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Benedictines

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This article is about monastic order of the Catholic Church. For similar monastic orders of the Eastern Orthodox Church, seeOrder of Saint Benedict (Orthodox).For similar monastic orders of the Anglican Communion, seeOrder of St. Benedict (Anglican).For other uses, seeBenedictine (disambiguation).
"O.S.B." redirects here. For other uses, seeOSB.
"Black Monks" redirects here. For the Black Friars, seeDominican Order.
Not to be confused withOSBM, the Order of St Basil the Great (Ukrainian Greek Catholic).

TheBenedictines,officially theOrder of Saint Benedict(Latin:Ordo Sancti Benedicti,abbreviated asO.S.B.orOSB), are a mainlycontemplativemonasticorderof theCatholic Churchfor men and for women who follow theRule of Saint Benedict.Initiated in 529 they are the oldest of all the religious orders in theLatin Church.[1]The male religious are also sometimes called theBlack Monks,especially in English speaking countries, after the colour of theirhabits.Not all Benedictines wear black, however, with some like theOlivetanswearing white.[2]They were founded byBenedict of Nursia,a 6th-century Italian monk who laid the foundations of Benedictine monasticism through the formulation of his Rule. Benedict's sister,Scholastica,possibly his twin, also became a religious from an early age, but chose to live as ahermit.They retained a close relationship until her death.[3]

Order of Saint Benedict
Ordo Sancti Benedicti
AbbreviationO.S.B.
Formation529;1495 years ago(529)
FounderBenedict of Nursia
Founded atSubiaco Abbey
TypeCatholic religious order
HeadquartersSant'Anselmo all'Aventino
Members
6,802 (3,419 priests) as of 2020
Gregory Polan, OSB
Main organ
Benedictine Confederation
Parent organization
Catholic Church
Websiteosb.org

Despite being called an order, the Benedictines do not operate under a single hierarchy but are instead organized as a collection of autonomous monasteries and convents, some known asabbeys.The order is represented internationally by theBenedictine Confederation,an organization set up in 1893 to represent the order's shared interests. They do not have asuperior generalormotherhousewith universal jurisdiction but elect anAbbot Primateto represent themselves to theVaticanand to the world.

Benedictinenunsare given the titleDamein preference toSister.[4]

Historical development

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Main article:Benedict of Nursia
Saint Benedict of Nursia (c. 480–543). Detail from afrescobyFra Angelico(c. 1400–1455) in theFriary of San MarcoFlorence.

The monastery atSubiacoin Italy, established byBenedict of Nursiac.529, was the first of the dozen monasteries he founded. He later founded theAbbey of Monte Cassino.There is no evidence, however, that he intended to found an order and theRule of Saint Benedictpresupposes the autonomy of each community. When Monte Cassino was sacked by the Lombards about the year 580, the monks fled to Rome, and it seems probable that this constituted an important factor in the diffusion of a knowledge of Benedictine monasticism.[5]

Copies of Benedict's Rule survived; around 594Pope Gregory Ispoke favorably of it. The rule is subsequently found in some monasteries in southern Gaul along with other rules used by abbots.[6]Gregory of Tourssays that atAinay Abbey,in the sixth century, the monks "followed the rules of Basil, Cassian, Caesarius, and other fathers, taking and using whatever seemed proper to the conditions of time and place", and doubtless the same liberty was taken with the Benedictine Rule when it reached them. In Gaul and Switzerland, it gradually supplemented the much stricter Irish or Celtic Rule introduced byColumbanusand others. In many monasteries it eventually entirely displaced the earlier codes.[5]

Abbey ofMonte Cassino

By the ninth century, however, the Benedictine had become the standard form of monastic life throughout the whole of Western Europe, excepting Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, where the Celtic observance still prevailed for another century or two.[5]Largely through the work ofBenedict of Aniane,it became the rule of choice for monasteries throughout the Carolingian empire.[7]

Monastic scriptoria flourished from the ninth through the twelfth centuries. Sacred Scripture was always at the heart of every monastic scriptorium. As a general rule those of the monks who possessed skill as writers made this their chief, if not their sole, active work. An anonymous writer of the ninth or tenth century speaks of six hours a day as the usual task of a scribe, which would absorb almost all the time available for active work in the day of a medieval monk.[8]

In the Middle Ages monasteries were often founded by the nobility.Cluny Abbeywas founded byWilliam I, Duke of Aquitainein 910. The abbey was noted for its strict adherence to the Rule of Saint Benedict. The abbot of Cluny was the superior of all the daughter houses, through appointed priors.[7]

One of the earliest reforms of Benedictine practice was that initiated in 980 byRomuald,who founded theCamaldolesecommunity.[9]TheCisterciansbranched off from the Benedictines in 1098; they are often called the "White monks".[10]

The dominance of the Benedictine monastic way of life began to decline towards the end of the twelfth century, which saw the rise of themendicantFranciscansand nomadicDominicans.[7]Benedictines by contrast, took a vow of "stability", which professed loyalty to a particular foundation in a particular location. Not being bound by location, the mendicants were better able to respond to an increasingly "urban" environment. This decline was further exacerbated by the practice of appointing a commendatory abbot, a lay person, appointed by a noble to oversee and to protect the assets of the monastery. Often, however, this resulted in the appropriation of the assets of monasteries at the expense of the community which they were intended to support.[11]

Austria & Germany

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MelkAbbey

Saint Blaise Abbeyin theBlack ForestofBaden-Württembergis believed to have been founded around the latter part of the tenth century. Between 1070 and 1073 there seem to have been contacts between St. Blaise and the CluniacAbbey of Fruttuariain Italy, which led to St. Blaise following the Fruttuarian reforms. TheEmpress Agneswas a patron of Fruttuaria, and retired there in 1065 before moving to Rome. The Empress was instrumental in introducing Fruttuaria's Benedictine customs, as practiced at Cluny, toSaint Blaise AbbeyinBaden-Württemberg.[12]Other houses either reformed by, or founded as priories of, St. Blasien wereMuri Abbey(1082),Ochsenhausen Abbey(1093),Göttweig Abbey(1094),Stein am RheinAbbey (before 1123) andPrüm Abbey(1132). It also had significant influence on the abbeys ofAlpirsbach(1099),Ettenheimmünster (1124) andSulzburg(c. 1125), and the priories of Weitenau (now part ofSteinen,c. 1100),Bürgel(before 1130) andSitzenkirch(c. 1130).

France

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Abbatiale Saint-Benoit,southern aspect as in 1893
Basilica of Saint-Martin d'Ainay

Fleury AbbeyinSaint-Benoît-sur-Loire,Loiretwas founded in about 640.[13]It is one of the most celebrated Benedictine monasteries of Western Europe, and possesses the relics of St. Benedict. Like many Benedictine abbeys it was located on the banks of a river, here theLoire.[14]Ainey Abbey is a ninth century foundation on theLyonpeninsula. In the twelfth century on the current site there was aromanesque monastery,subsequently rebuilt.

The seventeenth century saw a number of Benedictine foundations for women, some dedicated to the indigent to save them from a life of exploitation, others dedicated to thePerpetual Adorationof theBlessed Sacramentsuch as the one established byCatherine de Bar(1614–1698).[15]In 1688 Dame Mechtilde de Bar assistedMarie Casimire Louise de La Grange d'Arquien,queen consort of Poland, to establish a Benedictine foundation inWarsaw.[16]

Abbeys were among the institutions of the Catholic Church swept away during theFrench Revolution.Monasteries and convents were again allowed to form in the 19th century under theBourbon Restoration.Later that century, under theThird French Republic,laws were enacted preventing religious teaching. The original intent was to allow secular schools. Thus in 1880 and 1882, Benedictine teaching monks were effectively exiled; this was not completed until 1901.[17][18][19][20]

In 1898 Marie-Adèle Garnier, in religion, Mother Marie de Saint-Pierre, founded inMontmartre(Mount of the Martyr),Parisa Benedictine house.[21]However, theWaldeck-Rousseau'sLaw of Associations,passed in 1901, placed severe restrictions on religious bodies which were obliged to leave France. Garnier and her community relocated to another place associated with executions, this time it was inLondon,near the site ofTyburn treewhere 105 Catholic martyrs—includingSaint Oliver PlunkettandSaint Edmund Campionhad been executed during theEnglish Reformation.A stone's throw fromMarble Arch,theTyburn Conventis now the Mother House of the Congregation.[22]

Poland & Lithuania

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Benedictine church inWarsaw's New Town, depicted byBellotto

Benedictines are thought to have arrived in theKingdom of Polandin the 11th-century. One of the earliest foundations isTyniec Abbeyon a promontory by theVistulariver. The Tyniec monks led the translation of the Bible into Polish vernacular. Other surviving Benedictine houses can be found inStary Kraków Village,Biskupów,Lubiń.Older foundations are inMogilno,Trzemeszno,Łęczyca,Łysa Góraand inOpactwo,among others. In theMiddle Agesthe city ofPłock,also on the Vistula, had a successful monastery, which played a significant role in the local economy. In the 18th-century benedictine convents were opened for women, notably in Warsaw's New Town.[citation needed]

A 15th-century Benedictine foundation can be found inSenieji Trakai,a village in EasternLithuania.

Switzerland

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Kloster Rheinauwas a Benedictine monastery in Rheinau in the Canton of Zürich, Switzerland, founded in about 778.[23]The abbey ofOur Lady of the Angelswas founded in 1120.[24]

United Kingdom

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TheEnglish Benedictine Congregationis the oldest of the nineteen Benedictine congregations. Through the influence ofWilfrid,Benedict Biscop,andDunstan,[25]the Benedictine Rule spread rapidly, and in the North it was adopted in most of the monasteries that had been founded by the Celtic missionaries from Iona. Many of the episcopal sees of England were founded and governed by the Benedictines, and no fewer than nine of the old cathedrals were served by the black monks of the priories attached to them.[5]Monasteries served as hospitals and places of refuge for the weak and homeless. The monks studied the healing properties of plants and minerals to alleviate the sufferings of the sick.[26]

During theEnglish Reformation,allmonasteries were dissolvedand their lands confiscated by the Crown, forcing those who wished to continue in the monastic life to flee into exile on the Continent. During the 19th century English members of these communities were able to return to England.[citation needed]

The two sides of a Saint Benedict medal

St. Mildred's Priory,on theIsle of Thanet,Kent,was built in 1027 on the site of an abbey founded in 670 by the daughter of the first ChristianKing of Kent.Currently the priory is home to a community of Benedictine nuns. Five of the most notable English abbeys are the Basilica of St Gregory the Great at Downside, commonly known asDownside Abbey,The Abbey of St Edmund, King and Martyr commonly known asDouai Abbeyin Upper Woolhampton, Reading, Berkshire,Ealing Abbeyin Ealing, West London, andWorth Abbey.[27][28]Prinknash Abbey,used by Henry VIII as a hunting lodge, was officially returned to the Benedictines four hundred years later, in 1928. During the next few years, so-called Prinknash Park was used as a home until it was returned to the order.[29]

St. Lawrence's Abbeyin Ampleforth, Yorkshire was founded in 1802. In 1955, Ampleforth set up a daughter house, a priory at St. Louis, Missouri which became independent in 1973 and becameSaint Louis Abbeyin its own right in 1989.[30]

Interior ofStanbrook AbbeyChurch, Wass, Yorkshire

As of 2015, the English Congregation consists of three abbeys of nuns and ten abbeys of monks. Members of the congregation are found in England, Wales, the United States of America, Peru and Zimbabwe.[31]

In England there are also houses of theSubiaco Cassinese Congregation:Farnborough, Prinknash, and Chilworth: theSolesmes Congregation,Quarr and St Cecilia's on the Isle of Wight, as well as a diocesan monastery following the Rule of Saint Benedict: The Community of Our Lady of Glastonbury.[32]

Since theOxford Movement,there has also been a modest flourishing of Benedictine monasticism in theAnglican Churchand Protestant Churches. Anglican Benedictine Abbots are invited guests of the Benedictine Abbot Primate in Rome at Abbatial gatherings at Sant'Anselmo.[33]

In 1168 local Benedictine monks instigated the anti-semiticblood libelofHarold of Gloucesteras a template for explaining child deaths. According to historian Joe Hillaby, the blood libel of Harold was crucially important because for the first time an unexplained child death occurring near the Easter festival was arbitrarily linked to Jews in the vicinity by local Christian churchmen: "they established a pattern quickly taken up elsewhere. Within three years the first ritual murder charge was made in France."[34]

Monastic libraries in England

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The forty-eighth Rule of Saint Benedict prescribes extensive and habitual "holy reading" for the brethren.[35]Three primary types of reading were done by the monks in medieval times. Monks would read privately during their personal time, as well as publicly during services and at mealtimes. In addition to these three mentioned in the Rule, monks would also read in the infirmary. Monasteries were thriving centers of education, with monks and nuns actively encouraged to learn and pray according to theBenedictine Rule.Rule 38 states that 'these brothers' meals should usually be accompanied by reading, and that they were to eat and drink in silence while one read out loud.

Benedictine monks were not allowed worldly possessions, thus necessitating the preservation and collection of sacred texts in monastic libraries for communal use.[36]For the sake of convenience, the books in the monastery were housed in a few different places, namely thesacristy,which contained books for the choir and other liturgical books, therectory,which housed books for public reading such as sermons and lives of the saints, and thelibrary,which contained the largest collection of books and was typically in the cloister.

The first record of a monastic library in England is inCanterbury.To assist withAugustine of Canterbury'sEnglish mission,PopeGregory the Greatgave him nine books which included the Gregorian Bible in two volumes, the Psalter of Augustine, two copies of theGospels,twomartyrologies,an Exposition of the Gospels and Epistles, and aPsalter.[37]: 23–25 Theodore of Tarsusbrought Greek books to Canterbury more than seventy years later, when he founded a school for the study of Greek.[37]: 26 

United States

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The first Benedictine to live in the United States was Pierre-Joseph Didier. He came to the United States in 1790 fromParisand served in the Ohio and St. Louis areas until his death. The first actual Benedictine monastery founded wasSaint Vincent Archabbey,located inLatrobe, Pennsylvania.It was founded in 1832 byBoniface Wimmer,a German monk, who sought to serve German immigrants in America. In 1856, Wimmer started to lay the foundations forSt. John's Abbeyin Minnesota. In 1876, Herman Wolfe, of Saint Vincent Archabbey establishedBelmont Abbeyin North Carolina.[38]By the time of his death in 1887, Wimmer had sent Benedictine monks to Kansas, New Jersey, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Illinois, and Colorado.[39]

Wimmer also asked for Benedictinesistersto be sent to America by St. Walburg Convent inEichstätt,Bavaria. In 1852,Sister Benedicta Rieppand two other sisters foundedSt. Marys, Pennsylvania.Soon they would send sisters to Michigan, New Jersey, and Minnesota.[39]

By 1854, Swiss monks began to arrive and foundedSt. Meinrad Abbeyin Indiana, and they soon spread to Arkansas and Louisiana. They were soon followed by Swiss sisters.[39]

There are now over 100 Benedictine houses across America. Most Benedictine houses are part of one of four large Congregations: American-Cassinese, Swiss-American, St. Scholastica, and St. Benedict. The congregations mostly are made up of monasteries that share the same lineage. For instance the American-Cassinese congregation included the 22 monasteries descended from Boniface Wimmer.[40]

Benedictine vows and life

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Main article:Rule of Saint Benedict

A sense of community has been the defining characteristic of the order since the beginning.[41]To that end, section 17 in chapter 58 of theRule of Saint Benedictspecifies the solemn vows candidates joining a Benedictine community are required to make: a vow of stability, to remain in the same community), and to adopt a "conversion of habits", in Latin,conversatio morumand obedience to the community's superior.[42]The "Benedictine vows" are equivalent to theevangelical counselsaccepted by all candidates entering areligious order.The interpretation ofconversatio morumunderstood as "conversion of the habits of life" has generally been replaced by notions such as adoption of a monastic manner of life, drawing on theVulgate's use ofconversatioas indicating "citizenship" or "local customs", seePhilippians3:20. The Rule enjoins monks and nuns "to live in this place as a religious, in obedience to its rule and to the abbot or abbess."

Benedictine abbots and abbesses have jurisdiction over theirabbeyand thus canonical authority over the monks or nuns who are resident. This authority includes the power to assign duties, to decide which books may or may not be read, to regulate comings and goings, and to punish and toexcommunicate,in the sense of an enforced isolation from the monastic community.

A tight communal timetable – thehorarium– is meant to ensure that the time given by God is not wasted but used in God's service, whether for prayer, work, meals, spiritual reading or sleep. The order's motto isOra et Labora"pray and work".

Although Benedictines do not take a vow of silence, hours of strict silence are set, and at other times silence is maintained as much as is practically possible. Social conversations tend to be limited to communal recreation times. Such details, like other aspects of the daily routine of a Benedictine house are left to the discretion of the superior, and are set out in itscustomary,the code adopted by a particular Benedictine house by adapting the Rule to local conditions.[43]

According to the norms of the1983 Code of Canon Law,a Benedictine abbey is a "religious institute"and its members therefore participate inconsecrated lifewhich Canon 588 §1 explains is intrinsically "neither clerical nor lay." Males in consecrated life, however, may be ordained.

Benedictines' rules contain a reference toritual purification,which is inspired by Benedict's encouragement ofbathing.[44]Benedictine monks have played a role in the development and promotion ofspas.[45]

Organization

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Benedictine monasticism differs from other Christian religious orders in that as congregations sometimes with several houses, some of them in other countries, they are not bound into a unified religious order headed by a "Superior General". Each Benedictine congregation is autonomous and governed by an abbot or abbess.[46]

The autonomous houses are characterised by their chosencharismor specific dedication to a particular devotion. For example, In 1313Bernardo Tolomeiestablished theOrder of Our Lady of Mount Olivet.The community adopted the Rule of Saint Benedict and received canonical approval in 1344. The Olivetans are part of the Benedictine Confederation.[47]Other specialisms, such asGregorian chantas atSolesmesin France, orPerpetual Adorationof theHoly Sacramenthave been adopted by different houses, as at the Warsaw Convent, or theAdorers of the Sacred Heart of Montmartreat Tyburn Convent in London. Other houses have dedicated themselves to books, reading, writing and printing them as atStanbrook Abbeyin England. Others still are associated with the places where they were founded or their founders centuries ago, henceCassinese,Subiaco,CamaldoleseorSylvestrines.

All Benedictine houses became federated in theBenedictine Confederationbrought into existence byPope Leo XIII'sApostolic Brief"Summum semper"on 12 July 1893. Pope Leo also established the office ofAbbot Primateas the abbot elected to represent this Confederation at theVaticanand to the world. The headquarters of the Benedictine Confederation and the Abbot Primate is thePrimatial Abbey of Sant'Anselmobuilt by Pope Leo XIII inRome.[48][49]

Other orders

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The Rule of Saint Benedict is also used by a number of religious orders that began as reforms of the Benedictine tradition such as theCisterciansandTrappists.[citation needed]These groups are separate congregations and not members of theBenedictine Confederation.

Although Benedictines are traditionally Catholic, there are also other communities that follow the Rule of Saint Benedict. For example, of an estimated 2,400 celibate Anglican religious (1,080 men and 1,320 women) in theAnglican Communionas a whole, some have adopted the Rule of Benedict. Likewise, such communities can be found inEastern Orthodox Church,[50][51]andLutheran Church.[52]

Notable Benedictines

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Saint Boniface(c. 680 – 750),Pope Gregory I(c. 540 – 604, Pope 590–604),Adalbert of Egmond(8th century) and priest Jeroen van Noordwijk, depicted in a 1529 painting by Jan Joostsz van Hillegom currently on display at theFrans Hals Museum
Late Gothicsculpture ofRupert of Salzburg(c. 660 – 710)
Bernard of Clairvaux(1090–1153) featured in a 13th-century illuminated manuscript
ACarolingian manuscript,c. 840, depictingRabanus Maurus(left), supported byAlcuin(middle), presenting his work toOtgar of Mainz
Self portrait ofMatthew Paris(c. 1200– 59)
Abbot Suger(c. 1081– 1135) in a medieval stained-glass window
Dom Pérignon

Male Saints and Blesseds

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Popes

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Founders of abbeys and congregations and prominent reformers

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St Erkenwald, Saxon Prince, bishop and saint known as the "Light of London"
Abbot ofMontserrat

Scholars, historians, and spiritual writers

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Maurists

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Members of theCongregation of Saint Maur,a prerevolutionary Frenchcongregationof Benedictines known for their scholarship:

Bishops and martyrs

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Twentieth century

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Cardinal Schuster

Benedictine Dames

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Dame Catherine Gascoigne
Adèle Garnier

Oblates

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SaintOliver Plunkett,archbishop and martyr

BenedictineOblatesendeavor to embrace the spirit of the Benedictine vow in their own life in the world.[54]Oblates are affiliated with a particular monastery.

See also

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References

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  1. ^https:// newadvent.org/cathen/02443a.htmAlmond, Joseph Cuthbert. "Order of St Benedict" The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 16 July 2024
  2. ^Almond, Joseph Cuthbert. "Olivetans." The Catholic EncyclopediaVol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 10 April 2019
  3. ^Mary Richard Boo OSB and Joan M. Braun OSB,Emerging from the Shadows: St. Scholastica,inMedieval Women Monastics,(Miriam Schmitt OSB and Linda Kulzer OSB, eds) The Liturgical Press, Collegeville, 1996ISBN9780814622926
  4. ^Stanford, P. (2003)."Dame Felicitas Corrigan".UK Guardian.Retrieved5 October2023.Dame Felicitas - the title Dame is given to English Benedictine nuns in preference to Sister...
  5. ^abcdefghijklAlston, Cyprian (1907)."Benedictine Order".In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  6. ^Oliver OSB, Richard. "A Brief History of the Benedictine Order", OSB.org
  7. ^abc"The Benedictines: An Introduction by Abbot Primate Jerome Theisen OSB. Liturgical Press".osb.org.Archived fromthe originalon 26 March 2023.Retrieved19 July2021.
  8. ^Huddleston, Gilbert Roger (1912)."Scriptorium".In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 13. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  9. ^One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Butler, Edward Cuthbert(1911). "Camaldulians".InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 79–80.
  10. ^Butler, Edward Cuthbert(1911)."Cistercians".InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 393–395.
  11. ^One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Ott, Michael (1908). "Commendatory Abbot".In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  12. ^Robinson, I. S.,Henry IV of Germany 1056–1106,Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 126ISBN9780521545907
  13. ^Butler, Alban (1845).The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints, Volume 3.Dublin. p. 218.
  14. ^"Abbaye de Fleury".Archived fromthe originalon 16 August 2010.Retrieved19 June2010.
  15. ^"Mother Mectilde De Bar", Silverstream Priory
  16. ^"Fundacja w Warszawie".mechtylda.info(in Polish). 18 December 2013.Retrieved2 September2020.
  17. ^"History I".st-benoit-du-lac. Archived fromthe originalon 30 March 2009.
  18. ^Chadwick, Owen (1998).A History of the Popes, 1830–1914.Clarendon Press. pp. 495–.ISBN978-0-19-826922-9.
  19. ^Wootton and Fishbourne.Ryde.shalfleet.net (4 August 2013). Retrieved on 7 September 2013.
  20. ^RGM 2005 OCSO.Citeaux.net (28 February 1947). Retrieved on 7 September 2013.
  21. ^Tyburn FoundressArchived5 February 2012 at theWayback Machineat Tyburn Convent official website. Retrieved 23 February 2012
  22. ^Tyburn MartyrsArchived21 January 2012 at theWayback Machineat Tyburn Convent official website. Retrieved 23 February 2012
  23. ^Clark, James Midgley.The Abbey of St. Gall as a Centre of Literature & Art,Chapter XII, CUP Archive, 1926, 1926
  24. ^Christen, Beat (April 2020)."Auf den Tag genau vor 900 Jahren wurde das Kloster Engelberg gegründet".Luzerner Zeitung(in German).Retrieved18 October2022.
  25. ^Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A., eds. (1997). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press, US. p. 514
  26. ^Dom Bruno Hicks (2009)."The Benedictines".Archived fromthe originalon 5 November 2017.Retrieved15 February2015.
  27. ^Colin Battell, OSB (2 December 2006). "Spirituality on the beach".The Tablet.pp. 18–19.The late CardinalBasil Humewas Abbot of Ampleforth Abbey before being appointed Archbishop of Westminster.
  28. ^Martin, Christopher (2007).A Glimpse of Heaven: Catholic Churches in England and Wales.London: English Heritage.Examines the abbeys rebuilt after 1850 (by benefactors among the Catholic aristocracy and recusant squirearchy), mainly Benedictine but including a Cistercian Abbey at Mount St. Bernard (by Pugin) and a Carthusian Charterhouse in Sussex. There is a review of book by Richard Lethbridge "Monuments to Catholic confidence,"The Tablet10 February 2007, 27.
  29. ^Mian Ridge (12 November 2005). "Prinknash monks downsize".The Tablet.p. 34.
  30. ^"History".Saint Louis Abbey.
  31. ^"History – The English Benedictine Congregation".benedictines.org.uk.Archived fromthe originalon 11 February 2015.Retrieved11 February2015.
  32. ^"HOME | Glastonbury Monastery | Somerset".Mysite.
  33. ^Rees, Daniel (2000). "Anglican Monasticism". In Johnston, William (ed.).Encyclopedia of Monasticism.New York: Fitzroy Dearborn Publisher. p. 29.ISBN1-57958-090-4.
  34. ^Hillaby, Joe (1994–1996). "The ritual-child-murder accusation: its dissemination and Harold of Gloucester".Jewish Historical Studies.34:69–109.JSTOR29779954.
  35. ^Kaur, Nirmal (2005).History of Education.Mittal Publications. p. 44.ISBN81-7099-984-7.
  36. ^Wormald, Francis; Wright, C.E. (1958).The English Library before 1700.London: The Athlone Press. p. 15 – via University of London.
  37. ^abSavage, Ernest (1912).Old English Libraries.London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.
  38. ^"'History of Belmont Abbey', Belmont Abbey, North Carolina ".Archived fromthe originalon 16 April 2018.Retrieved4 November2017.
  39. ^abcSt Benedict(1981).RB 1980: the rule of St. Benedict in Latin and English with notes.Translated by Fry, Timothy. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press. pp. 136–141.ISBN0-8146-1211-3.OL4255653M.
  40. ^"The Benedictine Congregations and Federations of North America in the Benedictine Confederation".osb.org.Archived fromthe originalon 3 September 2017.Retrieved24 November2015.
  41. ^"The Defining Features of the Benedictine Order".Durham World Heritage Site.
  42. ^"Order of Saint Benedict".Saint John's Abbey.
  43. ^Customary of Mount Michael Abbey
  44. ^Hembry, Phyllis (1990).The English Spa, 1560–1815: A Social History.Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press.ISBN9780838633915.
  45. ^Bradley, Ian (2012).Water: A Spiritual History.Bloomsbury Publishing.ISBN9781441167675.
  46. ^"Benedictine Abbeys and Priories in the U.S. | Encyclopedia".encyclopedia.Retrieved25 April2022.
  47. ^"Directory of OSB Congregations".OSB DOT ORG.Retrieved25 April2022.
  48. ^"The Benedictine Confederation".OSB.org.Retrieved24 October2018.
  49. ^"St Benedict & The Order | Benedictine Monks".
  50. ^Simpson, Fr. Benedict (2016)."Directory of Parishes".The Western Rite Communities of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia.Retrieved26 August2019.
  51. ^"Holy Monasteries of Our Lady and Saint Laurence Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, Western Rite Vicariate".The Benedictine Fellowship of Saint Laurence.Archived fromthe originalon 4 April 2018.Retrieved10 March2018.
  52. ^"Who we are…".Saint Augustine's House.2018.Retrieved26 August2019.
  53. ^"Bishop Gervas Placidus Nkalanga, OSB, of Hanga Abbey Celebrates 50 Years as a Bishop".Hanga News.9 June 2011.
  54. ^"928: Secular institutes".Catechism of the Catholic Church – Part 1 Section 2 Chapter 3 Article 9 Paragraph 4.Retrieved26 August2019.

Further reading

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  • DomColumba Marmion,Christ the Ideal of the Monk – Spiritual Conferences on the Monastic and Religious Life(Engl. edition London 1926, trsl. from the French by a nun of Tyburn Convent).
  • Mariano Dell'Omo,Storia del monachesimo occidentale dal medioevo all'età contemporanea. Il carisma di san Benedetto tra VI e XX secolo.Jaca Book, Milano 2011.ISBN978-88-16-30493-2
  • "Abbeys.v.Benedictine ".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 1 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 13.
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