assumed to be secondary to the main attack in Belgium. On the next night, a reconnaissance pilot reported that he had seen long vehicle columns moving without lights; another pilot sent to check reported the same and that many of the vehicles were tanks. Later that day, photographic reconnaissance and pilot reports were of tanks and bridging equipment. On 13 May,Panzergruppe Kleistcaused a traffic jam about 250 km (160 mi) long from the Meuse to the Rhine on one route. While the German columns were sitting targets, the French bomber force attacked the Germans in northern Belgium during theBattle of Maastrichtand had failed with heavy losses. In two days, the bomber force had been reduced from 135 to 72.[127]
On 11 May, Gamelin ordered reserve divisions to begin reinforcing the Meuse sector. Because of the danger theLuftwaffeposed, movement over the rail network was limited to night-time, slowing the reinforcement. The French felt no sense of urgency, as they believed the build-up of German divisions would be correspondingly slow; the French Army did not conduct river crossings unless assured of heavy artillery support. While they were aware that the German tank and infantry formations were strong, they were confident in their strong fortifications and artillery superiority. The capabilities of the French units in the area were dubious; in particular, their artillery was designed for fighting infantry and they were short of anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns.[128]The German advance forces reached the Meuse line late in the afternoon of 12 May. To allow each of the three armies of Army Group A to cross, three bridgeheads were to be established, at Sedan in the south,Montherméto the north-west andDinantfurther north.[129]The first German units to arrive hardly had local numerical superiority; the German artillery had an average of 12 rounds per gun per day, while French artillery had 30 rounds per gun per day.[130][131]
Battle of Sedan
editAtSedan,the Meuse Line consisted of a strong defensive belt6 km (3+1⁄2mi) deep, laid out according to the modern principles of zone defence on slopes overlooking the Meuse valley. It was strengthened by 103pillboxes,manned by the 147th Fortress Infantry Regiment. Deeper positions were held by the55th Infantry Division,a grade "B" reserve division. On the morning of 13 May, the71st Infantry Divisionwas inserted to the east of Sedan, allowing the 55th Infantry Division to narrow its front by a third and deepen its position to over 10 km (6 mi). The division had a superiority in artillery to the German units present.[130]On 13 May,Panzergruppe Kleistforced three crossings near Sedan, executed by the1stPanzerDivision,2ndPanzerDivisionand10thPanzerDivision.These groups were reinforced by the eliteInfantry RegimentGroßdeutschland.Instead of slowly massing artillery as the French expected, the Germans concentrated most of their air power (lacking artillery) on smashing a hole in a narrow sector of the French lines bycarpet bombinganddive bombing.Guderian had been promised extraordinarily heavy air support during a continual eight-hour air attack, from 08:00 am untildusk.[132]
TheLuftwaffeexecuted the heaviest air bombardment the world had yet witnessed and the most intense by the Germans during the war.[133]TwoSturzkampfgeschwader(dive bomber wings) attacked, flying 300 sorties against French positions.[134]A total of 3,940 sorties were flown by nineKampfgeschwader(Bomber Groups).[135]Some of the forward pillboxes were undamaged and the garrisons repulsed the crossing attempts of the 2ndPanzerDivision and 10thPanzerDivision. The morale of the troops of the 55th Infantry Division further back was broken by the air attacks and French gunners fled. The German infantry, at a cost of a few hundred casualties, penetrated up to 8 km (5.0 mi) into the French defensive zone by midnight. Even by then, most of the infantry had not crossed. Much of this success was due to the actions of just six German platoons, mainly assault engineers.[136]
The disorder that had begun at Sedan spread further. At 19:00 on 13 May, troops of the 295th Regiment of the 55th Infantry Division were holding the last prepared defensive line at theBulsonridge 10 km (6 mi) behind the river. They were panicked by alarmist rumours that German tanks were already behind them and fled, creating a gap in the French defences before any tanks had crossed the river. This "Panic of Bulson" also involved the divisional artillery. The Germans had not attacked their position and would not do so until 12 hours later, at 07:20 on 14 May.[137]Recognising the gravity of the defeat at Sedan, GeneralGaston-Henri Billotte,commander of the 1st Army Group, whose right flank pivoted on Sedan, urged that the bridges across the Meuse be destroyed by air attack. He was convinced that "over them will pass either victory or defeat!" That day, every available Allied light bomber was employed in an attempt to destroy the three bridges but lost about 44 per cent of the Allied bomber strength for no result.[135][138]
Collapse on the Meuse
edit
Guderian had indicated on 12 May that he wanted to enlarge the bridgehead to at least 20 km (12 mi). His superior, GeneralEwald von Kleist,ordered him, on behalf of Hitler, to limit his moves to a maximum of 8 km (5.0 mi) before consolidation. At 11:45 on 14 May, Rundstedt confirmed this order, which implied that the tank units should now start to dig in.[139]Guderian was able to get Kleist to agree on a form of words for a "reconnaissance in force", by threatening to resign and behind-the-scenes intrigues. Guderian continued the advance, despite the halt order.[140]In the original Manstein plan, as Guderian had suggested, secondary attacks would be carried out to the south-east, in the rear of the Maginot Line. This would confuse the French command and occupy ground where French counter-offensive forces would assemble. This element had been removed by Halder but Guderian sent the 10thPanzerDivision and Infantry RegimentGroßdeutschlandsouth over theStonneplateau.[141]
The commander of the French Second Army, GeneralCharles Huntziger,intended to carry out a counter-attack at the same spot by the3e Division Cuirassée(3e DCR, 3rd Armoured Division). The intended attack would eliminate the bridgehead. Both sides attacked and counter-attacked from 15 to 17 May. Huntziger considered this at least a defensive success and limited his efforts to protecting the flank. Success in theBattle of Stonneand the recapture of Bulson would have enabled the French to defend the high ground overlooking Sedan and bombard the bridgehead with observed artillery-fire, even if they could not take it. Stonne changed hands 17 times and fell to the Germans for the last time on the evening of 17 May.[142]Guderian turned the 1stPanzerDivision and the 2ndPanzerDivision westwards on 14 May, which advanced swiftly down the Somme valley towards the English Channel.[143]
On 15 May, Guderian's motorised infantry fought their way through the reinforcements of the new FrenchSixth Armyin their assembly area west of Sedan, undercutting the southern flank of the French Ninth Army. The Ninth Army collapsed and surrendereden masse.The 102nd Fortress Division, its flanks unsupported, was surrounded and destroyed on 15 May at the Monthermé bridgehead by the6thPanzerDivisionand8thPanzerDivisionwithout air support.[144][145]The French Second Army had also been seriously damaged. The Ninth Army was also giving way because they did not have time to dig in, asErwin Rommelhad broken through French lines within 24 hours of the battle's beginning. The7thPanzerDivisionraced ahead. Rommel refused to allow the division rest and they advanced by day and night. The division advanced 30 mi (48 km) in 24 hours.[146]
Rommel lost contact with GeneralHermann Hoth,having disobeyed orders by not waiting for the French to establish a new line of defence. The 7thPanzerDivision continued to advance north-west toAvesnes-sur-Helpe,just ahead of the 1st and 2ndPanzerdivisions.[147]The French5th Motorised Infantry Divisionhad bivouacked in the path of the German division, with its vehicles neatly lined up along the roadsides and the 7thPanzerDivision dashed through them.[148]The slow speed, overloaded crews and lack of battlefield communications undid the French. The5thPanzerDivisionjoined in the fight. The French inflicted many losses on the division. However, they could not cope with the speed of the German mobile units, which closed fast and destroyed the French armour at close range.[149]The remaining elements of the1st DCR,resting after losing all but 16 of its tanks in Belgium, were also engaged and defeated. The 1st DCR retired with three operational tanks, while defeating only 10 per cent of the 500 German tanks.[150][151]
By 17 May, Rommel claimed to have taken 10,000 prisoners while suffering only 36 losses.[148]Guderian was delighted with the fast advance and encouraged XIXKorpsto head for the channel, continuing until fuel was exhausted.[152]Hitler worried that the German advance was moving too fast. Halder recorded in his diary on 17 May,
Führer is terribly nervous. Frightened by his own success, he is afraid to take any chance and so would pull the reins on us... [he] keeps worrying about the south flank. He rages and screams that we are on the way to ruin the whole campaign.
Through deception and different interpretations of orders to stop from Hitler and Kleist, the front line commanders ignored Hitler's attempts to stop the westward advance to Abbeville.[140]
French leaders
edit
The French High Command, slow to react because of its strategy of "methodical warfare", reeled from the shock of the German offensive and was overtaken by defeatism. On the morning of 15 May, theFrench Prime Minister,Paul Reynaud,telephoned the new British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill and said, "We have been defeated. We are beaten; we have lost the battle." Churchill, attempting to offer some comfort to Reynaud, reminded him of all the times the Germans had broken through the Allied lines in the First World War only to be stopped but Reynaud was inconsolable.[153]
Churchill flew to Paris on 16 May. He immediately recognised the gravity of the situation when he observed that the French government was already burning its archives and was preparing for an evacuation of the capital. In a sombre meeting with the French commanders, Churchill asked General Gamelin, "Where is the strategic reserve?" referring to the reserve that had saved Paris in the First World War. Gamelin replied:
"Aucune"[None]
— Gamelin, according to Churchill
After the war, Gamelin claimed he said "There is no longer any."[154]Churchill later described hearing this as the most shocking moment in his life. Churchill asked Gamelin where and when the general proposed to launch a counter-attack against the flanks of the German bulge. Gamelin simply replied "inferiority of numbers, inferiority of equipment, inferiority of methods."[155]
Allied counter-attacks
editSome of the best Allied units in the north had seen little fighting. Had they been kept in reserve, they might have been used in a counter-attack. Pre-war General Staff Studies had concluded that the main reserves were to be kept on French soil to resist an invasion of the Low Countries. They could also deliver a counterattack or "re-establish the integrity of the original front".[156]Despite having a numerically superior armoured force, the French failed to use it properly or to deliver an attack on the vulnerable German bulge. The Germans combined their fighting vehicles in divisions and used them at the point of main effort. The bulk of French armour was scattered along the front in tiny formations. Most of the French reserve divisions had by now been committed. The 1st DCr had been wiped out when it had run out of fuel and the 3rd DCr had failed to take its opportunity to destroy the German bridgeheads at Sedan. The only armoured division still in reserve, the2nd DCr,was to attack on 16 May west ofSaint-Quentin, Aisne.The division commander could locate only seven of its twelve companies, which were scattered along a 49 mi × 37 mi (79 km × 60 km) front. The formation was overrun by the 8thPanzerDivision while still forming up and was destroyed as a fighting unit.[157]
The4th DCr,led byde Gaulle,attempted to launch an attack from the south atMontcornet,where Guderian had hisKorpsheadquarters and the 1stPanzerDivision had its rear services. During theBattle of Montcornet,the French would manage to brush aside the unsuspecting Germans, catching Guderian offguard. Faced with such a threat, a hastily improvised defence was established while Guderian rushed up the 10thPanzerDivision to threaten de Gaulle's flank. This flank pressure and dive-bombing byFliegerkorpsVIII (GeneralWolfram von Richthofen) broke up the attack. French losses on 17 May amounted to 32 tanks and armoured vehicles but the French had inflicted much greater casualties on the Germans. On 19 May, after receiving reinforcements and commandeering nearby units, de Gaulle attacked again. In spite of the 10thPanzerDivision's arrival, the French would pierce the German defence, coming to within a mile of Guderian's headquarters before being checked; having lost 80 out of 155 vehicles.[158]FliegerkorpsVIII relentlessly attacked the French Armour, preventing them from capitalizing on their success and overruning the Germans. Faced with increasingly stiffening German resistance, de Gaulle would ask for further reinforcements, requesting that two Infantry Divisions be brought forward to support his tanks. However, this plea was refused. With no help forthcoming, de Gaulle would finally be forced to retreat on the 20th of May, largely due to heavy German aerial attacks. The defeat of the 4th DCr and the disintegration of the French Ninth Army was caused mainly by theFliegerkorps,rather than German infantry and armour.[159]The 4th DCr had achieved a measure of success, causing considerable delays to the German timetable and tying up enemy units, but the attacks on 17 and 19 May had only local effect.[160]
Channel coast
editOn 19 May, GeneralEdmund Ironside,the BritishChief of the Imperial General Staff(CIGS), conferred with General Lord Gort, commander of the BEF, at his headquarters nearLens.He urged Gort to save the BEF by attacking south-west towardAmiens.Gort replied that seven of his nine divisions were already engaged on theScheldt Riverand he had only two divisions left to mount such an attack. He then said that he was under the orders of General Billotte, the commander of the French 1st Army Group but that Billotte had issued no orders for eight days. Ironside confronted Billotte, whose own headquarters was nearby and found him apparently incapable of taking action. He returned to Britain, concerned that the BEF was doomed and ordered urgentanti-invasion measures.[161]
The German land forces could not remain inactive any longer, since it would allow the Allies to reorganise their defence or escape. On 19 May, Guderian was permitted to start moving again and smashed through the weak12th (Eastern) Infantry Divisionand the23rd (Northumbrian) Division(bothTerritorialdivisions) on theSommeriver. The German units occupied Amiens and secured the westernmost bridge over the river atAbbeville.This move isolated the British, French, Dutch and Belgian forces in the north from their supplies.[162]On 20 May, a reconnaissance unit from the 2ndPanzerDivision reachedNoyelles-sur-Mer,100 km (62 mi) to the west of their positions on 17 May. From Noyelles, they were able to see the Somme estuary and the English Channel. A hugepocket,containing the Allied 1st Army Group (the Belgian, British and French First, Seventh and Ninth armies), was created.[163]
FliegerkorpsVIII covered the dash to the channel coast. Heralded as the finest hour of the Ju 87 (Stuka), these units responded via an extremely efficientcommunications systemto requests for support, which blasted a path for the army. The Ju 87s were particularly effective at breaking up attacks along the flanks of the German forces, breaking fortified positions and disruptingsupply routes.[164][165]Radio-equipped forward liaison officers could call upon theStukas and direct them to attack Allied positions along the axis of advance. In some cases, theLuftwafferesponded to requests within 10 to 20 minutes.OberstleutnantHans Seidemann,theFliegerkorpsvIII Chief of Staff, said that "never again was such a smoothly functioning system for discussing and planning joint operations achieved". Closer examination reveals the army had to wait 45–75 minutes for Ju 87 units and ten minutes forHenschel Hs 123s.[166]
Weygand plan
edit
On the morning of 20 May, Gamelin ordered the armies trapped in Belgium and northern France to fight their way south and link up with French forces attacking northwards from the Somme river.[167]On the evening of 19 May, the French Prime Minister, Paul Reynaud, had sacked Gamelin and replaced him withMaxime Weygand,who claimed his first mission as Commander-in-Chief would be to get a good night's sleep.[168]Gamelin's orders were cancelled and Weygand took several days during the crisis to make courtesy visits in Paris. Weygand proposed a counter-offensive by the armies trapped in the north combined with an attack by French forces on the Somme front, the new French 3rd Army Group (GeneralAntoine-Marie-Benoît Besson).[167][169]
The corridor through whichPanzergruppe von Kleisthad advanced to the coast was narrow and to the north were the three DLMs and the BEF; to the south was the 4th DCR. Allied delays caused by the French change of command gave the German infantry divisions time to follow up and reinforce the panzer corridor. Their tanks had also pushed further along the channel coast. Weygand flew into the pocket on 21 May and met Billotte, the commander of the 1st Army Group andKing Leopold IIIof Belgium. Leopold announced that the Belgian Army could not conduct offensive operations, as it lacked tanks and aircraft and that unoccupied Belgium had enough food for only two weeks. Leopold did not expect the BEF to endanger itself to keep contact with the Belgian Army but warned that if it persisted with the southern offensive, the Belgian army would collapse.[170]Leopold suggested the establishment of a beach-head covering Dunkirk and the Belgian channel ports.[171]
Gort doubted that the French could prevail. On 23 May, the situation was worsened by Billotte being killed in a car crash, leaving the 1st Army Group leaderless for three days. He was the only Allied commander in the north briefed on the Weygand plan. That day, the British decided to evacuate from the Channel ports. Only two local offensives, by the British and French in the north atArrason 21 May and by the French fromCambraiin the south on 22 May, took place.Frankforce(Major-GeneralHarold Franklyn) consisting of two divisions, had moved into the Arras area. Franklyn was not aware of a French push north toward Cambrai and the French were ignorant of a British attack towards Arras. Franklyn assumed he was to relieve the Allied garrison at Arras and cut German communications in the vicinity. He was reluctant to commit the5th Infantry Divisionand50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division,with the 3rd DLM providing flank protection, in a limited objective attack. Only two British infantry battalions and two battalions of the 1st Army Tank Brigade, with 58Matilda Iand 16Matilda IItanks and an attached motorcycle battalion, took part in the main attack.[172]
TheBattle of Arrasachieved surprise and initial success against overstretched German forces but failed in its objective. Radio communication between tanks and infantry was poor and there was little combined arms co-ordination as practised by the Germans. German defences (including88 mm (3.46 in)FlaKgunsand105 mm (4.1 in) field guns) eventually stopped the attack. The French knocked out many German tanks as they retired but theLuftwaffebroke up the counter-attacks and 60 British tanks were lost. The southern attack at Cambrai also failed, because V Corps had been too disorganised after the fighting in Belgium to make a serious effort.[173][174]OKH panicked at the thought of hundreds of Allied tanks smashing the best forces but Rommel wanted to continue the pursuit. Early on 22 May, OKH recovered and ordered the XIXPanzerkorpsto press north from Abbeville to the Channel ports. The 1stPanzerDivision advanced toCalais,the 2ndPanzerDivision toBoulogneand the 10thPanzerDivision to Dunkirk (later, the 1st and 10thPanzerdivisions' roles were reversed).[175][176]South of the German salient, limited French attacks occurred on 23 May near Peronne and Amiens. French and British troops fought theBattle of Abbevillefrom 27 May to 4 June but failed to eliminate the German bridgehead south of the Somme.[citation needed]
BEF and the Channel ports
editSiege of Calais
edit
In the early hours of 23 May, Gort ordered a retreat from Arras. By now, he had no faith in the Weygand plan, nor in Weygand's proposal at least to try to hold a pocket on the Flemish coast, a so-calledRéduitde Flandres.Gort knew that the ports needed to supply such a foothold were already being threatened. That same day, the 2ndPanzerDivision had assaulted Boulogne. The remaining French and British there surrendered on 25 May, although 4,286 men were evacuated byRoyal Navyships. The RAF also provided air cover, denying theLuftwaffean opportunity to attack the shipping.[177]
The 10thPanzerDivision (Ferdinand Schaal) attacked Calais on 24 May. British reinforcements (the3rd Royal Tank Regiment,equipped withcruiser tanksand the30th Motor Brigade;the latter constituted much of the infantry force that was to have served with British 1st Armoured Division) had been hastily landed 24 hours before the Germans attacked. The defenders held on to the port as long as possible, aware that an early capitulation would free up German forces to advance on Dunkirk. The British and French held the town despite the best efforts of Schaal's division to break through. Frustrated, Guderian ordered that, if Calais had not fallen by 14:00 on 26 May, he would withdraw the 10thPanzerDivision and ask theLuftwaffeto destroy the town. Eventually, the French and British ran out of ammunition and the Germans were able to break into the fortified city at around 13:30 on 26 May, 30 minutes before Schaal's deadline was up.[178]Despite the French surrender of the main fortifications, the British held the docks until the morning of 27 May. Around 440 men were evacuated. The siege lasted for four crucial days.[179][180]The delaying action came at a price, about 60 per cent of Allied personnel were killed or wounded.[181]
Halt orders
edit
Frieser wrote that the Franco-British counter-attack at Arras had a disproportionate effect on the Germans because the German higher commanders were apprehensive about flank security. Kleist, the commander ofPanzergruppe von Kleist,perceived a "serious threat" and informed Halder that he had to wait until the crisis was resolved before continuing. Colonel-GeneralGünther von Kluge,the 4th Army commander ordered the tanks to halt, with the support of Rundstedt. On 22 May, when the attack had been repulsed, Rundstedt ordered that the situation at Arras must be restored beforePanzergruppe von Kleistmoved on Boulogne and Calais. At OKW, the panic was worse and Hitler contacted Army Group A on 22 May, to order that all mobile units were to operate either side of Arras and infantry units were to operate to the east.[182]
The crisis among the higher staffs of the German army was not apparent at the front and Halder formed the same conclusion as Guderian, that the real threat was that the Allies would retreat to the channel coast too quickly and a race for the channel ports began. Guderian ordered the 2nd Panzer Division to capture Boulogne, the 1st Panzer Division to take Calais and the 10th Panzer division to seize Dunkirk. Most of the BEF and the French First Army were still 100 km (60 mi) from the coast but despite delays, British troops were sent from England to Boulogne and Calais just in time to forestall the XIX Corps panzer divisions on 22 May. Frieser wrote that had the panzers advanced at the same speed on 21 May as they had on 20 May, before the halt order stopped their advance for24 hours,Boulogne and Calais would have fallen. (Without a halt at Montcornet on 15 May and the second halt on 21 May after the Battle of Arras, the final halt order of 24 May would have been irrelevant, because Dunkirk would have already been captured by the 10th Panzer Division.)[183]
Operation Dynamo
edit
The British launched Operation Dynamo, which evacuated the encircled British, French and Belgian troops from the northern pocket in Belgium andPas-de-Calais,beginning on 26 May. About 28,000 men were evacuated on the first day. The French First Army – the bulk of which remained inLille– fought theSiege of Lilleowing to Weygand's failure to pull it back along with other French forces to the coast. The 50,000 men involved capitulated on 31 May. While the First Army was mounting its sacrificial defence at Lille, it drew German forces away from Dunkirk, allowing 70,000 Allied soldiers to escape. Total Allied evacuation stood at 165,000 on 31 May. The Allied position was complicated by Belgian KingLeopold III's surrender on 27 May, which was postponed until 28 May. The gap left by the Belgian Army stretched from Ypres to Dixmude. A collapse was averted at theBattle of Dunkirkand 139,732 British and 139,097 French soldiers wereevacuated by seaacross the English Channel in Operation Dynamo. Between 31 May and 4 June, another 20,000 British and 98,000 French were saved; about 30,000 to 40,000 French soldiers of the rearguard remained to be captured.[184]The total evacuated was 338,226, including 199,226 British and 139,000 French.[185]
During the Dunkirk battle, theLuftwaffedid its best to prevent the evacuation. It flew 1,882 bombing missions and 1,997 fighter sorties. British losses at Dunkirk made up 6 per cent of their total losses during the French campaign, including 60 precious fighter pilots. TheLuftwaffefailed in its task of preventing the evacuation but inflicted serious losses on the Allied forces. 89 merchantmen (of 126,518 grt) were lost; the navy lost 29 of its 40 destroyers sunk or seriously damaged. The Germans lost around 100 aircraft; the RAF lost 106 fighters.[186]Other sources putLuftwaffelosses in the Dunkirk area at 240.[187]Confusion still reigned. After the evacuation at Dunkirk, while Paris was enduring a short-lived siege, part of the1st Canadian Infantry Divisionwas sent to Brittany but was withdrawn after the French capitulation.[188]The1st Armoured Divisionunder General Evans arrived in France in June and fought in the Battle of Abbeville. It did so without some of its infantry, which had earlier been diverted to the defence of Calais. At the end of the campaign, Erwin Rommel praised the staunch resistance of British forces, despite being under-equipped and without ammunition for much of the fighting.[189][j]
Fall Rot
edit
By the end of May 1940, the best and most modern French armies had been sent north and lost in the resulting encirclement; the French had also lost much of their heavy weaponry and their best armoured formations. Overall, the Allies had lost 61 divisions inFall Gelb.Weygand was faced with the prospect of defending a long front (from Sedan to the channel), with a greatly depleted French Army now lacking significant Allied support. Weygand had only 64 French divisions and the51st (Highland) Infantry Divisionavailable. Weygand lacked the reserves to counter a breakthrough or to replace frontline troops, should they become exhausted from a prolonged battle on a front of 965 km (600 mi). The Germans had 142 divisions and air supremacy, except over the English Channel.[191]The French also had to deal withmillions of civilian refugeesfleeing the war in what became known asL'Exode(the Exodus). Automobiles and horse-drawn carts carrying possessions clogged roads. As the government had not foreseen such a rapid military collapse, there were few plans to cope. Between six and ten million French fled, sometimes so quickly that they left uneaten meals on tables, even while officials stated that there was no need to panic and that civilians should stay. The population ofChartresdropped from 23,000 to 800 and Lille from 200,000 to 20,000, while cities in the south such asPauandBordeauxrapidly grew in population.[192]
Weygand line
edit
The Germans began their second offensive on 5 June on the Somme and the Aisne. During the next three weeks, far from the easy advance theWehrmachtexpected, they encountered strong resistance from a rejuvenated French Army.[193]The French armies had fallen back on their lines of supply and communications and were closer to repair shops, supply dumps and stores. About 112,000 French soldiers from Dunkirk were repatriated via the Normandy and Brittany ports, a partial substitute for the lost divisions in Flanders. The French were also able to make good a significant amount of their armoured losses and raised the 1st and 2nd DCR (heavy armoured divisions). The 4th DCR also had its losses replaced. Morale rose and was very high by the end of May 1940. Most French soldiers that joined the line only knew of German success by hearsay.[194]
French officers had gained tactical experience against German mobile units and had more confidence in their weapons after seeing that their artillery and tanks performed better than German armour. The French tanks were now known to have better armour and armament. Between 23 and 28 May, the French Seventh and Tenth armies were reconstituted. Weygand decided to implementdefence in depthand use delaying tactics to inflict maximum attrition on German units. Small towns and villages were fortified for all-round defence as tactical hedgehogs. Behind the front line, the new infantry, armoured and half-mechanised divisions formed up, ready to counter-attack and relieve the surrounded units, which were to hold out at all costs.[195]
The 47 divisions of Army Group B attacked either side of Paris with the majority of the mobile units.[191]After 48 hours, the German offensive had not broken through.[196]On the Aisne, the XVIPanzerkorpsemployed over 1,000 AFVs in twoPanzerdivisions and a motorised division against the French. German offensive tactics were crude and Hoepner soon lost 80 out of 500 AFVs in the first attack. The 4th Army captured bridgeheads over the Somme but the Germans struggled to get over theAisne.[197][198]At Amiens, the Germans were repeatedly driven back by French artillery-fire and realised that French tactics were much improved.[199]
The German Army relied on theLuftwaffeto silence French artillery, to enable German infantry to inch forward.[199]German progress was made only late on the third day of operations, finally forcingcrossings.TheFrench Air Force(Armée de l'Air) attempted to bomb them but failed. German sources acknowledged the battle was "hard and costly in lives, the enemy putting up severe resistance, particularly in the woods and tree lines continuing the fight when our troops had pushed past the point of resistance".[200]South of Abbeville, the French Tenth Army (General Robert Altmayer) was forced to retreat toRouenand then south over the Seine.[201]The 7thPanzerDivision forced the surrender of the British 51st (Highland) Division and the FrenchIX Corpson 12 June atSaint-Valery-en-Caux,then crossed theSeineriver to race throughNormandy,capturing theport of Cherbourgon 18 June.[202][11]German spearheads were overextended and vulnerable to counter-attack but theLuftwaffedenied the French the ability to concentrate and the fear of air attack negated their mass and mobility.[203]
On 10 June, Reynaud declared Paris anopen city.[204]The German 18th Army then deployed against Paris. The French resisted the approaches to the capital strongly but the line was broken in several places. Weygand asserted it would not take long for the French Army to disintegrate.[205]On 13 June, Churchill attended a meeting of the Anglo-French Supreme War Council atToursand suggested aFranco-British Unionbut this was refused.[206]On 14 June, Paris fell.[11]Parisians who stayed in the city found that in most cases the Germans were extremely well mannered.[207]
TheLuftwaffegainedair supremacyas theArmée de l'Airwas brought to the verge of collapse.[208]The French had only just begun to make the majority of bomber sorties; between 5 and 9 June (duringOperation Paula), over 1,815 sorties, 518 by bombers, were flown. The number of sorties declined as losses became impossible to replace. After 9 June, French aerial resistance virtually ceased; some surviving aircraft withdrew toFrench North Africa.TheLuftwaffeexploited its dominance, concentrating on the direct and indirect support of theWehrmacht.TheLuftwaffeattacked lines of resistance, which then quickly collapsed under armoured attack.[209]TheRAFattempted to divert the attention of theLuftwaffewith 660 sorties flown against targets over the Dunkirk area but suffered many losses. On 21 June, 37Bristol Blenheimswere destroyed.[citation needed]
Collapse of the Maginot line
edit
To the east,Army Group Cwas to help Army Group A encircle and capture the French forces on theMaginot line.The goal of the operation was to envelop theMetzregion with its fortifications, to prevent a French counter-offensive from the Alsace region against the German line on the Somme. XIXKorps(Guderian) was to advance to the French border with Switzerland and trap the French forces in theVosges Mountainswhile the XVIKorpsattacked the Maginot Line from the west, into its vulnerable rear, to take the cities ofVerdun,Touland Metz. The French had moved the 2nd Army Group from Alsace and Lorraine to the 'Weygand line' on the Somme, leaving only small forces guarding the Maginot line. After Army Group B had begun its offensive against Paris and into Normandy, Army Group A began its advance into the rear of the Maginot line. On 15 June, Army Group C launched Operation Tiger, a frontal assault across the Rhine and into France.[210]
German attempts to break open or into the Maginot line prior to Tiger had failed. One assault lasted for eight hours on the extreme north of the line, costing the Germans 46 dead and 251 wounded for two French killed (one atFerme-Chappyand one atFermontfortress). On 15 June, the last well-equipped French forces, including the Fourth Army, were preparing to leave as the Germans struck. The French force now holding the line was exiguous; the Germans greatly outnumbered the French. They could call upon the IArmeekorpsof seven divisions and 1,000 artillery pieces, although most were First World War vintage and could not penetrate the thick armour of the fortresses. Only 88 mm (3.5 in) guns could do the job and 16 were allocated to the operation. To bolster this, 150 mm (5.9 in) and eight railway batteries were also employed. TheLuftwaffedeployed theFliegerkorpsV.[211]
The battle was difficult and slow progress was made against strong French resistance. Each fortress was overcome one by one.[212]One fortress (Schoenenbourg) fired 15,802 75 mm (3.0 in) rounds at attacking German infantry. It was the most heavily shelled of all the French positions but its armour protected it from fatal damage. On the day that Tiger was launched,Unternehmen Kleiner Bär(Operation Little Bear) began. Five divisions of the VIIArmeekorpscrossed the Rhine into theColmararea with a view to advancing to the Vosges Mountains. The force had 400 artillery pieces, reinforced by heavy artillery and mortars. The French 104th Division and 105th Division were forced back into the Vosges Mountains on 17 June. On the same day, XIXKorpsreached the Swiss border the Maginot defences were cut off from the rest of France. Most units surrendered on 25 June and the Germans claimed to have taken 500,000 prisoners. Some main fortresses continued the fight, despite appeals for surrender. The last only capitulated on 10 July, after a request from Georges and only then under protest. Of the 58 main fortifications on the Maginot Line, ten were captured by theWehrmacht.[213]
Second BEF evacuation
edit
The evacuation of the second BEF took place duringOperation Aerialbetween 15 and 25 June. TheLuftwaffe,with air supremacy, was determined to prevent more Allied evacuations after the Dunkirkdébâcle.Fliegerkorps1 was assigned to the Normandy andBrittanysectors. On 9 and 10 June, the port of Cherbourg was subject to 15 long tons (15 t) of German bombs, whileLe Havrereceived 10bombing attacksthat sank 2,949GRTof Allied shipping. On 17 June,Junkers Ju 88s– mainly fromKampfgeschwader30 – sank a "10,000 tonne ship", the 16,243 GRT linerRMSLancastriaoff St Nazaire, killing about 4,000 Allied troops and civilians. This was nearly double the British killed in the Battle of France, yet theLuftwaffefailed to prevent the evacuation of 190,000–200,000 Allied personnel.[214]
Battle of the Alps
editItalydeclared war on France and Britain on 10 June but it was not prepared for war and made little impact during the last two weeks of fighting in theItalian invasion of France.The Italian dictator,Benito Mussolini,sought to profit from the German success.[215]Mussolini felt the conflict would soon end and he reportedly said to the army Chief-of-Staff, MarshalPietro Badoglio,"I only need a few thousand dead so that I can sit at the peace conference as a man who has fought".[216]Opposite the Italians was the FrenchArmy of the Alps(GeneralRene Olry). In two weeks of fighting, the Italian 1st Army and 4th Army advanced a few kilometres intro French territory against determined French resistance but the offensive was halted on the negotiation of theFranco-Italian Armistice.Only the city of Menton and few Alpine towns had been captured by Italian forces.[citation needed]
Armistice
edit
Discouraged by his cabinet's hostile reaction to a British proposal for aFranco-British unionto avoid defeat and believing that his ministers no longer supported him, Reynaud resigned on 16 June. He was succeeded by Pétain, who delivered a radio address to the French people announcing his intention to ask for anarmisticewith Germany. When Hitler received word from the French government that they wished to negotiate an armistice, he selected theForest of Compiègneas the site for the negotiations.[217]Compiègne had been the site of the1918 Armistice,which ended the First World War with a humiliating defeat for Germany; Hitler viewed the choice of location as a supreme moment of revenge for Germany over France.[218]
On 21 June 1940, Hitler visited the site to start the negotiations, which took place in the same railway carriage in which the 1918 Armistice was signed. It had just been removed from a museum building and placed on the spot where it was located in 1918. Hitler sat in the same chair in which MarshalFerdinand Fochhad sat when he faced the defeated German representatives.[219]After listening to the reading of the preamble, Hitler left the carriage in a calculated gesture of disdain for the French delegates and negotiations were turned over toWilhelm Keitel,the chief of staff of OKW. The armistice was signed on the next day at 18:36 (French time), by General Keitel for Germany and Huntziger for France. The armistice and cease-fire went into effect two days and six hours later, at 00:35 on 25 June, once the Franco-Italian Armistice had also been signed, at 18:35 on 24 June, near Rome.[220]On 27 June, German troops occupied the coast of the Basque Country between France and Spain.[citation needed]
Aftermath
editAnalysis
editThis sectionrelies largely or entirely upon asingle source.(October 2021) |
The title ofErnest May's bookStrange Victory: Hitler's Conquest of France(2000) nods to an earlier analysis,Strange Defeat(written 1940; published 1946) by the historianMarc Bloch(1886–1944), a participant in the battle. May wrote that Hitler had better insight into the French and British governments than vice-versa and knew that they would not go to war over Austria and Czechoslovakia, because he concentrated on politics rather than the state and national interest. From 1937 to 1940, Hitler gave his views on events, their importance and his intentions, then defended them against contrary opinion from the likes of the former Chief of the General StaffLudwig BeckandErnst von Weizsäcker.Hitler sometimes concealed aspects of his thinking but he was unusually frank about priority and his assumptions. May referred toJohn Wheeler-Bennett(1964),
Except in cases where he had pledged his word, Hitler always meant what he said.[221]
May asserted that in Paris, London and other capitals, there was an inability to believe that someone mightwantanother world war. He wrote that, given public reluctance to contemplate another war and a need to reach consensus about Germany, the rulers of France and Britain werereticent(to resist German aggression), which limited dissent at the cost of enabling assumptions that suited their convenience. In France,Édouard Daladierwithheld information until the last moment and in September 1938 presented the Munich Agreement to the French cabinet as afait accompli,thus avoiding discussions over whether Britain would follow France into war or if the military balance was really in Germany's favour or how significant it was. The decision for war in September 1939 and the plan devised in the winter of 1939–1940 by Daladier for war with the USSR followed the same pattern.[222]
Hitler had miscalculated Franco-British reactions to the invasion of Poland in September 1939, because he had not realised that a shift in public opinion had occurred in mid-1939. May wrote that the French and British could have defeated Germany in 1938 with Czechoslovakia as an ally and also in late 1939, when German forces in the West were incapable of preventing a French occupation of the Ruhr, which would have forced a capitulation or a futile German resistance in a war of attrition. France did not invade Germany in 1939 because it wanted British lives to be at risk too and because of hopes that a blockade might force a German surrender without a bloodbath. The French and British also believed that they were militarily superior, which guaranteed victory. The run of victories enjoyed by Hitler from 1938 to 1940 could only be understood in the context of defeat being inconceivable to French and British leaders.[223]
May wrote that when Hitler demanded a plan to invade France in September 1939, the German officer corps thought that it was foolhardy and discussed acoup d'état,only backing down when doubtful of the loyalty of the soldiers to them. With the deadline for the attack on France being postponed so often, OKH had time to reviseFall Gelb(Case Yellow) for an invasion over the Belgian Plain several times. In January 1940, Hitler came close to ordering the invasion but was prevented by bad weather. Until theMechelen incidentin January forced a fundamental revision ofFall Gelb,the main effort (schwerpunkt) of the German army in Belgium would have been confronted by first-rate French and British forces, equipped with more and better tanks and with a great advantage in artillery. After the Mechelen Incident, OKH devised an alternative and hugely risky plan to make the invasion of Belgium a decoy, switch the main effort to the Ardennes, cross the Meuse and reach the Channel coast. May wrote that although the alternative plan was called theManstein plan,Guderian, Manstein, Rundstedt, Halder and Hitler had been equally important in its creation.[224]
War games held byGeneralmajor(Major-General)Kurt von Tippelskirch,the chief of army intelligence and Oberst Ulrich Liss ofFremde Heere West(FHW, Foreign Armies West), tested the concept of an offensive through the Ardennes. Liss thought that swift reactions could not be expected from the "systematic French or the ponderous English" and used French and British methods, which made no provision for surprise and reacted slowly when one was sprung. The results of the war games persuaded Halder that the Ardennes scheme could work, even though he and many other commanders still expected it to fail. May wrote that without the reassurance of intelligence analysis and the results of the war games, the possibility of Germany adopting the ultimate version ofFall Gelbwould have been remote. The French Dyle-Breda variant of the Allied deployment plan was based on an accurate prediction of German intentions, until the delays caused by the winter weather and shock of the Mechelen Incident, led to the radical revision ofFall Gelb.The French sought to assure the British that they would act to prevent theLuftwaffeusing bases in the Netherlands and the Meuse valley and to encourage the Belgian and Dutch governments. The politico-strategic aspects of the plan ossified French thinking, the Phoney War led to demands for Allied offensives in Scandinavia or the Balkans and the plan to start a war with the USSR. French generals thought that changes to the Dyle-Breda variant might lead to forces being taken from the Western Front.[225]
French and British intelligence sources were better than the German equivalents, which suffered from too many competing agencies but Allied intelligence analysis was not as well integrated into planning or decision-making. Information was delivered to operations officers but there was no mechanism like the German system of allowing intelligence officers to comment on planning assumptions about opponents and allies. The insularity of the French and British intelligence agencies meant that had they been asked if Germany would continue with a plan to attack across the Belgian plain after the Mechelen Incident, they would not have been able to point out how risky the Dyle-Breda variant was. May wrote that the wartime performance of the Allied intelligence services was abysmal. Daily and weekly evaluations had no analysis of fanciful predictions about German intentions. A May 1940 report from Switzerland that the Germans would attack through the Ardennes was marked as a German spoof. More items were obtained about invasions of Switzerland or the Balkans, while German behaviour consistent with an Ardennes attack, such as the dumping of supplies and communications equipment on the Luxembourg border or the concentration ofLuftwaffeair reconnaissance around Sedan and Charleville-Mézières, was overlooked.[226]
According to May, French and British rulers were at fault for tolerating poor performance by the intelligence agencies; that the Germans could achieve surprise in May 1940, showed that even with Hitler, the process of executive judgement in Germany had worked better than in France and Britain. May referred toStrange Defeatthat the German victory was a "triumph of intellect", which depended on Hitler's "methodical opportunism". May further asserted that, despite Allied mistakes, the Germans could not have succeeded but for outrageous good luck. German commanders wrote during the campaign and after, that often only a small difference had separated success from failure. Prioux thought that a counter-offensive could still have worked up to 19 May but by then, roads were crowded with Belgian refugees when they were needed for redeployment and the French transport units, which performed well in the advance into Belgium, failed for lack of plans to move them back. Gamelin had said "It is all a question of hours." but the decision to sack Gamelin and appoint Weygand, caused a two-day delay.[227]
Occupation
edit
France was divided into a German occupation zone in the north and west and azone libre(free zone) in the south. Both zones were nominally under the sovereignty of the Frenchrump stateheaded by Pétain that replaced the Third Republic; this rump state is often referred to asVichy France.De Gaulle, who had been made an Undersecretary of National Defence by Reynaud in London at the time of the armistice, refused to recognise Pétain's Vichy government as legitimate. He delivered theAppeal of 18 June,the beginning ofFree France.[228]
The British doubted AdmiralFrançois Darlan's promise not to allow the French fleet at Toulon to fall into German hands by the wording of the armistice conditions. They feared the Germans would seize the fleet, docked at ports in Vichy France and North Africa and use them in an invasion of Britain (Operation Sea Lion). Within a month, the Royal Navy conducted theAttack on Mers-el-Kébiragainst French ships at Oran.[229]The BritishChiefs of Staff Committeehad concluded in May 1940 that if France collapsed, "we do not think we could continue the war with any chance of success" without "full economic and financial support" from the United States. Churchill's desire for American aid led in September to theDestroyers for Bases agreementthat began theAtlantic Charter,the wartime Anglo-American partnership.[230]
The occupation of the various French zones continued until November 1942, when the Allies beganOperation Torch,the invasion of Western North Africa. To safeguard southern France, the Germans enactedCase Antonand occupied Vichy France.[231]In June 1944, the Western Allies launchedOperation Overlord,followed by theOperation Dragoonon the French Mediterranean coast on 15 August. This threatened to cut off German troops in western and central France and most began to retire toward Germany (The fortified FrenchAtlantic U-boat basesremained aspocketsuntil the German capitulation.). On 24 August 1944,Paris was liberatedand by September 1944 most of the country was in Allied hands.[232]
TheFree Frenchprovisional government declared the re-establishment of aprovisional French Republicto ensure continuity with the defunct Third Republic. It set about raising new troops to participate in theadvance to the Rhineand theWestern Allied invasion of Germanyby using theFrench Forces of the Interiorasmilitary cadresand manpower pools of experienced fighters to allow a very large and rapid expansion of the French Liberation Army (Armée française de la Libération). It was well equipped and well supplied despite the economic disruption brought by the occupation thanks toLend-Leaseand grew from 500,000 men in the summer of 1944 to over 1,300,000 byV-E day,making it the fourth largest Allied army in Europe.[233]
The2e Division Blindée(2nd Armoured Division), part of the Free French forces that had participated in theNormandy Campaignand had liberated Paris, went on toliberate Strasbourgon 23 November 1944, fulfilling theOath of Kuframade by GeneralLeclercalmost four years earlier. The unit under his command, barely abovecompanysize when it had captured the Italian fort, had grown into an armoured division. TheI Corpswas the spearhead of the Free FrenchFirst Armythat had landed in Provence as a part of Operation Dragoon. Its leading unit, the1re Division Blindée,was the first Western Allied unit to reach theRhône(25 August), the Rhine (19 November) and theDanube(21 April 1945). On 22 April, it captured theSigmaringen enclaveinBaden-Württemberg,where the last Vichy regime exiles were hosted by the Germans in one of the ancestral castles of theHohenzollerndynasty.[citation needed]
By the end of the war, some 580,000 French citizens had died (40,000 of these were killed by the western Allied forces during the bombardments of the first 48 hours of Operation Overlord).[citation needed]Military deaths were 55,000–60,000 in 1939–40.[234]Some 58,000 were killed in action from 1940 to 1945 fighting in the Free French forces. Some 40,000malgré-nous( "against our will", citizens of the re-annexedAlsace-Lorraineprovince drafted into the Wehrmacht) became casualties. Civilian casualties amounted to around 150,000 (60,000 by aerial bombing, 60,000 in the resistance and 30,000 murdered by German occupation forces). Prisoners of war and deportee totals were around 1,900,000; of these, around 240,000 died in captivity. An estimated 40,000 were prisoners of war, 100,000 racial deportees, 60,000 political prisoners and 40,000 died as slave labourers.[235]
Casualties
edit
German casualties are hard to determine but commonly accepted figures are: 27,074 killed, 111,034 wounded and 18,384 missing.[6][7][8]German deaths may have been as high as 45,000 men, due to non-combat causes, such as death from wounds and missing who were later listed as dead.[6]The battle cost theLuftwaffe28 per cent of its front line strength; some 1,236–1,428 aircraft were destroyed (1,129 to enemy action, 299 in accidents), 323–488 were damaged (225 to enemy action, 263 in accidents), making 36 per cent of theLuftwaffestrength lost or damaged.[6][236][24]Luftwaffecasualties amounted to 6,653 men, including 4,417 airmen; of these 1,129 were killed and 1,930 were reported missing or captured, many of whom were liberated from French prison camps upon the French capitulation.[9]Italian casualties amounted to 631 or 642 men killed, 2,631 wounded and 616 reported missing. A further 2,151 men suffered from frostbite during the campaign. The official Italian numbers were compiled for a report on 18 July 1940, when many of the fallen still lay under snow and it is probable that most of the Italian missing were dead. Units operating in more difficult terrain had higher ratios of missing to killed but probably most of the missing had died.[237]
According to the FrenchDefence Historical Service,85,310 French military personnel were killed (including 5,400Maghrebis); 12,000 were reported missing, 120,000 were wounded and1,540,000 prisoners(including 67,400 Maghrebis) were taken.[16]Some recent French research indicates that the number of killed was between 55,000 and 85,000, a statement of the French Defence Historical Service tending to the lower end.[7][k]In August 1940, 1,540,000 prisoners were taken into Germany, where roughly 940,000 remained until 1945, when they were liberated by advancing Allied forces. At least 3,000Senegalese Tirailleurswere murdered after being taken prisoner.[239]While in captivity, 24,600 French prisoners died; 71,000 escaped; 220,000 were released by various agreements between the Vichy government and Germany; several hundred thousand were paroled because of disability and/or sickness.[240]Air losses are estimated at 1,274 aircraft destroyed during the campaign.[24]French tank losses amount to 1,749 tanks (43 per cent of tanks engaged), of which 1,669 were lost to gunfire, 45 to mines and 35 to aircraft. Tank losses are amplified by the large numbers that were abandoned or scuttled and then captured.[5]
The BEF suffered66,426 casualties,11,014 killedor died of wounds,14,074 woundedand41,338 menmissing or taken prisoner.[241]About 64,000 vehicles were destroyed or abandoned and 2,472 guns were destroyed or abandoned. RAF losses from 10 May – 22 June, amounted to 931 aircraft and 1,526 casualties. The Allied naval forces also lost 243 ships toLuftwaffebombing in Dynamo.[242]Belgian losses were 6,093 killed, 15,850 wounded and more than 500 missing.[21][20]Those captured amounted to 200,000 men, of whom 2,000 died in captivity.[21][243]The Belgians also lost 112 aircraft.[244]The Dutch Armed forces lost 2,332 killed and 7,000 wounded.[245]Polish losses were around 5,500 killed or wounded and 16,000 prisoners, nearly 13,000 troops of the 2nd Infantry Division were interned in Switzerland for the duration of the war.[246][citation needed]
Popular reaction in Germany
editHitler had expected a million Germans to die in conquering France; instead, his goal was accomplished in just six weeks with only 27,000 Germans killed, 18,400 missing and 111,000 wounded, little more than a third of the German casualties in theBattle of Verdunduring World War I.[247]The unexpectedly swift victory resulted in a wave of euphoria among the German population and a strong upsurge in war-fever.[248]Hitler's popularity reached its peak with the celebration of the French capitulation on 6 July 1940.
"If an increase in feeling for Adolf Hitler was still possible, it has become reality with the day of the return to Berlin", commented one report from the provinces. "In the face of such greatness," ran another, "all pettiness and grumbling are silenced." Even opponents to the regime found it hard to resist the victory mood. Workers in the armaments factories pressed to be allowed to join the army. People thought final victory was around the corner. Only Britain stood in the way. For perhaps the only time during the Third Reich there was genuine war-fever among the population.
— Kershaw[249]
On 19 July, during the1940 Field Marshal Ceremonyat theKroll Opera Housein Berlin, Hitler promoted 12 generals to the rank offield marshal.
- Walther von Brauchitsch,Commander in Chief of the Army
- Wilhelm Keitel,Chief of theOberkommando der Wehrmacht(OKW)
- Gerd von Rundstedt,Commander in chief ofArmy Group A
- Fedor von Bock,Commander in chief ofArmy Group B
- Wilhelm von Leeb,Commander in chief ofArmy Group C
- Günther von Kluge,Commander of the4th Army
- Wilhelm List,Commander of the12th Army
- Erwin von Witzleben,Commander of the1st Army
- Walther von Reichenau,Commander of the6th Army
- Albert Kesselring,Commander ofLuftflotte 2(Air Fleet 2)
- Erhard Milch,Inspector General of the Luftwaffe
- Hugo Sperrle,Commander of theLuftflotte 3(Air Fleet 3)
This number of promotions to what had previously been the highest rank in theWehrmacht(Hermann Göring, Commander in chief of the Luftwaffe and already a Field Marshal, was elevated to the new rank ofReichsmarschall) was unprecedented. In the First World War, KaiserWilhelm IIhad promoted only five generals to Field Marshal.[250][251]
Witness accounts
edit- From Lemberg to Bordeaux(Von Lemberg bis Bordeaux), written byLeo Leixner,a journalist and war correspondent, is a witness account of the battles that led to the fall of Poland and France. In August 1939, Leixner joined the Wehrmacht as a war reporter, was promoted to sergeant and in 1941 published his recollections. The book was originally issued byFranz Eher Nachfolger,the central publishing house of the Nazi Party.[252]
- Tanks Break Through!(Panzerjäger Brechen Durch!), written byAlfred-Ingemar Berndt,a journalist and close associate of propaganda ministerJoseph Goebbels,is a witness account of the battles that led to the fall of France. When the 1940 attack was in the offing, Berndt joined the Wehrmacht, was sergeant in an anti-tank division and afterward published his recollections.[253]The book was originally issued byFranz Eher Nachfolger,the central publishing house of the Nazi Party, in 1940.[254]
- Escape via Berlin(De Gernika a Nueva York), written byJosé Antonio Aguirre,president of the Basque Country, describes his passage through occupied France and Belgium on his way to exile. Aguirre supported the loyalist side during the Spanish Civil war and was forced to exile in France, where the German invasion took him by surprise. He joined the wave of refugees trying to flee France and finally managed to escape to the United States through a long journey involving disguise.
- Berlin Diary,published in 1941 byWilliam L. Shirer,aforeign correspondentforCBS World News Roundupbefore the war, gives a day-by-day account of his reporting before, during, and after the Battle of France, including conversations with military and political leaders – as well as ordinary soldiers and civilians – on both sides. Unable to continue reporting the war honestly from Berlin due to increasing German censorship, Shirer returned to the United States in December 1940.
See also
edit- British Expeditionary Force order of battle (1940)
- Polish Army in France (1939–40)
- Historiography of the Battle of France
- Military history of France during World War II
- List of French World War II military equipment
- List of British military equipment of World War II
- List of Belgian military equipment of World War II
- List of Dutch military equipment of World War II
- List of German military equipment of World War II
- Timeline of the Battle of France
- Western Front (World War II)
Notes
edit- ^abUntil 17 May
- ^From 17 May
- ^Hooton uses the Bundesarchiv, Militärarchiv inFreiburg.Luftwaffestrength included gliders and transports used in the assaults on the Netherlands and Belgium.[3]
- ^Hooton used the National Archives in London for RAF records, including "Air 24/679 Operational Record Book: The RAF in France 1939–1940", "Air 22/32 Air Ministry Daily Strength Returns", "Air 24/21 Advanced Air Striking Force Operations Record" and "Air 24/507 Fighter Command Operations Record". For the Armée de l'Air Hooton used "Service Historique de Armée de l'Air (SHAA), Vincennes".[3]
- ^Steven Zalogawrote, "Of the 2,439 panzers originally committed 822, or about 34 per cent, were total losses after five weeks of fighting.... Detailed figures for the number of mechanical breakdowns are not available and are not relevant as in the French case, since, as the victors, theWehrmachtcould recover damaged or broken-down tanks and put them back into service ".[12]
- ^Official Italian report on 18 July 1940: Italian casualties amounted to 631 or 642 men killed, 2,631 wounded and 616 reported missing. A further 2,151 men suffered from frostbite during the campaign.[13][14][15]
- ^French:
≈60,000 killed
200,000 wounded
12,000 missing[16][17]
British:
3,500–5,000 dead
16,815 wounded
47,959 missing or captured[6][18][19]
Belgian:
6,093 killed
15,850 wounded
500 missing[20][21]
Dutch:
2,332 killed
7,000 wounded
Polish:
5,500 killed or wounded[22]
Luxembourg:
7 wounded[23] - ^Steven Zaloga notes that "According to a postwar French Army study, French tank losses in 1940 amounted to 1,749 tanks lost out of 4,071 engaged, of which 1,669 were lost to gunfire, 45 to mines and 35 to aircraft. This amounts to about 43 per cent. French losses were substantially amplified by the large numbers of tanks that were abandoned or scuttled by their crews".[5]
- ^Jonathan Fennell notes "Losses 'included 180,000 rifles, 10,700 Bren guns, 509 two-pounder anti-tank guns, 509 cruiser tanks and 180 infantry tanks'."[25]
- ^On 26 February 1945, Hitler claimed he had let the BEF escape as a "sporting" gesture, in the hope Churchill would come to terms. Few historians accept Hitler's word in light of Directive No. 13, which called for "the annihilation of French, British and Belgian forces in the Dunkirk pocket".[190]
- ^"Combat losses amounted in reality to 58,829 deaths, excluding marine however, whose deaths were registered under different procedures."[238]
Footnotes
edit- ^abcdefScheck 2010,p. 426.
- ^abcUmbreit 2015,p. 279.
- ^abcdHooton 2007,pp. 47–48.
- ^Publishing, D. K. (1 October 2009).War: The Definitive Visual History.Penguin. p. 467.ISBN978-0-7566-6817-4.Retrieved14 June2024.
- ^abcZaloga 2011,p. 73.
- ^abcdefFrieser 1995,p. 400.
- ^abcL'Histoire,No. 352, April 2010France 1940: Autopsie d'une défaite,p. 59.
- ^abSheppard 1990,p. 88.
- ^abHooton 2010,p. 73.
- ^Murray 1983,p. 40.
- ^abcHealy 2007,p. 85.
- ^Zaloga 2011,p. 76.
- ^Sica 2012,p. 374.
- ^Porch 2004,p. 43.
- ^Rochat 2008,para. 19.
- ^abGorce 1988,p. 496.
- ^Quellien 2010,pp. 262–263.
- ^French 2001,p. 156.
- ^Archives, The National."The National Archives | World War II | Western Europe 1939–1945: Invasion | How worried was Britain about invasion 1940–41?".archive.wikiwix.Archivedfrom the original on 6 March 2023.Retrieved14 January2023.
- ^abDear & Foot 2005,p. 96.
- ^abcEllis 1993,p. 255.
- ^Jacobson, 2015, nopp
- ^"Inauguration du Monument érigé à la Mémoire des Morts de la Force Armée de la guerre de 1940–1945"(PDF).Grand Duché de Luxembourg Ministére D'État Bulletin D'Information(in French). Vol. 4, no. 10. Luxembourg: Service information et presse. 31 October 1948. p. 147. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 8 January 2017.Retrieved22 May2020.
- ^abcHooton 2007,p. 90.
- ^Fennell 2019,p. 115.
- ^Donnell 2017.
- ^abJackson 2003,p. 33.
- ^Roth 2010,p. 6.
- ^Kaufmann & Kaufmann 2007,p. 23.
- ^Jackson 2003,pp. 32–33.
- ^Baliszewski 2004.
- ^Viscount Halifax to Sir N. Henderson (Berlin)Archived2 October 2017 at theWayback MachineCited in the British Blue book
- ^"Chronology 1939".indiana.edu. Archived fromthe originalon 27 September 2011.Retrieved12 December2015.
- ^abShirer 1990,p. 715.
- ^Full text of the speechArchived26 September 2022 at theWayback Machine(in German, pdf)
- ^archive.org:Video of his speech(77 min)
- ^abFrieser 2005,p. 61.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 32.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 74.
- ^"Directive No. 6 Full Text".Archivedfrom the original on 29 July 2016.Retrieved5 December2015.
- ^Shirer 1990,p. 717.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 67.
- ^Megargee 2000,p. 76.
- ^abShirer 1990,p. 718.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 25.
- ^Atkin 1990,pp. 42–43.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 62.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 63.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 79.
- ^abFrieser 2005,p. 60.
- ^abFrieser 2005,p. 65.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 87.
- ^Frieser 1995,p. 76.
- ^Hinsley et al. 1979,pp. 114, 128, 130.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 65–67.
- ^Bond 1990,pp. 43–44.
- ^Melvin 2010,pp. 148, 154–155.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 88, 94–95, 113, 116.
- ^abBeevor 2013,p. 97.
- ^Doughty 2014a,pp. 5–6.
- ^Doughty 2014a,p. 7.
- ^Doughty 2014a,pp. 6–7.
- ^Doughty 2014a,pp. 7–8.
- ^Doughty 2014a,p. 11.
- ^Doughty 2014a,p. 12.
- ^abDoughty 2014a,pp. 8–9.
- ^Bond 1990,pp. 36, 46.
- ^Atkin 1990,p. 53.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 35–37.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 29.
- ^DiNardo & Bay 1988,pp. 131–132.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 29–30.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 71, 101.
- ^Dear & Foot 2005,p. 323.
- ^abHealy 2007,p. 23.
- ^Corum 1995,p. 70.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 37–42.
- ^Dear & Foot 2005,p. 861.
- ^Citino 1999,p. 249.
- ^Corum 1992,p. 203.
- ^French 2001,pp. 16–24.
- ^abHooton 2007,p. 47.
- ^Buckley 1998,pp. 126–127.
- ^Corum 1995,p. 54.
- ^For details seede:8,8-cm-Flak 18/36/37#Die 8,8 als Panzerabwehrkanone.
- ^abHarvey 1990,p. 449.
- ^abcdDear & Foot 2005,p. 316.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 35.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 36–37.
- ^Christofferson & Christofferson 2006,pp. 18–19.
- ^Porch 2022,pp. 72–76.
- ^Blatt 1997,p. 23.
- ^abChristofferson & Christofferson 2006,p. 18.
- ^Tooze 2006,p. 372.
- ^Corum 1992,pp. 204–205.
- ^Atkin 1990,p. 58.
- ^Citino 2005,p. 284.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 90, 153.
- ^Schuker 2014,pp. 111–112.
- ^Stout 2010,p. 19.
- ^Taylor & Mayer 1974,p. 72.
- ^abHarvey 1990,p. 448.
- ^Hooton 2007,p. 81.
- ^Facon 1996,pp. 54–62.
- ^Belgium 1941,p. 32.
- ^Ellis 2004,pp. 359–371.
- ^Weinberg 1994,p. 122.
- ^Hooton 2007,pp. 49–54.
- ^Evans 2000,pp. 33–38.
- ^Hooton 2007,pp. 48–49.
- ^abHooton 1994,p. 244.
- ^de Jong 1970.
- ^Hooton 2007,pp. 244, 50, 52.
- ^Shirer 1990,p. 723.
- ^Evans 2000,p. 38.
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- ^Dunstan 2005,pp. 31–32.
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- ^Gunsburg 1992,p. 215.
- ^Gunsburg 1992,pp. 209–210, 218.
- ^abHealy 2007,p. 38.
- ^Gunsburg 1992,pp. 207–244 [236–237, 241].
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 246–248.
- ^Gunsburg 2000,pp. 97–140, 242, 249.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 137.
- ^abFrieser 2005,pp. 137–142.
- ^Jackson 1974,p. 56.
- ^Mansoor 1988,p. 68.
- ^Citino 1999,p. 250.
- ^abFrieser 2005,p. 192.
- ^Mansoor 1988,p. 69.
- ^Hooton 2007,p. 64.
- ^Frieser 1995,p. 193.
- ^Weal 1997,p. 46.
- ^abHooton 2007,p. 65.
- ^Frieser 1995,pp. 216, 244.
- ^Krause & Phillips 2006,p. 172.
- ^Weal 1997,p. 22.
- ^Frieser 1995,p. 258.
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- ^Evans 2000,p. 70.
- ^Citino 2002,p. 270.
- ^Evans 2000,pp. 70, 72.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 271.
- ^abKrause & Phillips 2006,p. 176.
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- ^Bond 1990,p. 69.
- ^Sheppard 1990,p. 81.
- ^Weal 1997,p. 47.
- ^Corum 1997,pp. 73, 277–280.
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- ^abGardner 2000,p. 10.
- ^Bond 1990,pp. 66, 69.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 278–280.
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- ^Bond 1990,p. 70.
- ^Ellis 2004,p. 89.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 283–286.
- ^Bond 1990,p. 71.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 286–287, 36.
- ^Healy 2007,p. 81.
- ^Gardner 2000,pp. 9–10.
- ^Sebag-Montefiore 2006,pp. 234, 236–237.
- ^Longden 2008,pp. 87–88.
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- ^Longden 2008,p. 89.
- ^Frieser 2005,p. 287.
- ^Frieser 2005,pp. 287–288.
- ^Bond 1990,pp. 89–98, 106–107, 115.
- ^Umbreit 2015,p. 293.
- ^Hooton 2007,p. 74.
- ^Murray 1983,p. 39.
- ^Chappel 1985,p. 21.
- ^Harman 1980,p. 82.
- ^Bond 1990,p. 105.
- ^abHealy 2007,p. 84.
- ^Jackson 2001,pp. 119–120.
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- ^Alexander 2007,pp. 227, 231, 238.
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- ^David 2018,chpt. 13.
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- ^Shirer 1990,p. 738.
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- ^Shirer, William (1941).Berlin Diary.Alfred A. Knopf.
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- French, David (2001).Raising Churchill's Army: The British Army and the War against Germany, 1919–1945.London: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-924630-4.
- Frieser, Karl-Heinz(1995).Blitzkrieg-Legende: Der Westfeldzug 1940, Operationen des Zweiten Weltkrieges[The Blitzkrieg Myth: The Western Campaign in 1940, Operations of the Second World War] (in German). München: R. Oldenbourg.ISBN3-486-56124-3.
- Frieser, Karl-Heinz (2005).The Blitzkrieg Legend: The 1940 Campaign in the West.Translated by Greenwood, J. T. (eng. trans. ed.). Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press.ISBN978-1-59114-294-2.
- Gardner, W. J. R. (2000).The evacuation from Dunkirk: Operation Dynamo, 26 May – 4 June 1940.London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-7146-8150-4.
- Harman, Nicholas (1980).Dunkirk: The Necessary Myth.London: Hodder & Stoughton.ISBN0-340-24299-X.
- Haslam, J.; Urbach, K., eds. (2014).Secret Intelligence in the European States System, 1918–1989.Stanford: Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0-8047-8891-5.
- Schuker, S. A. "Seeking a Scapegoat: Intelligence and Grand Strategy in France". InHaslam & Urbach (2014).
- Healy, Mark (2007). Prigent, John (ed.).Panzerwaffe: The Campaigns in the West 1940.Vol. I. London: Ian Allan.ISBN978-0-7110-3239-2.
- Hinsley, F. H.;et al. (1979).British Intelligence in the Second World War: Its Influence on Strategy and Operations.Vol. I. London:HMSO.ISBN978-0-11-630933-4.
- Hooton, E. R. (1994).Phoenix Triumphant: The Rise and Rise of the Luftwaffe.London: Brockhampton Press.ISBN1-86019-964-X.
- Hooton, E. R. (2007).Luftwaffe at War; Blitzkrieg in the West.London: Chevron/Ian Allan.ISBN978-1-85780-272-6.
- Hooton, E. R. (2010).The Luftwaffe: A Study in Air Power 1933–1945.Classic.ISBN978-1-906537-18-0.
- Imlay, Talbot C.; Toft, Monica Duffy (2007).The Fog of Peace and War Planning: Military and Strategic Planning Under Uncertainty.Cass: Strategy and History. London: Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-21088-6.
- Jackson, Robert (1974).Air War Over France, 1939–1940.London: Ian Allan.ISBN978-0-7110-0510-5.
- Jackson, Julian(2003).The Fall of France: The Nazi Invasion of 1940.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-192-80550-8.
- Jackson, Julian (2001).France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944.London: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-820706-9.
- Kaufmann, J. E.; Kaufmann, H. W. (2007).Fortress France: The Maginot Line and French Defenses in World War II.Stackpole Military History. Stackpole Books.ISBN978-0-811-73395-3.
- Keegan, John(2005).The Second World War.New York: Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-303573-2.
- Kershaw, Ian (2002).Hitler, 1936–1945.Munich: Pantheon.
- Krause, M.; Phillips, C. (2006).Historical Perspectives of Operational Art.Fort McNair, Washington DC: Center of Military History.ISBN978-0-16-072564-7.
- Longden, Sean (2008).Dunkirk: The Men They Left Behind.London: Constable.ISBN978-1-84529-520-2.
- Maier, Klaus A.; Rohde, Horst; Stegemann, Bernd; Umbreit, Hans (2015) [1991]. Falla, P. S. (ed.).Germany and the Second World War:Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe.Vol. II. Translated by McMurry, Dean S.; Osers, Ewald (trans. pbk. Clarendon Press, Oxford ed.). Freiburg im Breisgau: Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt [Research Institute for Military History].ISBN978-0-19-873834-3.
- Umbreit, B. "German Victory in Western Europe". InMaier et al. (2015).
- Maier, K. "Die Errichtung der Hegemonie auf dem europäischen Kontinent (The establishment of hegemony on the European continent)". InMaier et al. (2015).
- May, Ernest R.(2000).Strange Victory: Hitler's Conquest of France.London:I.B.Tauris.ISBN978-1-85043-329-3.online
- Megargee, Geoffrey P.(2000).Inside Hitler's High Command.Lawrence: Kansas University Press.ISBN0-7006-1015-4.
- Melvin, Mungo (2010).Manstein: Hitler's Most Controversial General.W&N.ISBN978-0-297-84561-4.
- Murray, Williamson (1983).Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe 1933–1945(online ed.). Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press (US National Government Publication).ISBN978-1-4294-9235-5.
- Neave, Airey (2003) [1972].The Flames of Calais: A Soldiers Battle 1940(Pen & Sword, Barnsley ed.). London: Hodder & Stoughton.ISBN978-0-85052-997-5.
- Neitzel, Sönke; Welzer, Harald (2012).Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing and Dying: The Secret World War II Tapes of German POWs.London: Simon & Schuster.ISBN978-1-84983-948-8.
- Porch, Douglas(2004).The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II(1st ed.). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.ISBN978-0-374-20518-8.
- Porch, Douglas (2022).Defeat and Division: France at War, 1939–1942.Armies of the Second World War. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-107-04746-4.
- Quellien, Jean (2010). "Les pertes humaines".La France pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale – Atlas historique(in French) (online scan ed.). éd. Fayard, ministère de la Défense.OCLC812049413.
- Reynolds, David (1993). "Churchill in 1940: The Worst and Finest Hour". In Blake, Robert B.; Louis, William Roger (eds.).Churchill.Oxford: Clarendon Press.ISBN0-19-820626-7.
- Roth, Ariel Ilan (2010).Leadership in International Relations: The Balance of Power and the Origins of World War II.Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-230-10690-1.
- Romanych, M.; Rupp, M. (2010).Maginot Line 1940: Battles on the French Frontier.Oxford: Osprey.ISBN978-1-84603-499-2.
- Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh(2006).Dunkirk: Fight to the Last Man.New York: Viking.ISBN978-0-670-91082-3.
- Sheppard, Alan (1990).France, 1940: Blitzkrieg in the West.Oxford: Osprey.ISBN978-0-85045-958-6.
- Shirer, William L.(1990).The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany.Simon & Schuster.ISBN0-671-72868-7.
- Strawson, John (2003).Hitler as Military Commander.Military Classics. Barnsley: Pen & Sword.ISBN978-0-85052-956-2.
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Journals
edit- Alexander, Martin (2007). "After Dunkirk: The French Army's Performance Against 'Case Red', 25 May to 25 June 1940".War in History.14(2):219–264.doi:10.1177/0968344507075873.ISSN1477-0385.S2CID153751513.
- Baliszewski, Dariusz(19 September 2004)."Most honoru".Wprost(in Polish) (1138).ISSN0209-1747.Archived fromthe originalon 14 May 2007.Retrieved24 March2005.
- Corum, James (January 1995). "The Luftwaffe's Army Support Doctrine, 1918–1941".The Journal of Military History.59(1):53–76.doi:10.2307/2944364.ISSN1543-7795.JSTOR2944364.
- DiNardo, R. L.; Bay, Austin (January 1988). "Horse-Drawn Transport in the German Army".Journal of Contemporary History.23(1):129–142.doi:10.1177/002200948802300108.ISSN0022-0094.S2CID159871841.
- Facon, Patrick (March 1996). "Slowing Down Blitzkrieg: A Curtiss Fighter Ace in the Battle of France".Air Fan International.Publitek.ISSN1083-2548.
- Gunsburg, Jeffery A. (April 1992). "The Battle of the Belgian Plain, 12–14 May 1940: The First Great Tank Battle".The Journal of Military History.56(2):207–244.doi:10.2307/1985797.ISSN0899-3718.JSTOR1985797.
- ——— (January 2000). "The Battle of Gembloux, 14–15 May 1940: The 'Blitzkrieg' Checked".The Journal of Military History.64(1):97–140.doi:10.2307/120789.JSTOR120789.
- Harvey, D. (October 1990). "The French Armée de l'Air in May–June 1940: A Failure of Conception".Journal of Contemporary History.25(4):447–465.doi:10.1177/002200949002500404.ISSN0022-0094.S2CID159795712.
- Mansoor, Peter R. (June 1988). Childress, P. W. (ed.)."The Second Battle of Sedan, May 1940".Military Review.LXVIII(6). Fort Leavenworth, KS: United States Army Combined Arms Center:64–75.ISSN0026-4148.PB-100-88-6. Archived fromthe originalon 25 August 2020.Retrieved6 October2016.
- Rochat, Giorgio (1 January 2008)."La campagne italienne de juin 1940 dans les Alpes occidentales".Revue historique des armées.250.Translator: Anne Pilloud. Vincennes: Service historique de la défense:77–84.doi:10.3917/rha.250.0077.ISSN0035-3299.S2CID161280892.Archivedfrom the original on 1 September 2017.Retrieved9 December2015.
- Sica, Emanuele (2012)."June 1940: The Italian Army and the Battle of the Alps".Canadian Journal of History.47(2). Saskatoon, SK: University of Toronto Press:355–378.doi:10.3138/cjh.47.2.355.ISSN0008-4107.
- Scheck, Raffael (2010). "French Colonial Soldiers in German Prisoner-of-War Camps (1940–1945)".French History.XXIV(3): 426.doi:10.1093/fh/crq035.
Websites
edit- Jacobson, Douglas."Article 9: Polish Army in France".Douglas W. Jacobson. Archived fromthe originalon 11 December 2015.Retrieved9 December2015.
Newspapers
edit- "Communications Secretes du G.Q.G."[Secret Communications from G.Q.G.].L'Aurore(in French). Paris. 21 November 1949. p. 4.Retrieved27 May2022.
Further reading
editBooks
- d'Avout, Aurélien (2023).La France en éclats. Écrire la débâcle de 1940, d'Aragon à Claude Simon.Bruxelles: Les Impressions Nouvelles.ISBN978-2-39070-025-8.
- Bloch, Marc(1968) [1946].Strange Defeat: A Statement of Evidence Written in 1940.New York, NY: Norton.ISBN0-393-31911-3.
- Cooper, M. (1978).The German Army 1933–1945, Its Political and Military Failure.Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and Day.ISBN0-8128-2468-7.
- Doughty, R. A. (2014) [1990].The Breaking Point: Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940.Stackpole Military History (pbk. repr. Stackpole, Mechanicsburg, PA ed.). Hamden, CN: Archon Books.ISBN978-0-8117-1459-4.
- Fantom, Paul (2021).A Forgotten Campaign: The British Armed Forces in France, 1940 – From Dunkirk to the Armistice.Warwick: Helion.ISBN978-1-914059-01-8.
- Martin, J.; Martin, P. (2001).Ils étaient là: l'armée de l'Air septembre 39 – juin 40[They Were There: The Air Force September 39 – June 40] (in French). Aero-Editions.ISBN2-9514567-2-7.
- Jowett, Philip S. (2000).The Italian Army 1940–45: Europe 1940–1943.Vol. I. Oxford: Osprey.ISBN978-1-85532-864-8.
- Kershaw, Ian (2008).Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions That Changed the World, 1940–1941.London: Penguin.ISBN978-0-14-101418-0.
- Nord, Philip (2015).France 1940: Defending the Republic.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-19068-7.
- Raffael, Scheck (2005).Hitler's African Victims: The German Army Massacres of Black French Soldiers in 1940.London: Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-85799-6.
- Winchester, Charles (1998).Ostfront: Hitler's War on Russia 1941–45.Oxford: Osprey.ISBN978-1-84176-066-7.
Theses
- Connors, Joseph David (1977)."Bibliography".Paul Reynaud and French National Defense, 1933–1939(PhD thesis) (online scan ed.). Loyola University of Chicago. pp.265–283.OCLC10499727.
- de Konkoly Thege, Michel (2015)."Bibliography".Paul Reynaud and the Reform of France's Economic, Military and Diplomatic Policies of the 1930s(MALS/MPhil thesis) (online scan ed.). Graduate Liberal Studies Works. pp.171–176.doi:10.14418/wes01.4.6.Docket Paper 6.
External links
edit
- Brooke, Alan(1946).Despatch on Operations of the British Expeditionary Force in From 12th June, 1940 to 19th June, 1940.London: War Office.In"No. 37573".The London Gazette(Supplement). 22 May 1946. pp.2433–2439.
- The Battle of France 1940(Official Nazi propaganda account of the Battle of France)
- The invasion of Holland in May 1940
- Gort, John(10 October 1941)."Viscount Gort's Despatch on Operations of the British Expeditionary Force in France and Belgium, 1939–1940".Supplement to theLondon Gazette,Number 35305.Retrieved6 November2009.
