Behaviorism

Not to be confused withBehavioralism.

"Behavior analysis" redirects here. For other uses, seeBehavior analysis (disambiguation).

Behaviorismis a systematic approach to understand the behavior of humans and other animals.It assumes that behavior is either areflexelicited by the pairing of certainantecedent stimuliin the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especiallyreinforcementandpunishmentcontingencies,together with the individual's currentmotivational stateandcontrolling stimuli.Although behaviorists generally accept the important role ofheredityin determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental events. Thecognitive revolutionof the late 20th century largely replaced behaviorism as an explanatory theory withcognitive psychology,which unlike behaviorism views internal mental states as explanations for observable behavior.

Behaviorism emerged in the early 1900s as a reaction todepth psychologyand other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally. It was derived from earlier research in the late nineteenth century, such as whenEdward Thorndikepioneered thelaw of effect,a procedure that involved the use of consequences to strengthen or weaken behavior.

With a 1924 publication,John B. Watsondevised methodological behaviorism, which rejectedintrospective methodsand sought to understand behavior by only measuring observable behaviors and events. It was not until 1945thatB. F. Skinnerproposed that covert behavior—includingcognitionandemotions—are subject to the same controlling variables as observable behavior, which became the basis for his philosophy calledradicalbehaviorism.While Watson andIvan Pavlovinvestigated how (conditioned) neutral stimuli elicit reflexes inrespondent conditioning,Skinner assessed the reinforcement histories of the discriminative (antecedent) stimuli that emits behavior; the process became known asoperant conditioning.

The application of radical behaviorism—known asapplied behavior analysis—is used in a variety of contexts, including, for example, applied animal behavior andorganizational behavior managementto treatment of mental disorders, such asautismandsubstance abuse.In addition, while behaviorism andcognitiveschools of psychological thought do not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in thecognitive-behavioral therapies,which have demonstrated utility in treating certain pathologies, including simplephobias,PTSD,andmood disorders.

Branches of behaviorism

The titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include:

• Behavioral genetics:Proposed in 1869 byFrancis Galton,a relative ofCharles Darwin.Galton believed that inherited factors had a significant impact on individuals' behaviors, however did not believe nurturing was not important. Which was later discredited due to association with the eugenics movement - researchers did not want to associate with Nazi politics whether direct or indirect.doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2008.01073
• Interbehaviorism:Proposed byJacob Robert KantorbeforeB. F. Skinner's writings.
• Methodological behaviorism:John B. Watson's behaviorism states that only public events (motor behaviors of an individual) can be objectively observed. Although it was still acknowledged that thoughts and feelings exist, they were not considered part of the science of behavior.It also laid the theoretical foundation for the early approachbehavior modificationin the 1970s and 1980s. Often compared to the views of B.F Skinner (radical behaviorism). Methodological behaviorism "representing the logical positivist-derived philosophy of science" which is common in science today, radical focuses on the "pragmatist perspective."JSTOR27759016
• Psychological behaviorism:As proposed by Arthur W. Staats, unlike the previous behaviorisms of Skinner, Hull, and Tolman, was based upon a program of human research involving various types of human behavior. Psychological behaviorism introduces new principles of human learning. Humans learn not only by animal learning principles but also by special human learning principles. Those principles involve humans' uniquely huge learning ability. Humans learn repertoires that enable them to learn other things. Human learning is thus cumulative. No other animal demonstrates that ability, making the human species unique.
• Radical behaviorism:Skinner's philosophy is an extension of Watson's form of behaviorism by theorizing that processes within the organism—particularly, private events, such as thoughts and feelings—are also part of the science of behavior, and suggests that environmental variables control these internal events just as they control observable behaviors. Behavioral events may be observable but not all are, some are considered "private": they are accessible and noticed by only the person who is behaving. B.F. Skinner described behavior as the name for the part of the functioning of the organism that consists of its interacting or having commerce with its surrounding environment. In simple terms, how an individual interacts with its surrounding environment.[RB]Although private events cannot be directly seen by others, they are later determined through the species' overt behavior. Radical behaviorism forms the core philosophy behindbehavior analysis.Willard Van Orman Quineused many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study of knowledge and language.
• Teleological behaviorism:Proposed byHoward Rachlin,post-Skinnerian, purposive, close tomicroeconomics.Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.
• Theoretical behaviorism:Proposed byJ. E. R. Staddon,adds a concept of internal state to allow for the effects of context. According to theoretical behaviorism, a state is a set of equivalent histories, i.e., past histories in which members of the same stimulus class produce members of the same response class (i.e., B. F. Skinner's concept of the operant). Conditioned stimuli are thus seen to control neither stimulus nor response but state. Theoretical behaviorism is a logical extension of Skinner's class-based (generic) definition of the operant.

Two subtypes of theoretical behaviorism are:

• Hullianand post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological
• Purposive:Tolman's behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology

Modern-day theory: radical behaviorism

Main article:Radical behaviorism

B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the conceptual underpinning of theexperimental analysis of behavior.This viewpoint differs from other approaches to behavioral research in various ways, but, most notably here, it contrasts with methodological behaviorism in accepting feelings, states of mind and introspection as behaviors also subject to scientific investigation. Like methodological behaviorism, it rejects the reflex as a model of all behavior, and it defends the science of behavior as complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism overlaps considerably with other western philosophical positions, such as Americanpragmatism.

Although John B. Watson mainly emphasized his position of methodological behaviorism throughout his career, Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the infamousLittle Albert experiment(1920), a study in whichIvan Pavlov'stheoryto respondent conditioning was first applied to eliciting a fearful reflex of crying in a human infant, and this became the launching point for understanding covert behavior (or private events) inradicalbehaviorism.However, Skinner felt that aversive stimuli should only be experimented on with animals and spoke out against Watson for testing something so controversial on a human.

In 1959, Skinner observed the emotions of two pigeons by noting that they appeared angry because their feathers ruffled. The pigeons were placed together in an operant chamber, where they were aggressive as a consequence of previousreinforcementin the environment. Throughstimulus controland subsequent discrimination training, whenever Skinner turned off the green light, the pigeons came to notice that the foodreinforcer is discontinuedfollowing each peck and responded without aggression. Skinner concluded that humans also learn aggression and possess such emotions (as well as other private events) no differently than do nonhuman animals.

Experimental and conceptual innovations

As experimental behavioural psychology is related tobehavioral neuroscience,we can date the first researches in the area were done in the beginning of 19th century.

Later, this essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his booksThe Behavior of OrganismsandSchedules of Reinforcement.Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory andS–R theory.

Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research ontrial-and-errorlearning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations—Thorndike's notion of a stimulus-response "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones—the use of the "free operant", so-called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal workAre Theories of Learning Necessary?in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is theSociety for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.

Relation to language

As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with his 1957 bookVerbal Behaviorand other language-related publications;Verbal Behaviorlaid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review byNoam Chomsky.

Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed.Innateness theory,which has been heavily critiqued,is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims that language is a set of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning.According to some, the behaviorist account is a process which would be too slow to explain a phenomenon as complicated as language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was notlanguage acquisitionso much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 bookContingencies of Reinforcement,Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior. Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name ofrelational frame theory.

Education

See also:Philosophy of education § Realism

B.F. Skinner's bookVerbal Behavior(1957) does not quite emphasize on language development, but to understand human behavior. Additionally, his work serves in understanding social interactions in the child's early developmental stages focusing on the topic of caregiver-infant interaction.Skinner's functional analysis of verbal behavior terminology and theories is commonly used to understand the relationship between language development but was primarily designed to describe behaviors of interest and explain the cause of those behaviors.Noam Chomsky,an American linguistic professor, has criticized and questioned Skinner's theories about the possible suggestion of parental tutoring in language development. However, there is a lack of supporting evidence where Skinner makes the statement.

Understanding language is a complex topic, but can be understood through the use of two theories: Innateness and acquisition. Both theories offer a different perspective whether language is inherently "acquired" or "learned."

Operant conditioning

Main article:Operant conditioning

Operant conditioningwas developed byB.F. Skinnerin 1938 and is form of learning in which the frequency of a behavior is controlled by consequences to change behavior.In other words, behavior is controlled by historical consequential contingencies, particularlyreinforcement—a stimulus that increases the probability of performing behaviors, andpunishment—a stimulus that decreases such probability.The core tools of consequences are either positive (presenting stimuli following a response), or negative (withdrawn stimuli following a response).

The following descriptions explains the concepts of four common types of consequences in operant conditioning:

• Positive reinforcement:Providing a stimulus that an individual enjoys, seeks, or craves, in order to reinforce desired behaviors.For example, when a person is teaching a dog to sit, they pair the command "sit" with a treat. The treat is the positive reinforcement to the behavior of sitting. The key to making positive reinforcement effect is to reward the behavior immediately.
• Negative reinforcement:Increases the frequency of a behavior, but the behavior results from removing unpleasant or unwanted stimulus.For example, a child hates being nagged (negative) to clean his room (behavior) which increases the frequency of the child cleaning his room to prevent his mother from nagging. Another example would be putting on sunscreen (behavior) before going outside to prevent sunburn (negative).
• Positive punishment:Providing a stimulus that an individual does not desire to decrease undesired behaviors. For example, if a child engages in an undesired behavior, then parents may spank (stimulus) the child to correct their behavior.
• Negative punishment:Removing a stimulus that an individual desires in order to decrease undesired behaviors. An example of this would be grounding a child for failing a test. Grounding in this example is taking away the child's ability to play video games. As long as it is clear that the ability to play video games was taken away because they failed a test, this is negative punishment. The key here is the connection to the behavior and the result of the behavior.

A classical experiment in operant conditioning, for example, is theSkinner Box,"puzzle box" oroperant conditioning chamberto test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats, cats and other species. From this experiment, he discovered that the rats learned very effectively if they were rewarded frequently with food. Skinner also found that he couldshape(create new behavior) the rats' behavior through the use of rewards, which could, in turn, be applied to human learning as well.

Skinner's model was based on the premise that reinforcement is used for the desired actions or responses while punishment was used to stop the responses of the undesired actions that are not. This theory proved that humans or animals will repeat any action that leads to a positive outcome, and avoid any action that leads to a negative outcome. The experiment with the pigeons showed that a positive outcome leads to learned behavior since the pigeon learned to peck the disc in return for the reward of food.

These historical consequential contingencies subsequently lead to (antecedent)stimulus control,but in contrast to respondent conditioning where antecedent stimuli elicit reflexive behavior, operant behavior is only emitted and therefore does not force its occurrence. It includes the following controlling stimuli:

• Discriminative stimulus(Sd): An antecedent stimulus that increases the chance of the organism engaging in a behavior. One example of this occurred in Skinner's laboratory. Whenever the green light (Sd) appeared, it signaled the pigeon to perform the behavior of pecking because it learned in the past that each time it pecked, food was presented (the positive reinforcing stimulus).
• Stimulus delta(S-delta): An antecedent stimulus that signals the organism not to perform a behavior since it was extinguished or punished in the past. One notable instance of this occurs when a person stops their car immediately after the traffic light turns red (S-delta). However, the person could decide to drive through the red light, but subsequently receive a speeding ticket (the positive punishing stimulus), so this behavior will potentially not reoccur following the presence of the S-delta.

Respondent conditioning

Main article:Classical conditioning

Althoughoperant conditioningplays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms,respondent conditioning(also called Pavlovian or classical conditioning) is also an important behavior-analytic process that needs not refer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most familiar example of the classical conditioning procedure. In the beginning, the dog was provided meat (unconditioned stimulus, UCS, naturally elicit a response that is not controlled) to eat, resulting in increased salivation (unconditioned response, UCR, which means that a response is naturally caused by UCS). Afterward, a bell ring was presented together with food to the dog. Although bell ring was a neutral stimulus (NS, meaning that the stimulus did not have any effect), dog would start to salivate when only hearing a bell ring after a number of pairings. Eventually, the neutral stimulus (bell ring) became conditioned. Therefore, salivation was elicited as a conditioned response (the response same as the unconditioned response), pairing up with meat—the conditioned stimulus)Although Pavlov proposed some tentative physiological processes that might be involved in classical conditioning, these have not been confirmed.The idea of classical conditioning helped behaviorist John Watson discover the key mechanism behind how humans acquire the behaviors that they do, which was to find a natural reflex that produces the response being considered.

Watson's "Behaviourist Manifesto" has three aspects that deserve special recognition: one is that psychology should be purely objective, with any interpretation of conscious experience being removed, thus leading to psychology as the "science of behaviour"; the second one is that the goals of psychology should be to predict and control behaviour (as opposed to describe and explain conscious mental states); the third one is that there is no notable distinction between human and non-human behaviour. Following Darwin's theory of evolution, this would simply mean that human behaviour is just a more complex version in respect to behaviour displayed by other species.

In philosophy

Main article:Logical behaviorism

Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted withphilosophy of mind.The basic premise of behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be anatural science,such aschemistryorphysics.Initially behaviorism rejected any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior, but B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism reintroduced reference to inner states and also advocated for the study of thoughts and feelings as behaviors subject to the same mechanisms as external behavior.Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior. According toEdmund Fantinoand colleagues: "Behavior analysis has much to offer the study of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that successful application of behavioral theory and methodology will not only shed light on central problems in judgment and choice but will also generate greater appreciation of the behavioral approach."

Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon withinphilosophy of languageandanalytic philosophy.It is sometimes argued thatLudwig Wittgensteindefended alogical behavioristposition(e.g., thebeetle in a boxargument). Inlogical positivism(as held, e.g., byRudolf CarnapandCarl Hempel),the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior.W. V. O. Quinemade use of a type of behaviorism,influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Quine's work in semantics differed substantially from the empiricist semantics of Carnap which he attempted to create an alternative to, couching his semantic theory in references to physical objects rather than sensations.Gilbert Ryledefended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his bookThe Concept of Mind.Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes",and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language.Daniel Dennettlikewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist,though he offers extensive criticism of radical behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the possibility of free will.

This is Dennett's main point in "Skinner Skinned." Dennett argues that there is a crucial difference between explaining and explaining away... If our explanation of apparently rational behavior turns out to be extremely simple, we may want to say that the behavior was not really rational after all. But if the explanation is very complex and intricate, we may want to say not that the behavior is not rational, but that we now have a better understanding of what rationality consists in. (Compare: if we find out how a computer program solves problems in linear algebra, we don't say it's not really solving them, we just say we know how it does it. On the other hand, in cases likeWeizenbaum'sELIZAprogram, the explanation of how the computer carries on a conversation is so simple that the right thing to say seems to be that the machine isn't really carrying on a conversation, it's just a trick.)

— Curtis Brown, "Behaviorism: Skinner and Dennett",Philosophy of Mind

Law of effect and trace conditioning

• Law of effect:AlthoughEdward Thorndike's methodology mainly dealt with reinforcing observable behavior, it viewedcognitiveantecedents as the causes of behavior,and was theoretically much more similar to thecognitive-behavior therapiesthan classical (methodological) or modern-day (radical) behaviorism. Nevertheless, Skinner'soperant conditioningwas heavily influenced by the Law of Effect's principle of reinforcement.
• Trace conditioning:Akin to B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism, it is arespondent conditioningtechnique based onIvan Pavlov's concept of a "memory trace" in which the observer recalls theconditioned stimulus(CS), with the memory or recall being theunconditioned response(UR). There is also a time delay between the CS andunconditioned stimulus(US), causing theconditioned response(CR)—particularly thereflex—to be faded over time.According to Marchand,the hippocampus is a part of the cognitive processes during trace conditioning and other forms of classical conditioning in two ways: needing to overcome stimuli or due to mre activity from complex challenges. However, results may vary due to the nature of the task and the design of the experiment.

Molecular versus molar behaviorism

Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner's complete description of behavior as delineated in other works, including his 1981 article "Selection by Consequences".Skinner proposed that a complete account of behavior requires understanding of selection history at three levels:biology(thenatural selectionorphylogenyof the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species,culture(the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs). This whole organism then interacts with its environment. Molecular behaviorists use notions frommelioration theory,negative power function discountingor additive versions of negative power function discounting.According to Moore,the perseverance in a molecular examination of behavior may be sign of a desire for an in-depth understanding, maybe to identify any underlying mechanism or components that contribute to comples actions. This strategy might involve elements, procedure, or variables that contribute to behaviorism.

Molar behaviorists, such asHoward Rachlin,Richard Herrnstein,and William Baum, argue that behavior cannot be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that behavior is best understood as the ultimate product of an organism's history and that molecular behaviorists are committing a fallacy by inventing fictitious proximal causes for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs, such as "associative strength", are better replaced by molar variables such asrate of reinforcement.Thus, a molar behaviorist would describe "loving someone" as a pattern ofloving behaviorover time; there is no isolated, proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior might be an example) that can be summarized as "love".

Theoretical behaviorism

Main article:Theoretical behaviorism

Skinner's radical behaviorism has been highly successful experimentally, revealing new phenomena with new methods, but Skinner's dismissal of theory limited its development.Theoretical behaviorismrecognized that a historical system, an organism, has a state as well as sensitivity to stimuli and the ability to emit responses. Indeed, Skinner himself acknowledged the possibility of what he called "latent" responses in humans, even though he neglected to extend this idea to rats and pigeons.Latent responses constitute a repertoire, from which operant reinforcement can select. Theoretical behaviorism links between the brain and the behavior that provides a real understanding of the behavior, rather than a mental presumption of how brain-behavior relates.The theoretical concept of behaviorism are blended with knowledge of mental structure such as memory and expectancies associated with inflexable behaviorist stances that have traditionally forbidden the examination of the mental state.Because of its flexibility, theoretical behaviorism permits the cognitive process to have an impact on behavior.

Behavior analysis and culture

From its inception, behavior analysis has centered its examination on cultural occurrences (Skinner,1953,1961,1971,1974). Nevertheless, the methods used to tackle these occurrences have evolved. Initially, culture was perceived as a factor influencing behavior, later becoming a subject of study in itself.This shift prompted research into group practices and the potential for significant behavioral transformations on a larger scale. Following Glenn's (1986) influential work, "Metacontingencies in Walden Two,"numerous research endeavors exploring behavior analysis in cultural contexts have centered around the concept of the metacontingency. Glenn (2003) posited that understanding the origins and development of cultures necessitates delving beyond evolutionary and behavioral principles governing species characteristics and individual learned behaviors requires analysis at a major level.

Behavior informatics and behavior computing

With the fast growth of big behavioral data and applications, behavior analysis is ubiquitous. Understanding behavior from the informatics and computing perspective becomes increasingly critical for in-depth understanding of what, why and how behaviors are formed, interact, evolve, change and affect business and decision.Behavior informaticsandbehavior computingdeeply explore behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives.

Pavel et al. (2015) found that in the realm ofhealthcareandhealth psychology,substantial evidence supports the notion that personalized health interventions yield greater effectiveness compared to standardized approaches. Additionally, researchers found that recent progress in sensor and communication technology, coupled with data analysis and computational modeling, holds significant potential in revolutionizing interventions aimed at changing health behavior. Simultaneous advancements in sensor and communication technology, alongside the field ofdata science,have now made it possible to comprehensively measure behaviors occurring in real-life settings. These two elements, when combined with advancements in computational modeling, have laid the groundwork for the emerging discipline known asbehavioral informatics.Behavioral informatics represents a scientific and engineering domain encompassing behavior tracking, evaluation, computational modeling, deduction, and intervention.

Criticisms and limitations

See also:Cognitive psychologyandCognitive neuroscience

In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of thecognitive revolution.This shift was due to radical behaviorism being highly criticized for not examining mental processes, and this led to the development of thecognitive therapymovement. In the mid-20th century, three main influences arose that would inspire and shape cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought:

• Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism more generally, initiated what would come to be known as the "cognitive revolution".
• Developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn between human thought and the computational functionality of computers, opening entirely new areas of psychological thought.Allen NewellandHerbert Simonspent years developing the concept ofartificial intelligence(AI) and later worked with cognitive psychologists regarding the implications of AI. The effective result was more of a framework conceptualization of mental functions with their counterparts in computers (memory, storage, retrieval, etc.).
• Formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of research institutions such asGeorge Mandler's Center for Human Information Processing in 1964. Mandler described the origins of cognitive psychology in a 2002 article in theJournal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences

In more recent years, several scholars have expressed reservations about the pragmatic tendencies of behaviorism.

• Burgos (2003) highlights the potential peril of pragmatism, noting that withinWilliam Jamespragmatism—widely discussed in philosophy and science, including behaviorism and behavior analysis—there exists a tolerance for anything deemed useful, even if nonsensical.Additionally, Burgos (2007) contends that pragmatism engenders a relativism that contradicts the emphasis on science as the paramount path to knowledge.
• Staddon (2018, as cited in Araiba, 2019) further argues that the proliferation of diversification insocial scienceposes disadvantages by hindering healthy and open scientific communication and critique among specialized areas.
• Rider (1991) shares a similar concern, highlighting reduced communication between the experimental analysis of behavior andapplied behavior analysis.Contrarily, diversification is portrayed as an innate and uncontrollable consequence of the environment, a natural facet contributing to species' survival. It is viewed as an integral aspect of the evolution of behaviorism.

In the early years ofcognitive psychology,behaviorist critics held that the empiricism it pursued was incompatible with the concept of internal mental states.Cognitive neuroscience,however, continues to gather evidence of direct correlations between physiological brain activity and putative mental states, endorsing the basis for cognitive psychology.

Limitations

Staddon (1993) found thatSkinner'stheory presents two significant deficiencies: Firstly, he downplayed the significance of processes responsible for generating novel behaviors, which it is term as "behavioral variation."Skinnerprimarily emphasized reinforcement as the sole determinant for selecting responses, overlooking these critical processes involved in creating new behaviors. Secondly, bothSkinnerand many other behaviorists of that era endorsed contiguity as a sufficient process for response selection. However,Rescorla and Wagner(1972) later demonstrated, particularly inclassical conditioning,that competition is an essential complement to contiguity. They showed that inoperant conditioning,both contiguity and competition are imperative for discerningcause-and-effectrelationships.

The influentialRescorla-Wagner modelhighlights the significance of competition for limited"associative value,"essential for assessing predictability. A similar formal argument was presented by Ying Zhang and John Staddon (1991, in press) concerning operant conditioning: the combination of contiguity and competition among action tendencies suffices as an assignment-of-credit mechanism capable of detecting genuine instrumental contingency between a response and its reinforcer.This mechanism delineates the limitations ofSkinner'sidea of adventitious reinforcement, revealing its efficacy only under stringent conditions – when the reinforcement's strengthening effect is nearly constant across instances and with very short intervals between reinforcers. However, these conditions rarely hold in reality: behavior following reinforcement tends to exhibit high variability, and superstitious behavior diminishes with extremely brief intervals between reinforcements.

Behavior therapy

Main article:Behavior therapy

Behavior therapyis a term referring to different types of therapies that treat mental health disorders. It identifies and helps change people's unhealthy behaviors or destructive behaviors through learning theory and conditioning.Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning, as well as counterconditioning are the basis for much of clinical behavior therapy, but also includes other techniques, including operant conditioning—or contingency management, and modeling (sometimes calledobservational learning). A frequently noted behavior therapy issystematic desensitization(graduated exposure therapy), which was first demonstrated by Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus.

Behavior analysis

Main article:Applied behavior analysis

Applied behavior analysis(ABA)—also called behavioral engineering—is a scientific discipline that applies the principles of behavior analysis to change behavior. ABA derived from much earlier research in theJournal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior,which was founded by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues atHarvard University.Nearly a decade after the study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" (1959) was published in that journal, which demonstrated how effective thetoken economywas in reinforcing more adaptive behavior for hospitalized patients withschizophreniaandintellectual disability,it led to researchers at theUniversity of Kansasto start theJournal of Applied Behavior Analysisin 1968.

Although ABA andbehavior modificationare similar behavior-change technologies in that the learning environment is modified through respondent and operant conditioning, behavior modification did not initially address the causes of the behavior (particularly, the environmental stimuli that occurred in the past), or investigate solutions that would otherwise prevent the behavior from reoccurring. As the evolution of ABA began to unfold in the mid-1980s, functional behavior assessments (FBAs) were developed to clarify the function of that behavior, so that it is accurately determined which differential reinforcement contingencies will be most effective and less likely foraversivepunishmentsto be administered.In addition, methodological behaviorism was the theory underpinning behavior modification since private events were not conceptualized during the 1970s and early 1980s, which contrasted from the radical behaviorism of behavior analysis. ABA—the term that replaced behavior modification—has emerged into a thriving field.

The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the United States also continues to develop.In the US, theAmerican Psychological Association(APA) features a subdivision for Behavior Analysis, titled APA Division 25: Behavior Analysis, which has been in existence since 1964, and the interests among behavior analysts today are wide-ranging, as indicated in a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within theAssociation for Behavior Analysis International(ABAI). Such interests include everything from animal behavior andenvironmental conservationto classroom instruction (such asdirect instructionandprecision teaching),verbal behavior,developmental disabilities and autism, clinical psychology (i.e.,forensic behavior analysis),behavioral medicine(i.e., behavioral gerontology, AIDS prevention, and fitness training), andconsumer behavior analysis.

The field ofapplied animal behavior—a sub-discipline of ABA that involves training animals—is regulated by theAnimal Behavior Society,and those who practice this technique are called applied animal behaviorists. Research on applied animal behavior has been frequently conducted in theApplied Animal Behaviour Sciencejournal since its founding in 1974.

ABA has also been particularly well-established in the area of developmental disabilities since the 1960s, but it was not until the late 1980s that individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders were beginning to grow so rapidly and groundbreaking research was being published that parent advocacy groups started demanding for services throughout the 1990s, which encouraged the formation of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, a credentialing program that certifies professionally trained behavior analysts on the national level to deliver such services. Nevertheless, the certification is applicable to all human services related to the rather broad field of behavior analysis (other than the treatment for autism), and the ABAI currently has 14 accredited MA and Ph.D. programs for comprehensive study in that field.

Early behavioral interventions (EBIs) based on ABA are empirically validated for teaching children with autism and have been proven as such for over the past five decades. Since the late 1990s and throughout the twenty-first century, early ABA interventions have also been identified as the treatment of choice by theUS Surgeon General,American Academy of Pediatrics,and USNational Research Council.

Discrete trial training—also called earlyintensivebehavioral intervention—is the traditional EBI technique implemented for thirty to forty hours per week that instructs a child to sit in a chair, imitate fine and gross motor behaviors, as well as learn eye contact and speech, which are taught throughshaping,modeling,andprompting,with such prompting being phased out as the child begins mastering each skill. When the child becomes more verbal from discrete trials, the table-based instructions are later discontinued, and another EBI procedure known as incidental teaching is introduced in the natural environment by having the child ask for desired items kept out of their direct access, as well as allowing the child to choose the play activities that will motivate them to engage with their facilitators before teaching the child how to interact with other children their own age.

A related term for incidental teaching, calledpivotal response treatment(PRT), refers to EBI procedures that exclusively entail twenty-five hours per week of naturalistic teaching (without initially using discrete trials). Current research is showing that there is a wide array of learning styles and that is the children withreceptive languagedelays who initially require discrete trials to acquire speech.

Organizational behavior management,which applies contingency management procedures to model and reinforce appropriate work behavior for employees in organizations, has developed a particularly strong following within ABA, as evidenced by the formation of the OBM Network andJournal of Organizational Behavior Management,which was rated the third-highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating.

Modern-dayclinical behavior analysishas also witnessed a massive resurgence in research, with the development ofrelational frame theory(RFT), which is described as an extension of verbal behavior and a "post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition."RFT also forms the empirical basis foracceptance and commitment therapy,a therapeutic approach to counseling often used to manage such conditions asanxietyandobesitythat consists of acceptance and commitment, value-based living, cognitive defusion,counterconditioning(mindfulness), and contingency management (positive reinforcement).Another evidence-based counseling technique derived from RFT is thefunctional analytic psychotherapyknown asbehavioral activationthat relies on theACL model—awareness, courage, and love—to reinforce more positive moods for those struggling withdepression.

Incentive-based contingency management (CM) is the standard of care for adults with substance-use disorders; it has also been shown to be highly effective for other addictions (i.e., obesity and gambling). Although it does not directly address the underlying causes of behavior, incentive-based CM is highly behavior analytic as it targets the function of the client's motivational behavior by relying on a preference assessment, which is an assessment procedure that allows the individual to select the preferred reinforcer (in this case, the monetary value of the voucher, or the use of other incentives, such as prizes). Another evidence-based CM intervention for substance abuse iscommunity reinforcement approach and family trainingthat uses FBAs and counterconditioning techniques—such as behavioral skills training and relapse prevention—to model and reinforce healthier lifestyle choices which promote self-management of abstinence from drugs, alcohol, or cigarette smoking during high-risk exposure when engaging with family members, friends, and co-workers.

While schoolwide positive behavior support consists of conducting assessments and atask analysisplan to differentially reinforce curricular supports that replace students' disruptive behavior in the classroom, pediatric feeding therapy incorporates a liquid chaser and chin feeder to shape proper eating behavior for children with feeding disorders.Habit reversal training,an approach firmly grounded in counterconditioning which uses contingency management procedures to reinforce alternative behavior, is currently the only empirically validated approach for managingtic disorders.

Some studies on exposure (desensitization) therapies—which refer to an array of interventions based on the respondent conditioning procedure known ashabituationand typically infuses counterconditioning procedures, such asmeditationandbreathing exercises—have recently been published in behavior analytic journals since the 1990s, as most other research is conducted from acognitive-behavior therapyframework. When based on a behavior analytic research standpoint, FBAs are implemented to precisely outline how to employ thefloodingform of desensitization (also called direct exposure therapy) for those who are unsuccessful in overcoming their specificphobiathroughsystematic desensitization(also known asgraduated exposure therapy). These studies also reveal that systematic desensitization is more effective for children if used in conjunction with shaping, which is further termedcontactdesensitization, but this comparison has yet to be substantiated with adults.

Other widely published behavior analytic journals includeBehavior Modification,The Behavior Analyst,Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions,Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science,The Analysis of Verbal Behavior,Behavior and Philosophy,Behavior and Social Issues,andThe Psychological Record.

Cognitive-behavior therapy

Main article:Cognitive-behavior therapy

Cognitive-behavior therapy(CBT) is a behavior therapy discipline that often overlaps considerably with the clinical behavior analysis subfield of ABA, but differs in that it initially incorporates cognitive restructuring and emotional regulation to alter a person's cognition and emotions. Various forms of CBT have been used to treat physically experienced symptoms that disrupt individuals' livelihood, which often stem from complex mental health disorders. Complications of many trauma-induced disorders result in lack of sleep and nightmares, with cognitive behavior therapy functioning as an intervention found to reduce the average number ofPTSDpatients suffering from related sleep disturbance.

A popularly noted counseling intervention known asdialectical behavior therapy(DBT) includes the use of a chain analysis, as well as cognitive restructuring, emotional regulation, distress tolerance, counterconditioning (mindfulness), and contingency management (positive reinforcement). DBT is quite similar to acceptance and commitment therapy, but contrasts in that it derives from a CBT framework. Although DBT is most widely researched for and empirically validated to reduce the risk of suicide in psychiatric patients withborderline personality disorder,it can often be applied effectively to other mental health conditions, such as substance abuse, as well as mood and eating disorders. A study on BPD was conducted, confirming DBT as a constructive therapeutic option for emotionally unregulated patients. Before DBT, participants with borderline personality disorder were shown images of highly emotional people and neuron activity in theamygdalawas recorded viafMRI;after 1 year of consistent dialectical behavior therapy, participants were re-tested, with fMRI capturing a decrease in amygdala hyperactivity (emotional activation) in response to the applied stimulus, exhibiting increases in emotional regulation capabilities.

Most research on exposure therapies (also called desensitization)—ranging fromeye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapytoexposure and response prevention—are conducted through a CBT framework in non-behavior analytic journals, and these enhanced exposure therapies are well-established in the research literature for treating phobic,post-traumatic stress,and other anxiety disorders (such asobsessive-compulsive disorder,or OCD).

Cognitive-based behavioral activation (BA)—the psychotherapeutic approach used for depression—is shown to be highly effective and is widely used in clinical practice. Some largerandomized control trialshave indicated that cognitive-based BA is as beneficial asantidepressantmedications but more efficacious than traditionalcognitive therapy.Other commonly used clinical treatments derived from behavioral learning principles that are often implemented through a CBT model include community reinforcement approach and family training, and habit reversal training for substance abuse and tics, respectively.

Related therapies

• Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)
• Applied animal behavior
• Behavioral activation
• Behavior modification
• Behavior therapy
• Biofeedback
• Clinical behavior analysis
• Contingency management
• Desensitization
• Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)
• Direct instruction
• Discrete trial training
• Exposure and response prevention
• Exposure therapy
• Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
• Flooding (psychology)
• Functional analytic psychotherapy (FAP)
• Habit reversal training
• Organizational behavior management
• Pivotal response treatment
• Positive behavior support
• Prolonged exposure therapy
• Social skills training
• Systematic desensitization

List of notable behaviorists

• Nathan Azrin
• Don Baer
• Albert Bandura
• Dermot Barnes-Holmes
• Vladimir Bekhterev
• Sidney W. Bijou
• Hans Eysenck
• Charles Ferster
• Jacque Fresco
• Edwin Ray Guthrie
• Betty Hart
• Steven C. Hayes
• Richard J. Herrnstein
• Clark L. Hull
• Brian Iwata
• Alan E. Kazdin
• Fred S. Keller
• Robert Koegel
• Robert (Bob) J. Kohlenberg
• Jon Levy
• Marsha M. Linehan
• Ole Ivar Lovaas
• F. Charles Mace
• Jack Michael
• Neal E. Miller
• O. Hobart Mowrer
• Charles E. Osgood
• Ivan Pavlov
• Murray Sidman
• B. F. Skinner
• Kenneth W. Spence
• J. E. R. Staddon
• Edward Thorndike
• Edward C. Tolman
• John B. Watson
• Montrose Wolf
• Joseph Wolpe

See also

• Behavior analysis of child development
• Behavioral change theories
• Behavioral economics
• Behavioral neuroscience
• Cognitive inhibition
• Dog behaviorist
• Ethology
• Functionalism (philosophy of mind)
• List of publications in psychology § Behaviorism
• Models of abnormality § Behavioural model
• Operationalization
• Pharmacology § Behavioral pharmacology
• Perceptual control theory
• Professional practice of behavior analysis

Further reading

• Baum, W.M. (1994)Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution.Blackwell.
• Cao, L.B. (2013)IJCAI2013 tutorial on behavior informatics and computing.
• Cao, L.B. (2014)Non-IIDness Learning in Behavioral and Social Data,The Computer Journal, 57(9): 1358–1370.
• Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957).Schedules of reinforcement.New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
• Malott, Richard W.(2008)Principles of Behavior.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Print.
• Mills, John A. (2000)Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology,Paperback Edition, New York University Press.
• Lattal, K.A. & Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum.
• Plotnik, Rod (2005).Introduction to psychology.Belmont, California: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.ISBN0-534-63407-9.OCLC56200267.
• Rachlin, H. (1991)Introduction to modern behaviorism.(3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
• Skinner, B.F.Beyond Freedom & Dignity,Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002.
• Skinner, B.F. (1945). "The operational analysis of psychological terms".Psychological Review.52(270–7): 290–4.doi:10.1037/h0062535.S2CID109928219.
• Skinner, B. F. (1953).Science and human behavior(PDF).New York: Macmillan.ISBN0-02-929040-6.OCLC191686.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 6 January 2012.
• Klein, P. (2013) "Explanation of Behavioural Psychotherapy Styles".[10].
• Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it.Psychological Review,20, 158–177. (on-line).
• Watson, J.B. (1919).Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist.
• Watson, J.B. (1924).Behaviorism.
• Zuriff, G.E. (1985).Behaviorism: A Conceptual ReconstructionArchived24 June 2011 at theWayback Machine,Columbia University Press.
• LeClaire, J.; Rushin, J.P (2010).Behavioral Analytics For Dummies.Wiley.ISBN978-0-470-58727-0.

External links

• Graham, George."Behaviorism".InZalta, Edward N.(ed.).Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• "Behaviorism".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.