Wikipedia

Beringia

This article is about the prehistoric land mass. For the battle of World War I in Beringia, Darfur, seeInvasion of Darfur § Battle of Beringia.For modern proposals to construct a connection over the Bering Strait, seeBering Strait crossing.

Beringiais defined today as the land and maritime area bounded on the west by theLena RiverinRussia;on the east by theMackenzie RiverinCanada;on the north by72° northlatitude in theChukchi Sea;and on the south by the tip of theKamchatka Peninsula.[1]It includes theChukchi Sea,theBering Sea,theBering Strait,theChukchiand Kamchatka Peninsulas in Russia as well asAlaskain theUnited Statesand theYukoninCanada.

Image of the Bering land bridge being inundated with rising sea level across time
Beringia sea levels (blues) and land elevations (browns) measured in metres from 21,000 years ago to present

The area includes land lying on theNorth American Plateand Siberian land east of theChersky Range.At various times, it formed aland bridgereferred to as theBering land bridge,that was up to 1,000 km (620 mi) wide at its greatest extent and which covered an area as large asBritish ColumbiaandAlbertatogether,[2]totaling about 1.6 million km2(620,000 sq mi), allowing biological dispersal to occur between Asia and North America. Today, the only land that is visible from the central part of the Bering land bridge are theDiomede Islands,thePribilof Islandsof St. Paul and St. George,St. Lawrence Island,St. Matthew Island,andKing Island.[1]

It is believed that a small human population of at most a few thousand arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during theLast Glacial Maximumbefore expanding into thesettlement of the Americassometime after 16,500 yearsBefore Present(YBP).[3]This would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted,[4][5][6][7][8]but before the bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 YBP.[9][10]

Etymology

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The termBeringiawas coined by the Swedish botanistEric Hulténin 1937, from the Danish-born Russian explorerVitus Bering.[11]During the ice ages, Beringia, like most ofSiberiaand all ofNorthandNortheast China,was notglaciatedbecausesnowfall was very light.[12]

Geography

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Bering land bridge – Wisconsin glaciation

The remains ofLate Pleistocenemammals that had been discovered on theAleutiansand islands in theBering Seaat the close of the nineteenth century indicated that a past land connection might lie beneath the shallow waters betweenAlaskaandChukotka.The underlying mechanism was first thought to be tectonics, but by 1930 changes in the ice mass balance, leading to global sea-level fluctuations were viewed as the cause of the Bering land bridge.[13][14]In 1937,Eric Hulténproposed that around the Aleutians and the Bering Strait region were tundra plants that had originally dispersed from a now-submerged plain between Alaska and Chukotka, which he named Beringia afterVitus Beringwho had sailed into the strait in 1728.[15][14]The American arctic geologist David Hopkins redefined Beringia to include portions of Alaska and Northeast Asia. Beringia was later regarded as extending from theVerkhoyansk Mountainsin the west to theMackenzie Riverin the east.[14]The distribution of plants in the generaErythrantheandPinusare good examples of this, as very similar genera members are found in Asia and the Americas.[16][17]

During the Pleistocene epoch, global cooling led periodically to the expansion of glaciers and the lowering of sea levels. This created land connections in various regions around the globe.[18]Today, the average water depth of the Bering Strait is 40–50 m (130–160 ft); therefore the land bridge opened when the sea level dropped more than 50 m (160 ft) below the current level.[19][20]A reconstruction of the sea-level history of the region indicated that a seaway existed fromc. 135,000– c. 70,000YBP, a land bridge fromc. 70,000– c. 60,000YBP, an intermittent connection fromc. 60,000– c. 30,000YBP, a land bridge fromc. 30,000– c. 11,000YBP, followed by a Holocene sea-level rise that reopened the strait.[21][22]Post-glacial reboundhas continued to raise some sections of the coast.[citation needed]

TheLast Glacial Periodcaused a much lower global sea level

During thelast glacial period,enough of the Earth's water became frozen in the greatice sheetscoveringNorth AmericaandEuropeto cause a drop insea levels.For thousands of years the sea floors of manyinterglacialshallow seas were exposed, including those of theBering Strait,theChukchi Seato the north, and theBering Seato the south. Otherland bridgesaround the world have emerged and disappeared in the same way. Around 14,000 years ago, mainlandAustraliawas linked to bothNew GuineaandTasmania,theBritish Islesbecame an extension ofcontinental Europevia the dry beds of theEnglish ChannelandNorth Sea,and the dry bed of theSouth China SealinkedSumatra,Java,andBorneotoIndochina.[citation needed]

Refugium

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Beringia precipitation 22,000 years ago
See also:Mammoth steppeandAsa Gray disjunction

Thelast glacial period,commonly referred to as the "Ice Age", spanned 125,000[23]–14,500YBP[24]and was the most recentglacial periodwithin thecurrent ice age,which occurred during the last years of the Pleistocene era.[23]The Ice Age reached its peak during theLast Glacial Maximum,whenice sheetsbegan advancing from 33,000YBP and reached their maximum limits 26,500YBP. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere approximately 19,000YBP and in Antarctica approximately 14,500 yearsYBP, which is consistent with evidence that glacial meltwater was the primary source for an abrupt rise in sea level 14,500YBP[24]and the bridge was finally inundated around 11,000 YBP.[10]The fossil evidence from many continents points to theextinctionof large animals, termedPleistocene megafauna,near the end of the last glaciation.[25]

During the Ice Age a vast, cold and dryMammoth steppestretched from thearctic islandssouthwards to China, and from Spain eastwards across Eurasia and over the Bering land bridge into Alaska and the Yukon where it was blocked by theWisconsin glaciation.Therefore, the flora and fauna of Beringia were more related to those of Eurasia rather than North America. Beringia received more moisture and intermittent maritime cloud cover from the north Pacific Ocean than the rest of the Mammoth steppe, including the dry environments on either side of it. This moisture supported a shrub-tundra habitat that provided anecological refugiumfor plants and animals.[26][27]In East Beringia 35,000 YBP, the northern arctic areas experienced temperatures 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) degrees warmer than today but the southern sub-Arctic regions were 2 °C (4 °F) degrees cooler. During the LGM 22,000 YBP the average summer temperature was 3–5 °C (5–9 °F) degrees cooler than today, with variations of 2.9 °C (5.2 °F) degrees cooler on theSeward Peninsulato 7.5 °C (13.5 °F) cooler in the Yukon.[28]In the driest and coldest periods of the Late Pleistocene, and possibly during the entire Pleistocene, moisture occurred along a north–south gradient with the south receiving the most cloud cover and moisture due to the air-flow from the North Pacific.[27]

In the Late Pleistocene, Beringia was a mosaic of biological communities.[29][26][30]Commencing fromc. 57,000YBP (MIS3), steppe–tundra vegetation dominated large parts of Beringia with a rich diversity of grasses and herbs.[29][26][31]There were patches of shrub tundra with isolated refugia oflarch(Larix) andspruce(Picea) forests withbirch(Betula) andalder(Alnus) trees.[29][30][31][32]It has been proposed that the largest and most diverse megafaunal community residing in Beringia at this time could only have been sustained in a highly diverse and productive environment.[33]

Duration of snow cover in days, East Beringia, 20000 years ago. Chelsa Trace 21ka variable bio/scd 200.

Analysis at Chukotka on the Siberian edge of the land bridge indicated that fromc. 57,000– c. 15,000YBP (MIS 3 to MIS 2) the environment was wetter and colder than the steppe–tundra to the east and west, with warming in parts of Beringia fromc. 15,000YBP.[34]These changes provided the most likely explanation for mammal migrations afterc. 15,000YBP, as the warming provided increased forage for browsers and mixed feeders.[35]At the beginning of theHolocene,somemesic habitat-adapted species left the refugium and spread westward into what had become tundra-vegetated northern Asia and eastward into northern North America.[27]

Beringia, 8000 years ago

The latest emergence of the land bridge wasc. 70,000years ago. However, fromc. 24,000– c. 13,000YBP theLaurentide Ice Sheetfused with theCordilleran Ice Sheet,which blocked gene flow between Beringia (and Eurasia) and continental North America.[36][37][38]The Yukon corridor opened between the receding ice sheetsc. 13,000YBP, and this once again allowed gene flow between Eurasia and continental North America until the land bridge was finally closed by rising sea levelsc. 10,000YBP.[39]During the Holocene, many mesic-adapted species left the refugium and spread eastward and westward, while at the same time the forest-adapted species spread with the forests up from the south. The arid-adapted species were reduced to minor habitats or became extinct.[27]

TheMammut americanum(American mastodon) became extinct around 12,000–9,000 years ago due to human-related activities, climate change, or a combination of both. SeeQuaternary extinction eventandHolocene extinction.

Beringia constantly transformed itsecosystemas the changing climate affected the environment, determining which plants and animals were able to survive. The land mass could be a barrier as well as a bridge: during colder periods, glaciers advanced and precipitation levels dropped. During warmer intervals, clouds, rain and snow alteredsoilsand drainage patterns.Fossilremains show thatspruce,birchandpoplaronce grew beyond their northernmost range today, indicating that there were periods when the climate was warmer and wetter. The environmental conditions were not homogenous in Beringia. Recentstable isotopestudies ofwoolly mammothbonecollagendemonstrate that western Beringia (Siberia) was colder and drier than eastern Beringia (AlaskaandYukon), which was more ecologically diverse.[40]

Grey wolves suffered a species-widepopulation bottleneck(reduction) approximately 25,000 YBP during the Last Glacial Maximum. This was followed by a single population of modern wolves expanding out of their Beringia refuge to repopulate the wolf's former range, replacing the remainingLate Pleistocene wolfpopulations across Eurasia and North America.[41][42][43]

The extinct pine speciesPinus matthewsiihas been described from Pliocene sediments in the Yukon areas of the refugium.[44]

Beringian Gap

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The existence of fauna endemic to the respective Siberian and North American portions of Beringia has led to the 'Beringian Gap' hypothesis, wherein an unconfirmed geographic factor blocked migration across the land bridge when it emerged. Beringia did not block the movement of most dry steppe-adapted large species such as saiga antelope, woolly mammoth, and caballid horses.[27]Notable restricted fauna include thewoolly rhinoin Siberia (which went no further east than theAnadyr River), andArctodus simus,American badger,Americankiang-like equids,BootheriumandCamelopsin North America, with the existence ofHomotheriumbeing disputed in Late Pleistocene Siberia. The lack of mastodon andMegalonyxhas been attributed to their inhabitation of Alaska and the Yukon being limited to interglacials.[45][46][47]However, ground sloth eDNA has potentially been recovered from Siberia.[48]

Human habitation and migration

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Schematic illustration of maternal (mtDNA) gene-flow in and out of Beringia, from 25,000 years ago to present
TheAncient Beringian(AB) is a humanarchaeogeneticlineage, based on the genome of an infant found at theUpward Sun River site(dubbed USR1), dated to 11,500 years ago.[49]The AB lineage diverged from theAncestral Native American(ANA) lineage about 20,000 years ago. The ANA lineage was estimated as having been formed between 20,000 and 25,000 years ago by a mixture of East Asian (~65%) andAncient North Eurasian(~35%) lineages, consistent with the model of thepeopling of the Americasvia Beringia during theLast Glacial Maximum.[50][51][52]
Map showing the approximate location of the ice-free corridor along theContinental Divide,separating theCordilleranandLaurentideice sheets. Also indicated are the locations of theClovisandFolsomPaleo-Indian sites.

Thepeopling of the Americasbegan whenPaleolithichunter-gatherers(Paleo-Indians) enteredNorth Americafrom theNorth AsianMammoth steppevia theBeringia land bridge,which had formed between northeasternSiberiaand westernAlaskadue to the lowering ofsea levelduring theLast Glacial Maximum(26,000 to 19,000 years ago).[53]These populations expanded south of theLaurentide Ice Sheetand spread rapidly southward, occupying bothNorth and South Americaby 12,000 to 14,000 years ago.[54][55][56][57][58]The earliest populations in the Americas, before roughly 10,000 years ago, are known asPaleo-Indians.Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to Siberian populations by proposedlinguistic factors,the distribution ofblood types,and ingenetic compositionas reflected bymoleculardata, such asDNA.[59][60]

The precise date for the peopling of the Americas is a long-standing open question. While advances inarchaeology,Pleistocenegeology,physical anthropology,andDNA analysishave progressively shed more light on the subject, significant questions remain unresolved.[61][62]The "Clovis first theory" refers to the hypothesis that theClovis culturerepresents the earliest human presence in the Americas about 13,000 years ago.[63]Evidence of pre-Clovis cultures has accumulatedand pushed back the possible date of the first peopling of the Americas.[64][65][66][67]Academics generally believe that humans reached North America south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at some point between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago.[61][64][68][69][70][71]Some new controversial archaeological evidence suggests the possibility that human arrival in the Americas may have occurred prior to theLast Glacial Maximummore than 20,000 years ago.[64][72][73][74][75][76]

Around 3,000 years ago, the progenitors of theYupik peoplessettled along both sides of the straits.[77]The governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage". Among other things this agreement would establish close ties between theBering Land Bridge National Preserveand theCape Krusenstern National Monumentin the United States andBeringia National Parkin Russia.[78]

Previous connections

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Map shows the connection between North America and Asia during theLate Cretaceousperiod (~80Ma).[79]

Biogeographicalevidence demonstrates previous connections between North America and Asia.[79]Similardinosaurfossils occur both inAsiaand inNorth America.[80]The dinosaurSaurolophuswas found in both Mongolia and western North America.[81]Relatives ofTroodon,Triceratops,andTyrannosaurusrexall came from Asia.[82][83]

The earliestCanis lupusspecimen was a fossil tooth discovered atOld Crow, Yukon,Canada. The specimen was found in sediment dated 1 million YBP,[84]however the geological attribution of this sediment is questioned.[84][85]Slightly younger specimens were discovered at Cripple Creek Sump,Fairbanks,Alaska, in strata dated 810,000 YBP. Both discoveries point to the origin of these wolves in eastern Beringia during theMiddle Pleistocene.[84]

Fossil evidence also indicates an exchange of primates and plants between North America and Asia around 55.8 million years ago.[79][86][87]20 million years ago, evidence in North America shows the last natural interchange of mammalian species. Some, like the ancientsaber-toothed cats,have a recurring geographical range: Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America.[79]The pattern of bidirectional flow of biota has been asymmetric, with more plants, animals, and fungi generally migrating from Asia to North America than vice versa throughout the Cenozoic.[87]

See also

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References

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