Bengal(/bɛnˈɡɔːl/ben-GAWL)[1][2][a]is ahistorical geographical,ethnolinguisticand cultural term referring to a region in theeastern partof theIndian subcontinentat the apex of theBay of Bengal.The region of Bengal proper is divided between the modern-day sovereign nation ofBangladeshand theIndian statesofWest Bengal,plains ofTripura[3],Assam'sBarak Valley[4][5]and eastern part ofBihar[6][7]andJharkhand.[8][9][10]
Bengal
| |
|---|---|
Region | |
 Bengal region in Asia | |
| Continent | Asia |
| Countries |  Bangladesh India(West Bengal,and parts ofAssam) |
| Iron Age India,Vedic India,Suhma kingdom,Pundravardhana,Vanga kingdom | 1500 – c. 500 BCE |
| Gangaridai,Nanda Empire | 500 – c. 350 BCE |
| Maurya Empire | 4th century – 2nd century BCE |
| Shunga Empire,Gupta Empire,Later Gupta dynasty | 185–75 BCE, 3rd century CE – 543 CE, 6th–7th century |
| Gauda Kingdom | 590–633 CE |
| Pala Empire,Sena Empire,Deva Empire | 8th–11th century, 11th–12th century, 12th–13th century |
| Delhi Sultanate,Bengal Sultanate | 1204–1339 CE, 1338–1576 CE |
| Bengal Subah(Mughal Empire),Nawabs of Bengal | 1565–1717 CE, 1717–1765 CE |
| Bengal Presidency(British India) | 1765–1947 CE |
| Divisions | |
| Area | |
• Total | 239,021 km2(92,287 sq mi) |
| Population (2022) | |
• Total | 273,610,384 |
| • Density | 1,144/km2(2,960/sq mi) |
| Demonym(s) | Bengali |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30,UTC+6:00 |
| InternetTLD | .bd,.in(English) .বাংলা,.ভারত(Bengali) |
| Largest urban areas | |
The ancientVanga Kingdomis widely regarded as the namesake of the Bengal region.[11]TheBengali calendardates back to the reign ofShashankain the 7th century CE. ThePala Empirewas founded in Bengal during the 8th century. TheSena dynastyandDeva dynastyruled between the 11th and 13th centuries. By the 14th century, Bengal was absorbed byMuslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent.An independentBengal Sultanatewas formed and became the eastern frontier of theIslamic world.[12][13][14]During this period, Bengal's rule and influence spread to Assam,Arakan,Tripura, Bihar, and Orissa.[15][16]Bengal Subahlater emerged as a prosperous part of theMughal Empire.
The last independentNawab of Bengalwas defeated in 1757 at theBattle of Plasseyby theEast India Company.The company'sBengal Presidencygrew into the largest administrative unit ofBritish IndiawithCalcuttaas the capital of both Bengal and India until 1911. As a result of thefirst partition of Bengal,a short-lived province calledEastern Bengal and Assamexisted between 1905 and 1911 with its capital in the former Mughal capitalDhaka.Following theSylhet referendumand votes by theBengal Legislative CouncilandBengal Legislative Assembly,the region was againdivided along religious lines in 1947.
Bengali culture, particularly itsliterature,music,artand cinema, are well known in South Asia and beyond. The region is also notable for its economic and social scientists, which includes severalNobel laureates.Once home to the city with the highest per capita income level in British India,[17]the region is today a leader in South Asia in terms ofgender parity,thegender pay gapand other indices ofhuman development.[18][19][20][21][22]
Etymology
The name ofBengalis derived from the ancient kingdom ofVanga(pronounced Bôngô),[23][24]the earliest records of which date back to theMahabharataepic in thefirst millennium BCE.[24]The reference to 'Vangalam' is present in an inscription in theBrihadisvara TempleatThanjavur,which is one of the oldest references to Bengal.[25]The termVangaladesais used to describe the region in 11th-century South Indian records.[26][27][28]The modern termBanglais prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of theSultanate of Bengal,whose first rulerShamsuddin Ilyas Shahwas known as theShahof Bangala.[29]ThePortuguesereferred to the region asBengalain theAge of Discovery.[30]
History
Antiquity
Neolithicsites have been found in several parts of the region.[31]In the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities dotted the region. By the eleventh century BCE, people in Bengal lived in systematically aligned homes, produced copper objects, and crafted black and red pottery. Remnants ofCopper Agesettlements are located in the region.[32]At the advent of theIron Age,people in Bengal adopted iron-based weapons, tools and irrigation equipment.[33]From 600 BCE, the second wave of urbanisation engulfed the north Indian subcontinent as part of theNorthern Black Polished Wareculture. Ancient archaeological sites and cities inDihar,Pandu Rajar Dhibi,Mahasthangarh,ChandraketugarhandWari-Bateshwaremerged. TheGanges,BrahmaputraandMeghnarivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation.[34]Estuarieson theBay of Bengalallowed formaritimetrade with distant lands in Southeast Asia and elsewhere.[34]
The ancient geopolitical divisions of Bengal includedVarendra,Suhma,Anga,Vanga,SamatataandHarikela.These regions were often independent or under the rule of larger empires. The MahasthanBrahmiInscription indicates that Bengal was ruled by theMauryan Empirein the 3rd century BCE.[35]The inscription was an administrative order instructing relief for a distressed segment of the population.[35]Punch-marked coinsfound in the region indicate thatcoinswere used as currency during the Iron Age.[36][37]The namesake of Bengal is the ancient Vanga Kingdom which was reputed as a naval power with overseas colonies. A prince from Bengal namedVijayafounded the first kingdom inSri Lanka.The two most prominent pan-Indian empires of this period included the Mauryans and theGupta Empire.The region was a centre of artistic, political, social, spiritual and scientific thinking, including the invention ofchess,Indian numerals,and the concept ofzero.[38]
The region was known to the ancientGreeksandRomansasGangaridai.[39]The Greek ambassadorMegastheneschronicled its military strength and dominance of theGanges delta.The invasion army ofAlexander the Greatwas deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in 325 BCE, including acavalryofwar elephants.Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with Bengal. 1st century Roman coins with images ofHerculeswere found in the region and point to trade links withRoman Egyptthrough theRed Sea.[40]TheWari-Bateshwar ruinsare believed to be the emporium (trading centre) of Sounagoura mentioned by Roman geographerClaudius Ptolemy.[41][42]A Roman amphora was found inPurba Medinipur districtof West Bengal which was made inAelana(present-day Aqaba,Jordan) between the 4th and 7th centuries AD.[43]
The first unified Bengali polity can be traced to the reign ofShashanka.The origins of theBengali calendarcan be traced to his reign. Shashanka founded theGauda Kingdom.After Shashanka's death, Bengal experienced a period of civil war known as Matsyanyayam.[44]The ancient city ofGaudalater gave birth to thePala Empire.The first Pala emperorGopala Iwas chosen by an assembly of chieftains in Gauda. The Pala kingdom grew into one of the largest empires in the Indian subcontinent. The Pala period saw advances in linguistics, sculpture, painting, and education. The empire achieved its greatest territorial extent underDharmapalaandDevapala.The Palas vied for control ofKannaujwith the rivalGurjara-PratiharaandRashtrakutadynasties. Pala influence also extended toTibetandSumatradue to the travels and preachings ofAtisa.The university ofNalandawas established by the Palas. They also built theSomapura Mahavihara,which was the largest monastic institution in the subcontinent. The rule of the Palas eventually disintegrated. TheChandra dynastyruled southeastern Bengal andArakan.TheVarman dynastyruled parts of northeastern Bengal andAssam.TheSena dynastyemerged as the main successor of the Palas by the 11th century. The Senas were a resurgent Hindu dynasty which ruled much of Bengal. The smallerDeva dynastyalso ruled parts of the region. Ancient Chinese visitors likeXuanzangprovided elaborate accounts of Bengal's cities and monastic institutions.[45]
Muslim trade with Bengal flourished after the fall of theSasanian Empireand theArabtakeover of Persian trade routes. Much of this trade occurred with southeastern Bengal in areas east of theMeghna River.Bengal was probably used as a transit route to China by the earliest Muslims.Abbasidcoins have been discovered in the archaeological ruins ofPaharpurandMainamati.[46]A collection of Sasanian,Umayyadand Abbasid coins are preserved in theBangladesh National Museum.[47]
Sultanate period
In 1204, theGhuridgeneralMuhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khaljibegan the Islamic conquest of Bengal.[48]The fall of Lakhnauti was recounted by historians circa 1243. Lakhnauti was the capital of the Sena dynasty. According to historical accounts, Ghurid cavalry swept across the Gangetic plains towards Bengal. They entered the Bengali capital disguised as horse traders. Once inside the royal compound, Bakhtiyar and his horsemen swiftly overpowered the guards of the Sena king who had just sat down to eat a meal. The king then hastily fled to the forest with his followers.[49]The overthrow of the Sena king has been described as a coup d'état, which "inaugurated an era, lasting over five centuries, during which most of Bengal was dominated by rulers professing the Islamic faith. In itself this was not exceptional, since from about this time until the eighteenth century, Muslim sovereigns ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent. What was exceptional, however, was that among India's interior provinces only in Bengal—a region approximately the size of England and Scotland combined—did a majority of the indigenous population adopt the religion of the ruling class, Islam".[49]Bengal became a province of theDelhi Sultanate.A coin featuring a horseman was issued to celebrate the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti with inscriptions in Sanskrit and Arabic. An abortiveIslamic invasion of Tibetwas also mounted by Bakhtiyar. Bengal was under the formal rule of the Delhi Sultanate for approximately 150 years. Delhi struggled to consolidate control over Bengal. Rebel governors often sought to assert autonomy or independence. SultanIltutmishre-established control over Bengal in 1225 after suppressing the rebels. Due to the considerable overland distance, Delhi's authority in Bengal was relatively weak. It was left to local governors to expand territory and bring new areas under Muslim rule, such as through theConquest of Sylhetin 1303.
In 1338, new rebellions sprung up in Bengal's three main towns. Governors in Lakhnauti,SatgaonandSonargaondeclared independence from Delhi. This allowed the ruler of Sonargaon,Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah,to annexeChittagongto the Islamic administration. By 1352, the ruler of Satgaon,Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah,unified the region into an independent state. Ilyas Shah established his capital inPandua.[50]The new breakaway state emerged as theBengal Sultanate,which developed into a territorial, mercantile and maritime empire. At the time, theIslamic worldstretched fromMuslim Spainin the west to Bengal in the east.
The initial raids of Ilyas Shah saw the first Muslim army enterNepaland stretched fromVaranasiin the west toOrissain the south toAssamin the east.[51]The Delhi army continued to fend off the new Bengali army. TheBengal-Delhi Warended in 1359 when Delhi recognised the independence of Bengal. Ilyas Shah's sonSikandar Shahdefeated Delhi SultanFiruz Shah Tughluqduring the Siege of Ekdala Fort. A subsequent peace treaty recognised Bengal's independence and Sikandar Shah was gifted a golden crown by the Sultan of Delhi.[52]The ruler ofArakansought refuge in Bengal during the reign ofGhiyasuddin Azam Shah.Jalaluddin Muhammad Shahlater helped the Arakanese king to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming atributary stateof the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali influence in Arakan persisted for 300 years.[53]Bengal also helped the king of Tripura to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state. The ruler of theJaunpur Sultanatealso sought refuge in Bengal.[54]Thevassal statesof Bengal included Arakan, Tripura,ChandradwipandPratapgarh.At its peak, the Bengal Sultanate's territory included parts of Arakan, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and Tripura.[15]The Bengal Sultanate experienced its greatest military success underAlauddin Hussain Shah,who was proclaimed as the conqueror of Assam after his forces led byShah Ismail Ghazioverthrew theKhen dynastyand annexed large parts of Assam. In maritime trade, the Bengal Sultanate benefited fromIndian Ocean tradenetworks and emerged as a hub ofre-exports.A giraffe was brought by African envoys fromMalindito Bengal's court and was later gifted toImperial China.Ship-owing merchants acted as envoys of the Sultan while travelling to different regions in Asia and Africa. Many rich Bengali merchants lived in Malacca.[55]Bengali ships transported embassies fromBrunei,AcehandMalaccato China. Bengal and theMaldiveshad a vast trade inshell currency.[56]The Sultan of Bengal donated funds to build schools in theHejazregion of Arabia.[57]
The five dynastic periods of the Bengal Sultanate spanned from theIlyas Shahi dynasty,to a period of rule by Bengali converts, to theHussain Shahi dynasty,to a period of rule by Abyssinian usurpers; an interruption by theSuri dynasty;and ended with theKarrani dynasty.TheBattle of Raj Mahaland the capture ofDaud Khan Karranimarked the end of the Bengal Sultanate during the reign ofMughal EmperorAkbar.In the late 16th-century, a confederation called theBaro-Bhuyanresisted Mughal invasions in eastern Bengal. The Baro-Bhuyan included twelve Muslim and Hindu leaders of theZamindars of Bengal.They were led byIsa Khan,a former prime minister of the Bengal Sultanate. By the 17th century, the Mughals were able to fully absorb the region to their empire.
Mughal period
Mughal Bengalhad the richest elite and was the wealthiest region in the subcontinent. Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as theParadise of the Nationsby theMughal Emperors.[58]A new provincial capital was built inDhaka.Members of the imperial family were appointed to positions in Mughal Bengal, including the position of governor (subedar). Dhaka became a centre of palace intrigue and politics. Some of the most prominent governors includedRajputgeneralMan Singh I,EmperorShah Jahan's son PrinceShah Shuja,EmperorAurangzeb's son and later Mughal emperorAzam Shah,and the influential aristocratShaista Khan.During the tenure of Shaista Khan, the Portuguese and Arakanese were expelled from the port of Chittagong in 1666. Bengal became the eastern frontier of the Mughal administration. By the 18th century, Bengal became home to a semi-independent aristocracy led by theNawabs of Bengal.[59]Bengal premierMurshid Quli Khanmanaged to curtail the influence of the governor due to his rivalry with Prince Azam Shah. Khan controlled Bengal's finances since he was in charge of the treasury. He shifted the provincial capital from Dhaka toMurshidabad.
In 1717, the Mughal court in Delhi recognised the hereditary monarchy of the Nawab of Bengal. The ruler was officially titled as the "Nawab of Bengal,BiharandOrissa",as the Nawab ruled over the three regions in the eastern subcontinent. The Nawabs began issuing their own coins but continued to pledge nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor. The wealth of Bengal was vital for the Mughal court because Delhi received its biggest share of revenue from the Nawab's court. The Nawabs presided over a period of unprecedented economic growth and prosperity, including an era of growing organisation in textiles, banking, a military-industrial complex, the production of fine qualityhandicrafts,and other trades. A process ofproto-industrialisationwas underway. Under the Nawabs, the streets of Bengali cities were filled with brokers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders.[60]The Nawab's state was a major exporter ofBengal muslin,silk,gunpowderandsaltpetre.The Nawabs also permitted European trading companies to operate in Bengal, including theBritish East India Company,theFrench East India Company,theDanish East India Company,theAustrian East India Company,theOstend Company,and theDutch East India Company.The Nawabs were also suspicious of the growing influence of these companies.
Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a centre of the worldwidemuslinand silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most important centre of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia.[61]Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% ofDutchimports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.[62]From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold inIndonesia,raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[63]cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean.[64]Bengal also had a largeshipbuildingindustry. In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the annual output of Bengal at 223,250 tons, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[65]
Since the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa. The Portuguese established asettlement in Chittagongwith permission from the Bengal Sultanate in 1528 but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666. In the 18th-century, the Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due toNader Shah's invasionand internal rebellions, allowing European colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory. The British East India Company eventually emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at theBattle of Plasseyin 1757.[59]
Colonial era (1757–1947)
The BritishEast India Companybegan influencing and controlling theNawab of Bengalfrom 1757 after the Battle of Plassey, thus signalling the start of British influence in India. British control of Bengal increased between 1757 and 1793 while the Nawab was reduced to a puppet figure.[66] with thePresidency of Fort Williamasserting greater control over the entire province of Bengal and neighbouring territories.Calcuttawas named the capital ofBritish territories in Indiain 1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including theBengal Army,and had the world's sixth earliest railway network. Between 1833 and 1854, theGovernor of Bengalwas concurrently theGovernor-General of Indiafor many years. GreatBengal faminesstruck several times during colonial rule (notably theGreat Bengal famine of 1770andBengal famine of 1943).[67][68]Under British rule, Bengal experienced thedeindustrialisationof its pre-colonial economy.[69]
Company policies led to the deindustrialisation of Bengal's textile industry.[70]The capital amassed by the East India Company in Bengal was invested in the emergingIndustrial RevolutioninGreat Britain,in industries such astextile manufacturing.[69][71]Economic mismanagement, alongside drought and a smallpox epidemic, directly led to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of between 1 million and 10 million people.[72][73][74][75]
In 1862, theBengal Legislative Councilwas set up as the first modernlegislature in India.Elected representation was gradually introduced during the early 20th century, including with theMorley-Minto reformsand the system ofdyarchy.In 1937, the council became the upper chamber of the Bengali legislature while theBengal Legislative Assemblywas created. Between 1937 and 1947, the chief executive of the government was thePrime Minister of Bengal.
The Bengal Presidency was the largest administrative unit in theBritish Empire.At its height, it covered large parts of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, and Singapore. In 1830, the British Straits Settlements on the coast of theMalacca Straitswas made a residency of Bengal. The area included the erstwhilePrince of Wales Island,Province Wellesley,MalaccaandSingapore.[76]In 1867,Penang,Singapore and Malacca were separated from Bengal into theStraits Settlements.[76]British Burmabecame a province of India and a later aCrown colonyin itself. Western areas, including theCeded and Conquered ProvincesandThe Punjab,were further reorganised. Northeastern areas becameColonial Assam.
In 1876, about 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by theGreat Backerganj Cyclone of 1876in theBarisalregion.[77]About 50 million were killed in Bengal due to massive plague outbreaks and famines which happened in 1895 to 1920, mostly in western Bengal.[78]
TheIndian Rebellion of 1857was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. The failure of the rebellion led to the abolition of theCompany Rule in Indiaand establishment of direct rule over India by the British, commonly referred to as theBritish Raj.The late 19th and early 20th centuryBengal Renaissancehad a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal and started a great advance in the literature and science of Bengal. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made todivide the province of Bengalinto two: Bengal proper and the short-lived province ofEastern Bengal and Assamwhere theAll India Muslim Leaguewas founded.[79]In 1911, the Bengali poet and polymathRabindranath Tagorebecame Asia's first Nobel laureate when he won theNobel Prize in Literature.
Bengal played a major role in theIndian independence movement,in whichrevolutionary groupswere dominant. Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the rebellion ofTitumir,and reached a climax whenSubhas Chandra Boseled theIndian National Armyagainst the British. Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—theAll-India Muslim Leaguewas established in Dhaka in 1906. The Muslim homeland movement pushed for a sovereign state in eastern India with theLahore Resolutionin 1943.Hindu nationalismwas also strong in Bengal, which was home to groups like theHindu Mahasabha.In spite of a last-ditch effort by politiciansHuseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy,Sarat Chandra Boseto form aUnited Bengal,[80]when Indiagained independencein 1947, Bengal waspartitionedalong religious lines.[81]The western joined India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province calledEast Bengal(later renamedEast Pakistan,giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971). The circumstances of partition were bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal.[81][82]
Partition of Bengal (1947)
On 27 April 1947, the lastPrime Minister of BengalHuseyn Shaheed Suhrawardyheld a press conference in New Delhi where he outlined his vision for an independent Bengal. Suhrawardy said "Let us pause for a moment to consider what Bengal can be if it remains united. It will be a great country, indeed the richest and the most prosperous in India capable of giving to its people a high standard of living, where a great people will be able to rise to the fullest height of their stature, a land that will truly be plentiful. It will be rich in agriculture, rich in industry and commerce and in course of time it will be one of the powerful and progressive states of the world. If Bengal remains united this will be no dream, no fantasy".[83]On 2 June 1947,British Prime MinisterClement Attleetold theUS Ambassador to the United Kingdomthat there was a "distinct possibility Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either Hindustan or Pakistan".[84]
On 3 June 1947, theMountbatten Planoutlined thepartition of British India.On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the partition of Bengal. At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided (126 votes to 90) that if the province remained united, it should join theConstituent Assembly of Pakistan.At a separate meeting of legislators fromWest Bengal,it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join theConstituent Assembly of India.At another meeting of legislators fromEast Bengal,it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly ofPakistanif Bengal was partitioned.[85]On 6 July, theSylhet districtof Assam voted in areferendum to join East Bengal.
The English barristerCyril Radcliffewas instructed to draw the borders of Pakistan and India. TheRadcliffe Linecreated the boundary between theDominion of Indiaand theDominion of Pakistan,which later became theBangladesh-India border.The Radcliffe Line awarded two-thirds of Bengal as the eastern wing of Pakistan, although the historic Bengali capitals ofGaur,Pandua,Murshidabadand Calcutta fell on the Indian side close to the border with Pakistan. Dhaka's status as a capital was also restored.
Geography
Most of the Bengal region lies in theGanges-Brahmaputra delta,but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the riversGanges,Brahmaputra,andMeghnarivers and their respective tributaries. The total area of Bengal is 237,212 square kilometres (91,588 sq mi)—West Bengal is 88,752 km2(34,267 sq mi) and Bangladesh 148,460 km2(57,321 sq mi).
The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates thegeography of Bangladesh.TheChittagong Hill TractsandSylhet regionare home to most of themountains in Bangladesh.Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres (33 feet) above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 metre (3.3 feet).[86]Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres (3,451 feet).[87]A major part of the coastline comprises amarshyjungle,theSundarbans,the largestmangroveforest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including theroyal Bengal tiger.In 1997, this region was declared endangered.[88]
West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from theHimalayasin the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88,752 km2(34,267 sq mi).[89]TheDarjeeling Himalayan hill regionin the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region containsSandakfu(3,636 m (11,929 ft))—the highest peak of the state.[90]The narrowTerai regionseparates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. TheRarh regionintervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and thewestern plateau and high lands.A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.
At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh havearsenic levels in groundwaterabove the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 μg/L or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption.[91]The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various other complications in the body.
Geographic distinctions
North Bengal
North Bengalis a term used for the north-western part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi part comprisesRajshahi DivisionandRangpur Division.Generally, it is the area lying west ofJamuna Riverand north ofPadma River,and includes theBarind Tract.Politically, West Bengal's part comprisesJalpaiguri Divisionand most ofMalda division(exceptMurshidabad district) together and Bihar's parts includeKishanganj district.DarjeelingHilly are also part of North Bengal. The people of Jaipaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar usually identify themselves as North Bengali. North Bengal is divided intoTeraiandDooarsregions. North Bengal is also noted for its rich cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Aside from the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to many other communities including Nepalis,Santhal people,Lepchas and Rajbongshis.
Northeast Bengal
Northeast Bengal[92]refers to the Sylhet region, which today comprises theSylhet Divisionof Bangladesh andKarimganj districtin the Indian state ofAssam.The region is famous for its fertile land terrain, many rivers, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands. TheBrahmaputraandBarakriver are the geographic markers of the area. The city ofSylhetis its largest urban centre, and the region is known for its unique regionalSylheti language.The ancient name of the region is Srihatta and Nasratshahi.[93]The region was ruled by theKamarupaandHarikelakingdoms as well as theBengal Sultanate.It later became a district of theMughal Empire.Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a smallGaro,Bishnupriya Manipuri,Khasiaand other tribal minorities.[93]
The region is the crossroads of Bengal andnortheast India.
Central Bengal
Central Bengal refers to theDhaka Divisionof Bangladesh. It includes the elevatedMadhupur tractwith a largeSal tree forest.The Padma River cuts through the southern part of the region, separating the greaterFaridpurregion. In the north lies the greaterMymensinghandTangailregions.
South Bengal
South Bengal covers the southwestern Bangladesh and the southern part of the Indian state of West Bengal.The Bangladeshi part includesKhulna Division,Barisal Divisionand the proposedFaridpur Division[94]The part of South Bengal of West Bengal includesPresidency division,Burdwan divisionandMedinipur division.[95][96][97]
TheSundarbans,a majorbiodiversity hotspot,is located in South Bengal. Bangladesh hosts 60% of the forest, with the remainder in India.
Southeast Bengal
Southeast Bengal[98][99][100]refers to the hilly-coastalChittagonian-speaking and coastal Bengali-speaking areas ofChittagong Divisionin southeastern Bangladesh. The region is noted for itsthalassocraticandseafaringheritage. The area was dominated by the BengaliHarikelaandSamatatakingdoms in antiquity. It was known to Arab traders asSamandarin the 9th century.[101]During the medieval period, the region was ruled by theChandra dynasty,thesultanate of Bengal,thekingdom of Tripura,thekingdom of Mrauk U,thePortuguese Empireand theMughal Empire,prior to the advent of British rule. TheChittagonian language,a sister of Bengali is prevalent in coastal areas of southeast Bengal. Along with its Bengali population, it is also home toTibeto-Burmanethnic groups, including theChakma,Marma,TanchangyaandBawmpeoples.
Southeast Bengal is considered a bridge to Southeast Asia and the northern parts ofArakanare also historically considered to be a part of it.[102]
Places of interest
There are fourWorld Heritage Sitesin the region, including theSundarbans,theSomapura Mahavihara,theMosque City of Bagerhatand theDarjeeling Himalayan Railway.Other prominent places include theBishnupur, Bankuratemple city, theAdina Mosque,theCaravanserai Mosque,numerouszamindarpalaces (likeAhsan ManzilandCooch Behar Palace), theLalbagh Fort,theGreat Caravanserai ruins,theShaista Khan Caravanserai ruins,the KolkataVictoria Memorial,the Dhaka Parliament Building, archaeologically excavated ancient fort cities inMahasthangarh,Mainamati,ChandraketugarhandWari-Bateshwar,theJaldapara National Park,theLawachara National Park,theTeknaf Game Reserveand theChittagong Hill Tracts.
Cox's Bazarin southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural sea beach in the world with an unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi). It is also a growingsurfingdestination.[103]St. Martin's Island,off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the solecoral reefin Bengal.
Other regions
Bengal was a regional power of the Indian subcontinent. The administrative jurisdiction of Bengal historically extended beyond the territory of Bengal proper. In the 9th century, the Pala Empire of Bengal ruled large parts of northern India. The Bengal Sultanate controlled Bengal, Assam, Arakan, Bihar and Orissa at different periods in history. In Mughal Bengal, the Nawab of Bengal had a jurisdiction covering Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Bengal's administrative jurisdiction reached its greatest extent under the British Empire, when the Bengal Presidency extended from the Straits of Malacca in the east to the Khyber Pass in the west. In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, administrative reorganisation drastically reduced the territory of Bengal.
Several regions bordering Bengal proper continue to have high levels of Bengali influence. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali majority population. Bengali influence is also prevalent in the Indian regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; as well as in Myanmar's Rakhine State.
Arakan
Arakan(nowRakhine State,Myanmar) has historically been under strong Bengali influence. Since antiquity, Bengal has influenced the culture of Arakan. The ancient Bengali script was used in Arakan.[104]An Arakanese inscription recorded the reign of the BengaliCandra dynasty.Paul Wheatleydescribed the "Indianization" of Arakan.[105]
According toPamela Gutman,"Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi".[106]Arakan emerged as avassal stateof theBengal Sultanate.[107]It later became an independent kingdom. The royal court and culture of theKingdom of Mrauk Uwas heavily influenced by Bengal.Bengali Muslimsserved in the royal court as ministers and military commanders.[107]Bengali HindusandBengali Buddhistsserved as priests. Some of the most important poets of medievalBengali literaturelived in Arakan, includingAlaolandDaulat Qazi.[108]In 1660,Prince Shah Shuja,the governor of Mughal Bengal and a pretender of thePeacock Throneof India, was forced to seek asylum in Arakan.[109][110]Bengali influence in the Arakanese royal court persisted until Burmese annexation in the 18th-century.
The modern-dayRohingyapopulation is a legacy of Bengal's influence on Arakan.[111][108]TheRohingya genocideresulted in the displacement of over a million people between 2016 and 2017, with many being uprooted from their homes in Rakhine State.
Assam
The Indian state ofAssamshares many cultural similarities with Bengal. The Assamese language uses the same script as the Bengali language. TheBarak Valleyhas a Bengali-speaking majority population. During thePartition of India,Assam was also partitioned along with Bengal. TheSylhet DivisionjoinedEast Bengalin Pakistan, with the exception ofKarimganjwhich joined Indian Assam. Previously, East Bengal and Assam were part of a single province calledEastern Bengal and Assambetween 1905 and 1912 under theBritish Raj.[112]
Assam and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms, includingKamarupa,GaudaandKamata.Large parts of Assam were annexed byAlauddin Hussain Shahduring the Bengal Sultanate.[113]Assam was one of the few regions in the subcontinent to successfully resist Mughal expansion and never fell completely under Mughal rule.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Bengali is the most spoken language among the population of theAndaman and Nicobar Islands,a strategically important archipelago which is controlled by India as a federal territory. The islands were once used as a British penal colony. DuringWorld War II,the islands were seized by the Japanese and controlled by theProvisional Government of Free India.Anti-British leaderSubhash Chandra Bosevisited and renamed the islands. Between 1949 and 1971, the Indian government resettled manyBengali Hindusin the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.[114]
Bihar
In antiquity, Bihar and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms. The ancient region ofMagadhacovered both Bihar and Bengal. Magadha was the birthplace or bastion of several pan-Indian empires, including theMauryan Empire,theGupta Empireand thePala Empire.Bengal, Bihar and Orissa together formed a single province under theMughal Empire.The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.[115]
Chittagong Hill Tracts
TheChittagong Hill Tractsis the southeastern frontier of Bangladesh. Its indigenous population includesTibeto-Burmanethnicities, including theChakma people,Bawm peopleandMro peopleamong others. The region was historically ruled by tribal chieftains of theChakma CircleandBohmong Circle.In 1713, theChakma Rajasigned a treaty withMughal Bengalafter obtaining permission fromEmperor Farrukhsiyarfor trade with the plains of Chittagong.[116][117]Like the kings of Arakan, the Chakma Circle began to fashion themselves using Mughal nomenclatures and titles. They initially resisted thePermanent Settlementand the activities of theEast India Company.[117]The tribal royal families of the region came under heavy Bengali influence. The Chakma queenBenita Roywas a friend ofRabindranath Tagore.The region was governed by theChittagong Hill Tracts manualunder colonial rule. The manual was significantly amended after the end of British rule; and the region became fully integrated with Bangladesh.[118]
Malay Archipelago
Through trade, settlements and the exchange of ideas; parts ofMaritime Southeast Asiabecame linked with Bengal.[119][120]Language, literature, art, governing systems, religions and philosophies in ancientSumatraandJavawere influenced by Bengal.Hindu-Buddhist kingdomsin Southeast Asia depended on the Bay of Bengal for trade and ideas.Islam in Southeast Asiaalso spread through the Bay of Bengal, which was a bridge between the Malay Archipelago and Indo-Islamic states of the Indian subcontinent.[121][122]A large number of wealthy merchants from Bengal were based in Malacca.[55]Bengali ships were the largest ships in the waters of the Malay Archipelago during the 15th century.[123]
Between 1830 and 1867, the ports of Singapore andMalacca,the island ofPenang,and a portion of theMalay Peninsulawere ruled under the jurisdiction of theBengal Presidencyof theBritish Empire.[124]These areas were known as theStraits Settlements,which was separated from the Bengal Presidency and converted into aCrown colonyin 1867.[125]: 980
Meghalaya
The Indian state ofMeghalayahistorically came under the influence ofShah Jalal,a Muslim missionary and conqueror fromSylhet.DuringBritish rule,the city ofShillongwas thesummer capitalofEastern Bengal and Assam(modern Bangladesh and Northeast India). Shillong boasted the highest per capita income in British India.[17]
North India
The ancient Mauryan, Gupta andPalaempires of theMagadharegion (Bihar and Bengal) extended into northern India. The westernmost border of the Bengal Sultanate extended towardsVaranasiandJaunpur.[126][54]In the 19th century,Punjaband theCeded and Conquered Provincesformed the western extent of the Bengal Presidency. According to the British historianRosie Llewellyn-Jones,"The Bengal Presidency, an administrative jurisdiction introduced by the East India Company, would later include not only the whole of northern India up to the Khyber Pass on the north-west frontier with Afghanistan, but would spread eastwards to Burma and Singapore as well".[127]
Odisha
Odisha,previously known as Orissa, has a significant Bengali minority. Historically, the region has faced invasions from Bengal, including an invasion byShamsuddin Ilyas Shah.[128]Parts of the region were ruled by theBengal SultanateandMughal Bengal.TheNawab of Bengalwas styled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa" because the Nawab was granted jurisdiction over Orissa by theMughal Emperor.[115]
Tibet
During thePala dynasty,Tibet received missionaries from Bengal who influenced the emergence ofTibetan Buddhism.[129][130]One of the most notable missionaries wasAtisa.During the 13th century, Tibet experienced anIslamic invasionby the forces ofBakhtiyar Khalji,the Muslim conqueror of Bengal.[131]
Tripura
Theprincely state of Tripurawas ruled by theManikya dynastyuntil the 1949Tripura Merger Agreement.Tripura was historically avassal stateof Bengal. After assuming the throne with military support from the Bengal Sultanate in 1464,Ratna Manikya Iintroduced administrative reforms inspired by the government of Bengal. The Tripura kings requested SultanBarbak Shahto provide manpower for developing the administration of Tripura. As a result,Bengali Hindubureaucrats, cultivators and artisans began settling in Tripura.[132]Today, the Indian state ofTripurahas a Bengali-majority population. Modern Tripura is a gateway for trade and transport links betweenBangladeshandNortheast India.[133][134]InBengali culture,the celebrated singerS. D. Burmanwas a member of the Tripura royal family.
Flora and fauna
The flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the mostfertileareas on Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape. Bengali villages are buried among groves ofmango,jackfruit,betel nutanddate palm.Rice,jute,mustardandsugarcaneplantations are a common sight.Water bodiesandwetlandsprovide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (Dooars) with densely woodedSaland other tropicalevergreentrees.[135][136]Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such asoaks,conifersandrhododendrons.Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in theBhawal National Park.TheLawachara National Parkis arainforestin northeastern Bangladesh.[137]The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree ofbiodiversity.[138]
ThelittoralSundarbansin the southwestern part of Bengal is the largestmangrove forestin the world and aUNESCO World Heritage Site.[139]The region has over89 species of mammals,628 species of birdsandnumerous species of fish.[140]For Bangladesh, thewater lily,theoriental magpie-robin,thehilsaandmango treeare national symbols. For West Bengal, thewhite-throated kingfisher,thechatim treeand thenight-flowering jasmineare state symbols. TheBengal tigeris thenational animalof Bangladesh and India. Thefishing catis the state animal of West Bengal.
Politics
Today, the region of Bengal proper is divided between thesovereign stateof thePeople's Republic of Bangladeshand theIndian stateofWest Bengal.[141]The Bengali-speakingBarak Valleyforms part of the Indian state ofAssam.The Indian state ofTripurahas a Bengali-speaking majority and was formerly the princely state ofHill Tipperah.In the Bay of Bengal,St. Martin's Islandis governed by Bangladesh; while theAndaman and Nicobar Islandshas a plurality of Bengali speakers and is governed by India's federal government as aunion territory.
Bangladeshi Republic
The state of Bangladesh is aparliamentary republicbased on theWestminster system,with awritten constitutionand aPresidentelected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes. Thegovernmentis headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of Parliament in theJatiyo Sangshad,the national parliament. The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Under the constitution, while recognisingIslamas the country'sestablished religion,the constitution grantsfreedom of religionto non-Muslims.
Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had apresidential systemof government. Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocraticcaretaker governmentson four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008. TheAwami Leagueand theBangladesh Nationalist Party(BNP) are the two most dominant political parties in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh is a member of the UN,WTO,IMF,theWorld Bank,ADB,OIC,IDB,SAARC,BIMSTECand theIMCTC.Bangladesh has achieved significant strides inhuman developmentcompared to its neighbours.
Indian Bengal
West Bengal is a constituent state of theRepublic of India,with localexecutivesandassemblies- features shared with other states in the Indian federal system. Thepresident of Indiaappoints a governor as the ceremonial representative of theunion government.The governor appoints thechief ministeron the nomination of the legislative assembly. The chief minister is the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the assembly.President's ruleis often imposed in Indian states as a direct intervention of the union government led by theprime minister of India.The Bengali-speaking zone of India carries 48 seats in the lower house of India,Lok Sabha.
Each state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of parliament, theLok Sabha.Each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, theRajya Sabha.
The state legislative assemblies also play a key role in electing the ceremonial president of India. The former president of India,Pranab Mukherjee,was a native of West Bengal and a leader of theIndian National Congress.The currentleader of oppositionof India,Adhir Ranjan Chowdhuryis fromWest Bengal.He has been elected fromBaharampur Lok Sabha constituency.
The major political forces in the Bengali-speaking zone of India are theLeft Frontand theTrinamool Congress,theIndian National Congressand theBharatiya Janata Party.The Bengali-speaking zone of India is considered stronghold forCommunism in India.Bengalis are known not to vote on communal lines but in recent years this conception has how changed.[142]TheWest BengalbasedTrinamool Congressis now the third largest party of India in terms of number of MP or MLA after theBharatiya Janata Partyand theIndian National Congress.Earlier theCommunist Party of India (Marxist)held this position.
Crossborder relations
India and Bangladesh are the world's first and eighth most populous countries respectively.Bangladesh-India relationsbegan on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in theliberation of Bangladesh,with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan. The two countries had a twenty five-year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996. However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long plagued the relationship. In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond. Commercial, cultural and defence co-operation have expanded since 2010, when Prime MinistersSheikh HasinaandManmohan Singhpledged to reinvigorate ties.
The Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission inKolkataand a consular office inAgartala.India has a High Commission inDhakawith consulates inChittagongandRajshahi.Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong. Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal.[143]India has since fenced the border which has been criticised by Bangladesh.[144]
Economy
TheGanges Deltaprovided advantages of fertile soil, ample water, and an abundance of fish, wildlife, and fruit.[145]Living standards for Bengal's elite were relatively better than other parts of theIndian subcontinent.[145]Between 400 and 1200, Bengal had a well-developed economy in terms of land ownership, agriculture, livestock, shipping, trade, commerce, taxation, and banking.[146]The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to theDelhi Sultanate,which ceased after the creation of theBengal Sultanateand stopped the outflow of wealth.Ma Huan's travelogue recorded a booming shipbuilding industry and significantinternational tradein Bengal.
In 1338,Ibn Battutanoticed that the silver taka was the most popular currency in the region instead of the Islamicdinar.[147]In 1415, members ofAdmiral Zheng He's entourage also noticed the dominance of the taka. The currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty for theSultan of Bengal.The Sultanate of Bengal established an estimated 27mintsin provincial capitals across the kingdom.[148][149]These provincial capitals were known as Mint Towns.[150]These Mint Towns formed an integral aspect of governance and administration in Bengal.
The taka continued to be issued inMughal Bengal,which inherited the sultanate's legacy. As Bengal became more prosperous and integrated into theworld economyunder Mughal rule, the taka replaced shell currency in rural areas and became the standardisedlegal tender.It was also used in commerce with theDutch East India Company,theFrench East India Company,theDanish East India Companyand theBritish East India Company.Under Mughal rule, Bengal was the centre of the worldwidemuslintrade. Themuslin trade in Bengalwas patronised by the Mughal imperial court. Muslin from Bengal was worn by aristocratic ladies in courts as far away as Europe, Persia and Central Asia. The treasury of theNawab of Bengalwas the biggest source of revenue for the imperial Mughal court in Delhi. Bengal had a largeshipbuildingindustry. The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250tons annually, which was higher than the volume of shipbuilding in the nineteen colonies of North America between 1769 and 1771.[65]
Historically, Bengal has been the industrial leader of the subcontinent. Mughal Bengal saw the emergence of a proto-industrial economy backed up by textiles and gunpowder. The organised early modern economy flourished till the beginning of British rule in the mid 18th-century, when the region underwent radical and revolutionary changes in government, trade, and regulation. The British displaced the indigenous ruling class and transferred much of the region's wealth back to the colonial metropole in Britain. In the 19th century, the British began investing in railways and limited industrialisation. However, the Bengali economy was dominated by trade in raw materials during much of the colonial period, particularly thejute trade.[151]
Thepartition of Indiachanged the economic geography of the region. Calcutta in West Bengal inherited a thriving industrial base from the colonial period, particularly in terms of jute processing. East Pakistan soon developed its industrial base, including theworld's largest jute mill.In 1972, the newly independent government of Bangladesh nationalised 580 industrial plants. These industries were later privatised in the late 1970s as Bangladesh moved towards a market-oriented economy.Liberal reformsin 1991 paved the way for a major expansion of Bangladesh's private sector industry, including in telecoms, natural gas, textiles, pharmaceuticals, ceramics, steel and shipbuilding. In 2022, Bangladesh was the second largest economy in South Asia after India.[152][153]
The region is one of the largest rice producing areas in the world, with West Bengal being India's largest rice producer and Bangladesh being the world's fourth largest rice producer.[154]Three Bengali economists have been Nobel laureates, includingAmartya SenandAbhijit Banerjeewho won theNobel Memorial Prize in EconomicsandMuhammad Yunuswho won theNobel Peace Prize.
| Bengal | Real Economy (Nominal GDP Per Capita)in 2023-2024) |
Nominal Economy (Nominal GDP in 2023-2024) |
Population (2021) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bangladesh'sDhaka(Dhaka Municipal Corporation Area) | $5,000 | $70 Billion | 1.4 crore |
| West Bengal'sKolkata District(Kolkata Municipal Corporation Area) | $4,400 | $20 Billion | 45 lakh |
| Bangladesh(East Bengal) | $2,700 | $460 Billion | 17 crore |
| India'sWest Bengal | $2,400 | $240 Billion | 10 crore |
Stock markets
Ports and harbours
- Port of Chittagong
- Port of Kolkata
- Port of Mongla
- Port of Haldia
- Port of Payra
- Port of Pangaon
- Port of Farakka
- Port of Narayanganj
- Port of Ashuganj
- Port of Barisal
- Matarbari Port
- Land port ofBenapole-Petrapole
Chambers of commerce
- Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry
- Bengal National Chamber of Commerce & Industry
- Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry(FBCCI)
- Chittagong Chamber of Commerce & Industry
- Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry(DCCI)
- Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry(MCCI)
Intra-Bengal trade
Bangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an estimated US$16 billion.[155]Most of this trade relationship is centred on some of the world's busiestland portson theBangladesh-India border.TheBangladesh Bhutan India NepalInitiative seeks to boost trade through a Regional Motor Vehicles Agreement.[156]
Demographics
The Bengal region is one of themost densely populated areasin the world. With a population of 300 million,Bengalisare the third largest ethnic group in the world after theHan ChineseandArabs.[b] According to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 149,772,364;[157]however, CIA'sThe World Factbookgives 163,654,860 as its population in a July 2013 estimate. According to the provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census, West Bengal has a population of 91,347,736.[158]"So, the Bengal region, as of 2011[update],has at least 241.1 million people. This figures give a population density of 1003.9/km2;making it among the most densely populated areas in the world.[159][160]
Bengaliis the main language spoken in Bengal. Many phonological, lexical, and structural differences from the standard variety occur in peripheral varieties of Bengali across the region. Other regional languages closely related to Bengali includeSylheti,Chittagonian,Chakma,Rangpuri/Rajbangshi,Hajong,Rohingya,andTangchangya.[161]
English is often used for official work alongside Bangladesh and Indian West Bengal. Other majorIndo-Aryan languagessuch asHindi,Urdu,Assamese,andNepaliare also familiar to Bengalis in India.[162]
In general,Bengalisare followers ofIslam,Hinduism,ChristianityandBuddhismwith a significant number areIrreligious.
| Religious group |
Population % 1881 |
Population % 1891 |
Population % 1901 |
Population % 1911 |
Population % 1921 |
Population % 1931 |
Population % 1941 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Islam | 50.16% | 50.7% | 51.58% | 52.74% | 53.99% | 54.87% | 54.73% |
| Hinduism | 48.45% | 47.27% | 46.60% | 44.80% | 43.27% | 43.04% | 41.55% |
| Christianity | 0.2% | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Buddhism | 0.69% | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Other religions | 0.5% | – | – | – | – | – | - |
| Religion | Population |
|---|---|
Muslims( )
|
159,274,952 |
Hindus( )
|
86,138,190 |
Christians( )
|
1,718,887 |
Buddhists( )
|
1,278,871 |
| Other or no religion | 1,707,917 |
| Total | 250,118,816 |
In addition, several minority ethnolinguistic groups are native to the region. These include speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g.,Bishnupriya Manipuri,Oraon Sadri,variousBihari languages),Tibeto-Burman languages(e.g.,A'Tong,Chak,Koch,Garo,Megam,Meitei(officially called "Manipuri"),Mizo,Mru,Pangkhua,Rakhine/Marma,Kok Borok,Riang,Tippera,Usoi,variousChin languages),Austroasiatic languages(e.g.,Khasi,Koda,Mundari,Pnar,Santali,War), andDravidian languages(e.g.,Kurukh,Sauria Paharia).[161]
Life expectancy is around 72.49 years for Bangladesh[166]and 70.2 for West Bengal.[167][168]In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate,[159]in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 72.9%.[169][c]The level of poverty in West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9%[170][171][172]
West Bengal has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India. West Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.[173]
Major cities
The Bengal region is home to the some ofmajor urban areasof the world,Dhakais the4th largest urban areasof the world.Kolkatais17th largest urban area.[citation needed]
| Rank | City | Country | Population (2024) | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Dhaka | Bangladesh
|
23,936,000[174] |  |
| 2 | Kolkata | India
|
15,571,000[175] |  |
| 3 | Chittagong | Bangladesh
|
5,514,000[176] |  |
| 4 | Asansol | India
|
1,534,000[177] |  |
| 5 | Siliguri | India
|
1,159,000[178] |  |
| 6 | Khulna | Bangladesh
|
1,005,000 (2016)[179] |  |
Culture
Language
TheBengali languagedeveloped between the 7th and 10th centuries fromApabhraṃśaandMagadhi Prakrit.[180]It is written using the indigenousBengali Alpha bet,a descendant of the ancientBrahmi script.Bengali is the5th most spoken language in the world.It is an easternIndo-Aryan languageand one of the easternmost branches of theIndo-European language family.It is part of theBengali-Assamese languages.Bengali has greatly influenced other languages in the region, includingOdia,Assamese,Chakma,NepaliandRohingya.It is the solestate languageof Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India.[181]It is also the seventh most spoken language by total number of speakers in the world.
Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to regional identity. The 1952Bengali Language Movementin East Pakistan is commemorated byUNESCOasInternational Mother Language Day,as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity.
Currency
In both Bangladesh and West Bengal, currency is commonly denominated as taka. TheBangladesh takais an official standard bearer of this tradition, while theIndian rupeeis also written as taka in Bengali script on all of its banknotes. Thehistory of the takadates back centuries. Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin currencies in the first millennium BCE. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced byMuhammad bin Tughluqin 1329. Bengal became the stronghold of the taka. The silver currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty of theSultanate of Bengal.It was traded on theSilk Roadand replicated inNepaland China'sTibetanprotectorate. ThePakistani rupeewas scripted in Bengali as taka on its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971.
Literature
Bengali literature has a rich heritage. It has a history stretching back to the 3rd century BCE, when the main language wasSanskritwritten in thebrahmiscript. TheBengali languageandscriptevolvedc. 1000 CEfromMagadhi Prakrit.Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by theChôrjapôdô,Mangalkavya,Shreekrishna Kirtana,Maimansingha GitikaorThakurmar Jhuli.Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g.Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g.Alaol). During theBengal Renaissanceof the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,Bengali literaturewas modernised through the works of authors such asMichael Madhusudan Dutta,Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar,Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay,Rabindranath Tagore,Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay,Kazi Nazrul Islam,Satyendranath Dutta,Begum RokeyaandJibanananda Das.In the 20th century, prominent modern Bengali writers includedSyed Mujtaba Ali,Jasimuddin,Manik Bandopadhyay,Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay,Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay,Buddhadeb Bose,Sunil GangopadhyayandHumayun Ahmed.
Prominent contemporary Bengali writers in English includeAmitav Ghosh,Tahmima Anam,Jhumpa LahiriandZia Haider Rahmanamong others.
Personification
TheBangamatais a femalepersonificationof Bengal which was created during theBengali Renaissanceand later adopted by theBengali nationalists.[182]Hindu nationalistsadopted a modifiedBharat Mataas a national personification of India.[183]The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the end of life. InAmar Sonar Bangla,the national anthem of Bangladesh,Rabindranath Tagorehas used the word "Maa" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e. Bengal.
Art
The Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a high point of classical Asian art.[184][185]It included sculptures and paintings.[186]
Islamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics andsaris,notably theJamdani,which received warrants from the Mughal court.[187]TheBengal Schoolof painting flourished inKolkataandShantiniketanin theBritish Rajduring the early 20th century. Its practitioners were among the harbingers of modern painting in India.[188]Zainul Abedinwas the pioneer of modernBangladeshi art.The country has a thriving and internationally acclaimedcontemporary artscene.[189]
Architecture
Classical Bengali architecture featuresterracottabuildings. Ancient Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for example, theSomapura Mahavihara). During thesultanate period,a distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the region.[190]Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets. Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia at Adina.Bengali vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of thebungalow.[191]
The Bengal region also has a rich heritage ofIndo-Saracenic architecture,including numerouszamindarpalaces and mansions. The most prominent example of this style is theVictoria Memorial, Kolkata.
In the 1950s,Muzharul Islampioneered the modernist terracotta style of architecture in South Asia. This was followed by the design of theJatiyo Sangshad Bhabanby the renowned American architectLouis Kahnin the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage of Bengali architecture and geography.[192][193]
Sciences
TheGupta dynasty,which is believed to have originated in North Bengal, pioneered the invention ofchess,the concept ofzero,thetheory of Earth orbiting the Sun,the study ofsolarandlunareclipses and the flourishing ofSanskrit literatureanddrama.[38][194]<
The educational reforms during theBritish Rajgave birth to many distinguished scientists in Bengal. SirJagadish Chandra Bosepioneered the investigation of radio andmicrowaveoptics,made very significant contributions toplant science,and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent.[195]IEEEnamed him one of thefathersof radio science.[196]He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive aUS patent,in 1904. In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka,Satyendra Nath Bosewell known for his works inquantum mechanics,provided the foundation forBose–Einstein statisticsand the theory of theBose–Einstein condensate.[197][198][199]Meghnad Sahawas the first scientist to relate a star's spectrum to its temperature, developing thermal ionization equations (notably theSaha ionization equation) that have been foundational in the fields of astrophysics and astrochemistry.[200]Amal Kumar Raychaudhuriwas a physicist, known for his research in general relativity and cosmology. His most significant contribution is the eponymousRaychaudhuri equation,which demonstrates that singularities arise inevitably in general relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems.[201]
In the United States, the Bangladeshi-American engineerFazlur Rahman Khanemerged as the "father of tubular designs" in skyscraper construction.Ashoke Senis an Indian theoretical physicist whose main area of work is string theory. He was among the first recipients of theFundamental Physics Prize"for opening the path to the realisation that all string theories are different limits of the same underlying theory".[202]
Music
TheBaultradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music.[203]The 19th century mystic poetLalon Shahis the most celebrated practitioner of the tradition.[204]Other folk music forms includeGombhira,BhatialiandBhawaiya.Hason Rajais a renowned folk poet of the Sylhet region. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by theektara,a one-stringed instrument. Other instruments include thedotara,dhol,flute, andtabla.The region also has a rich heritage inNorth Indian classical music.
Cuisine
Bengali cuisineis the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent. Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying that "fish and rice make a Bengali".[205]Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includesHilsapreparations, a favourite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctivesweetmeatsfrom milk products, includingRôshogolla,Chômchôm,and several kinds ofPithe.The old city of Dhaka is noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, includingbiryani,bakarkhaniandkebabdishes.
Boats
There are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the700 rivers of the Bengal delta,the vastfloodplainand manyoxbow lakes.They vary in design and size. The boats include thedinghyandsampanamong others. Country boats are a central element ofBengali cultureand have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era. The country has a long shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries. Wooden boats are made of timber such asJarul(dipterocarpusturbinatus),sal(shorea robusta),sundari(heritiera fomes), andBurma teak(tectons grandis). Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for theMughalandOttomannavies.[206][207]The BritishRoyal Navylater utilised Bengali shipyards in the 19th century, including for theBattle of Trafalgar.
Attire
Bengali women commonly wear theshaŗi,often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as thepanjabi[208]withdhotiorpyjama,often on religious occasions. Thelungi,a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.[citation needed]
Festivals
ForBengali Muslims,the major religious festivals areEid al-Fitr,Eid al-Adha,Mawlid,Muharram,andShab-e-Barat.ForBengali Hindus,the major religious festivals includeDurga Puja,Kali Puja,JanmashtamiandRath Yatra.In honour ofBengali BuddhistsandBengali Christians,bothBuddha's BirthdayandChristmasare public holidays in the region. TheBengali New Yearis the main secular festival of Bengali culture celebrated by people regardless of religious and social backgrounds. The biggest congregation in Bengal is theBishwa ijtema,which is also the world's second largest Islamic congregation. Other Bengali festivals include thefirst day of springand theNabannaharvest festival in autumn.
Media
Bangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately ownedpress,with the largest circulated Bengali language newspapers in the world. English-language titles are popular in the urban readership.[209]West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005,[210]of which 430 were in Bengali.[210]Bengali cinemais divided between the media hubs of Dhaka and Kolkata.
Sports
Cricketandfootballare popular sports in the Bengal region. Local games include sports such asKho KhoandKabaddi,the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh. An Indo-BangladeshBengali Gameshas been organised among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries.[211]
See also
Notes
- ^Bengali:বঙ্গ,romanized:Bôṅgô,pronounced[ˈbɔŋɡo]ⓘorBengali:বাংলা,romanized:Bāṅlā,pronounced[ˈbaŋla]
- ^Roughly 163 million in Bangladesh and 100 million in theRepublic of India(CIA Factbook2014 estimates, numbers subject to rapid population growth); about 3 millionBangladeshis in the Middle East,1 millionBengalis in Pakistan,0.4 millionBritish Bangladeshi.
- ^CRI do not give a breakdown by gender or state the age bracket for the data
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