Wikipedia

Birth order

"Younger brother" redirects here. For other uses, seeYounger brother (disambiguation).
"Middle child" redirects here. For the J. Cole song, seeMiddle Child.For the belief that middle children develop specific characteristics, seeMiddle child syndrome.

Birth orderrefers to the order a child is born in their family;first-bornand second-born are examples. Birth order is often believed to have a profound and lasting effect on psychological development. This assertion has been repeatedly challenged.[1]Recent research has consistently found that earlier born children score slightly higher on average on measures of intelligence, but has found zero, or almost zero, robust effect of birth order on personality.[2]Nevertheless, the notion that birth-order significantly influences personality continues to have a strong presence inpop psychologyand popular culture.[3][4]

Theory

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Alfred Adler(1870–1937), anAustrianpsychiatrist,and a contemporary ofSigmund FreudandCarl Jung,was one of the firsttheoriststo suggest that birth order influencespersonality.He argued that birth order can leave an indelible impression on an individual's style of life, which is one's habitual way of dealing with the tasks of friendship, love, and work. According to Adler, firstborns are "dethroned" when a second child comes along, and this loss of perceived privilege and primacy may have a lasting influence on them. Middle children may feel ignored or overlooked, causing them to develop the so-calledmiddle child syndrome.Younger andonly childrenmay be pampered and spoiled, which was suggested to affect their later personalities.[5]All of this assumes what Adler believed to be a typical family situation, e.g., anuclear familyliving apart from the extended family, without the children being orphaned, with average spacing between births, without twins and other multiples, and with surviving children not having severe physical, intellectual, or psychiatric disabilities.

Since Adler's time, the influence of birth order on the development ofpersonalityhas become a controversial issue inpsychology.Among the general public, it is widely believed that personality is strongly influenced by birth order, but many psychologists dispute this. One modern theory of personality states that theBig Five personality traitsofOpenness,Conscientiousness,Extraversion,Agreeableness,andNeuroticismrepresent most of the important elements of personality that can be measured. Contemporary empirical research shows that birth order does not influence the Big Five personality traits.[6]

In his 1996 bookBorn to Rebel,Frank Sullowaysuggested that birth order had powerful effects on theBig Fivepersonality traits. He argued that firstborns were much moreconscientiousand socially dominant, less agreeable, and less open to new ideas compared to laterborns.[7]However, critics such as Fred Townsend,Toni Falbo,andJudith Rich Harris,argue against Sulloway's theories. A full issue ofPolitics and the Life Sciences,dated September, 2000 but not published until 2004[8]due to legal threats from Sulloway, contains carefully and rigorously researched criticisms of Sulloway's theories and data. Subsequent large independent multi-cohort studies have revealed approximately zero effect of birth order on personality.[9]

In their bookSibling Relationships: Their Nature and Significance across the Lifespan,Michael E. Lamb andBrian Sutton-Smithargue that as individuals continually adjust to competing demands ofsocializationagents and biological tendencies, any effects of birth order may be eliminated, reinforced, or altered by later experiences.[10]

Personality

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TheMarx Brothersin birth order, oldest at top

Claims about birth order effects on personality have received much attention in scientific research, with theNational Academy of Sciencesin the USA concluding that effects are zero[6]or near zero.[11]Such research is a challenge because of the difficulty of controlling all the variables that are statistically related to birth order. Family size, and a number of social and demographic variables are associated with birth order and serve as potentialconfounds.For example, large families are generally lower in socioeconomic status than small families. Hence third-born children are not only third in birth order, but they are also more likely to come from larger, poorer families than firstborn children. If third-born children have a particular trait, it may be due to birth order, or it may be due to family size, or to any number of other variables. Consequently, there are a large number of published studies on birth order that are confounded.

Literature reviewsthat have examined many studies and attempted to control for confounding variables tend to find minimal effects for birth order. Ernst and Angst reviewed all of the research published between 1946 and 1980. They also did their own study on a representative sample of 6,315 young men from Switzerland. They found no substantial effects of birth order and concluded that birth order research was a "waste of time."[12]More recent research analyzed data from a national sample of 9,664 subjects on theBig Five personality traitsof extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience. Contrary to Sulloway's predictions, they found no significant correlation between birth order and self-reported personality. There was, however, some tendency for people toperceive birth order effects when they were aware of the birth orderof an individual.[13]

Smaller studies have partially supported Sulloway's claims. Paulhus and colleagues reported that first borns scored higher on conservatism, conscientiousness and achievement orientation, and later borns higher on rebelliousness, openness, and agreeableness. The authors argued that the effect emerges most clearly from studies within families. Results are weak at best, when individuals from different families are compared. The reason is that genetic effects are stronger than birth order effects.[14]Recent studies also support the claim that only children are not markedly different from their peers with siblings. Scientists have found that they share many characteristics with firstborn children including being conscientious as well as parent-oriented.[15]

In her review of the research,Judith Rich Harrissuggests that birth order effects may exist within the context of the family of origin, but that they are not enduring aspects of personality. When people are with their parents and siblings, firstborns behave differently from laterborns, even during adulthood. However, most people don't spend their adult lives in their childhood home. Harris provides evidence that the patterns of behavior acquired in the childhood home don't affect the way people behave outside the home, even during childhood. Harris concludes that birth order effects keep turning up because people keep looking for them, and keep analyzing and reanalyzing their data until they find them.[16]

Intelligence

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Further information:DysgenicsandFertility and intelligence
Three siblings from the 1890s

In a metanalysis, Polit and Falbo (1988) found that firstborns, only children, and children with one sibling all score higher on tests of verbal ability than later-borns and children with multiple siblings.[17]

Robert Zajoncargued for a "confluence" model in which the lack of siblings experienced by firstborns exposes them to the more intellectual adult family environment. This predicts similar increases in IQ for siblings who next-oldest sibling is at least five years senior. These children are considered to be "functional firstborns". The theory further predicts that firstborns will be more intelligent than only children, because the latter will not benefit from the "tutor effect" (i.e. teaching younger siblings).[18]

Several studies have found that firstborns have slightly higherIQthan later borns.[19][2]Such data is, however, commonly confounded with family size,[11][20]which is in turn correlated with IQ confounds, such as social status. Likewise, an analysis of data from theNational Child Development Studyhas been used in support of an alternateadmixture hypothesis,which asserts that the apparent birth-order effect on intelligence is wholly an artifact of family size,[21]i.e. an instance ofselection pressureacing against intelligence under modern conditions.

The claim that firstborns have higher IQ scores to begin with, has, however, also been disputed outright. Data from theNational Longitudinal Survey of Youthshow no relationship between birth order and intelligence.[1]

Sexual orientation

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Thefraternal birth ordereffect is the name given to the theory that the more older brothers a man has, the greater the probability is that he will have a homosexual orientation. The fraternal birth order effect is said to be the strongest known predictor of sexual orientation, with each older brother increasing a man's odds of being gay by approximately 33%.[22][23](One of the largest studies to date, however, suggests a smaller effect, of 15% higher odds.[24][25]) Even so, the fraternal birth order effect only accounts for a maximum of one seventh of the prevalence of homosexuality in men. There seems to be no effect on sexual orientation in women, and no effect of the number of older sisters.

InHomosexuality, Birth Order, and Evolution: Toward an Equilibrium Reproductive Economics of Homosexuality,Edward M. Miller suggests that the birth order effect on homosexuality may be a by-product of an evolved mechanism that shifts personality away from heterosexuality in laterborn sons.[26]According to Miller, this would have the consequence of reducing the probability of these sons engaging in unproductive competition with each other. Evolution may have favored biological mechanisms prompting human parents to exertaffirmativepressuretowardheterosexual behavior in earlier-born children: As more children in a family survive infancy and early childhood, the continued existence of the parents'geneline becomes more assured (cf.thepressureon newly-wed European aristocrats, especially young brides, to produce "an heir and a spare" ), and the benefits of encouraging heterosexualityweigh less strongly againstthe risk of psychological damage that a strongly heteronormative environment poses to a child predisposed toward homosexuality.

More recently, this birth order effect on sexuality in males has been attributed to a very specific biological occurrence. As the mother gives birth to more sons, she is thought to develop an immunity to certain male-specific antigens. This immunity then leads to an effect in the brain that has to do with sexual preference. Yet this biological effect is seen only inright-handedmales. If not right-handed, the number of older brothers has been found to have no prediction on the sexuality of a younger brother. This has led researchers to consider if the genes for sexuality and handedness are somehow related.[27]

Not all studies, including some with large, nationally representative samples, have been able to replicate the fraternal birth order effect. Some did not find any statistically significant difference in the sibling composition of gay and straight men;[28][29]this includes theNational Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health,[30]the largest U.S. study with relevant data on the subject. Furthermore, at least one study, on the familial correlates of joining a same-sex union or marriage in a sample of two million people inDenmark,found that the only sibling correlate of joining a same-sex union among men was having older sisters, not older brothers.[31]

Traditional naming of children according to their birth order

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In some of the world's cultures, birth order is so important that each child within the family is named according to the order in which the child was born. For example, in the Aboriginal AustralianBarngarla language,there are nine male birth order names and nine female birth order names, as following:[32]: 42 

Male:Biri(1st),Warri(2nd),Gooni(3rd),Mooni(4th),Mari(5th),Yari(6th),Mili(7th),Wanggooyoo(8th) andNgalai(9th).
Female:Gardanya(1st),Wayooroo(2nd),Goonda(3rd),Moonaga(4th),Maroogoo(5th),Yaranda(6th),Milaga(7th),Wanggoordoo(8th) andNgalaga(9th).[32]: 42 

To determine the suitable name for the newborn child, one first finds out the number of the newborn within the family, and only then chooses the male/female name, according to the gender of the newborn. So, for example, if a baby girl is born after three boys, her name would beMoonaga(4th born, female) as she is the fourth child within the family.

In some modern day Western cultures, it is common for parents to give their children the same name as them. This tradition dates back to the 17th century and is most prevalent in fathers and sons, where the son will receive the same first name, middle name, and surname with either a "Jr.", "II", "III" or "IV", etc. attached after the family surname. This practice started as a symbol of status for 'upper class' citizens, but is now more commonly used as a family tradition, not necessarily implying that they are of a 'higher status' than their peer(s), sibling(s) or other family members.

The tradition of a father naming his son after himself or a male relative from an earlier generation (grandfather, great-grandfather) is referred to as 'patronymic', while the tradition of a mother naming her daughter after herself or a female relative from an earlier generation (grandmother, great-grandmother) is referred to as 'matronymic'.

See also

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References

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  1. ^abRodgers, JL; Cleveland, HH; Van Den Oord, E; Rowe, DC (2000). "Resolving the debate over birth order, family size, and intelligence".The American Psychologist.55(6): 599–612.doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.6.599.PMID10892201.
  2. ^abRohrer, Julia M.; Egloff, Boris; Schmukle, Stefan C. (2015-11-17)."Examining the effects of birth order on personality".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.112(46): 14224–14229.Bibcode:2015PNAS..11214224R.doi:10.1073/pnas.1506451112.ISSN0027-8424.PMC4655522.PMID26483461.
  3. ^Isaacson, Clifford E (2002).The Birth Order Effect: How to Better Understand Yourself and Others.Adams Media Corporation. p.141.ISBN978-1580625517.fourthborn.
  4. ^Bradshaw, John (1996).The Family: A New Way of Creating Solid Self-esteem.Health Communications. pp.36–37.ISBN978-1558744271.fourth children.
  5. ^Adler, A. (1964).Problems of neurosis.New York: Harper and Row.
  6. ^abRohrer, Julia M.; Egloff, Boris; Schmukle, Stefan C. (2015-10-19)."Examining the effects of birth order on personality".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.112(46): 14224–14229.Bibcode:2015PNAS..11214224R.doi:10.1073/pnas.1506451112.ISSN0027-8424.PMC4655522.PMID26483461.
  7. ^Sulloway, F.J. (2001). Birth Order, Sibling Competition, and Human Behavior. In Paul S. Davies and Harmon R. Holcomb, (Eds.),Conceptual Challenges in Evolutionary Psychology: Innovative Research Strategies.Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 39-83."Full text"(PDF).(325 KB)
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  15. ^van der Leun, Justine (October 2009)."Does Birth Order Really Matter?".AOL Health. Archived fromthe originalon 2010-02-06.
  16. ^Harris, J. R. (1998).The Nurture Assumption:Why children turn out the way they do. New York: Free Press.
  17. ^Polit D. F.; Falbo T. (1988). "The intellectual achievement of only children".Journal of Biosocial Science.20(3): 275–285.doi:10.1017/S0021932000006611.PMID3063715.S2CID34618696.
  18. ^Zajonc, R. B.; Markus, Gregory B.; Berbaum, Michael L.; Bargh, John A.; Moreland, Richard L. (1991)."One Justified Criticism Plus Three Flawed Analyses Equals Two Unwarranted Conclusions: A Reply to Retherford and Sewell".American Sociological Review.56(2): 159–165.doi:10.2307/2095776.ISSN0003-1224.JSTOR2095776.
  19. ^Belmont, M.; Marolla, F.A. (1973). "Birth order, family size, and intelligence".Science.182(4117): 1096–1101.Bibcode:1973Sci...182.1096B.doi:10.1126/science.182.4117.1096.PMID4750607.S2CID148641822.
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  22. ^Blanchard R (2001). "Fraternal birth order and the maternal immune hypothesis of male homosexuality".Hormones and Behavior.40(2): 105–114.doi:10.1006/hbeh.2001.1681.PMID11534970.S2CID33261960.
  23. ^Puts, D. A.; Jordan, C. L.;Breedlove, S. M.(2006)."O brother, where art thou? The fraternal birth-order effect on male sexual orientation"(PDF).Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.103(28): 10531–10532.Bibcode:2006PNAS..10310531P.doi:10.1073/pnas.0604102103.PMC1502267.PMID16815969.
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  27. ^Blanchard, Ray. "Review and theory of handedness, birth order, and homosexuality in men." Laterality, 2008, p. 51-70.
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  29. ^Mariana Kishida; Qazi Rahman (2015). "Fraternal Birth Order and Extreme Right-Handedness as Predictors of Sexual Orientation and Gender Nonconformity in Men".Archives of Sexual Behavior.44(5): 1493–1501.doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0474-0.PMID25663238.S2CID30678785.
  30. ^Francis AM (2008). "Family and sexual orientation: the family-demographic correlates of homosexuality in men and women".J. Sex Res.45(4): 371–7.doi:10.1080/00224490802398357.PMID18937128.S2CID20471773.
  31. ^Frisch M; Hviid A (2006). "Childhood family correlates of heterosexual and homosexual marriages: a national cohort study of two million Danes".Archives of Sexual Behavior.35(5): 533–47.doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9062-2.PMID17039403.S2CID21908113.
  32. ^abZuckermann, Ghil'adand the Barngarla (2019),Barngarlidhi Manoo (Speaking Barngarla Together),Barngarla Language Advisory Committee. (Barngarlidhi Manoo– Part II)
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