Wikipedia

Black kite

For the 2017 film, seeBlack Kite (film).

Theblack kite(Milvus migrans) is a medium-sizedbird of preyin the familyAccipitridae,which also includes many otherdiurnalraptors. It is thought to be the world's most abundant species of Accipitridae, although some populations have experienced dramatic declines or fluctuations.[2]Current global population estimates run up to 6.7 million individuals.[1]

Black kite
M. m. affinis,Australia
Calls
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Accipitridae
Genus: Milvus
Species:
M. migrans
Binomial name
Milvus migrans
(Boddaert,1783)
Subspecies

5, seetext

Range of black and yellow-billed kites
Breeding
Resident
Non-breeding
Passage
Synonyms
  • Falco migransBoddaert, 1783
  • Milvus affinis
  • Milvus ater
  • Milvus melanotis
inBangladesh

Unlike others of the group, black kites are opportunistic hunters and are more likely to scavenge. They spend much time soaring and gliding inthermalsin search of food. Their angled wing and distinctive forked tail make them easy to identify. They are alsovociferouswith a shrill whinnying call.

The blackkiteis widely distributed through thetemperateand tropical parts ofEurasiaand parts ofAustralasiaandOceania,with the temperate region populations tending to be migratory. Several subspecies are recognized and formerly had their own English names. The European populations are small, but the South Asian population is very large.

Systematics and taxonomy

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The black kite was described by the French polymathGeorges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffonin hisHistoire Naturelle des Oiseauxin 1770.[3]The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved byFrançois-Nicolas Martinetin thePlanches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturellewhich was produced under the supervision ofEdme-Louis Daubentonto accompany Buffon's text.[4]Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalistPieter Boddaertcoined thebinomial nameFalco migransin his catalogue of thePlanches Enluminées.[5]Thetype localityis France.[6]The currentgenusMilvuswas erected by the French naturalistBernard Germain de Lacépèdein 1799.[7]Milvusis the Latin word for ared kite;the specificmigransmeans "migrating" from the Latinmigrare"to migrate".[8]

Thered kitehas been known tohybridizewith the black kite (in captivity where both species were kept together, and in the wild on theCape Verde Islands).[9]

Recent DNA studies suggest that the yellow-billed African racesparasitusandaegyptiusdiffer significantly from black kites in the Eurasianclade,and should be considered a separateallopatricspecies:yellow-billed kite,M. aegyptius.[10]They occur throughoutAfricaexcept for theCongo Basinand theSahara Desert.There have been some suggestions that the black-eared kite (M. m. lineatus) should be elevated to full species status asM. lineatus,but this is not well supported.[11]

Subspecies

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Fivesubspeciesare recognised.[12]

  • M. m. migrans–(Boddaert,1783):European black kite
Breeds Central, Southern and Eastern Europe, as well as theMaghrebregion of Northwest Africa, to theTien Shanand south to northwesternPakistan.Winters inSub-Saharan Africa.The head is whitish.
  • M. m. lineatus–(J. E. Gray,1831):black-eared kite
SiberiatoAmurlandsouth aroundHimalayato northern India, northernIndochinaand southern China; Japan. Northern inland birds migrate to the easternPersian Gulfcoast and South Asia in winter. This has a larger palecarpal patch.
  • M. m. govinda–Sykes,1832:small Indian kite(formerlypariah kite)
EasternPakistaneast through tropicalIndiaandSri Lankato Indochina and theMalay Peninsula.Resident. A dark brown kite found throughout the subcontinent. Can be seen circling and soaring in urban areas. Easily distinguished by the shallow forked tail. The namepariahoriginates from the Indian caste system and usage of this name is deprecated.[13][14]
  • M. m. affinis–Gould,1838:fork-tailed kite
Sulawesiand possibly theLesser Sunda Islands;Papua New Guineaexcept mountains; northeastern and eastern Australia.
  • M. m. formosanus–Kuroda,1920:Taiwan kite
TaiwanandHainan;resident.
Black kite flying at the beach inKanagawa,Japan

Description

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Black kites can be distinguished fromred kitesby the slightly smaller size, less forked tail (visible in flight), and generally darkplumagewithout any rufous. The sexes are alike though the male is a little smaller and less aggressive (this is the case in most birds of prey). They weigh on average 735 grams.[15]The upper plumage is brown but the head and neck tend to be paler. The patch behind the eye appears darker. The outer flight feathers are black and the feathers have dark cross bars and are mottled at the base. The lower parts of the body are pale brown, becoming lighter towards the chin. The body feathers have dark shafts giving it a streaked appearance. Thecereandgapeare yellow, but the bill is black (unlike that of theyellow-billed kite). The legs are yellow and the claws are black. They have a distinctive shrill whistle followed by a rapid whinnying call. Males and females have the same plumage but females are longer than males and have a little larger wingspan. Their wingspan is around 150 cm.[16]

Distribution

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Black Kite (Milvus migrans)- Juvenile inNepal

The species is found in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. The temperate populations of this kite tend to be migratory while the tropical ones are resident.Europeanand centralAsianbirds (subspeciesM. m. migransandblack-eared kiteM. m. lineatus,respectively) aremigratory,moving to the tropics in winter, but races in warmer regions such as theIndianM. m. govinda(small Indian/pariah kite), or the AustralasianM. m. affinis(fork-tailed kite), are resident. In some areas such as in theUnited Kingdom,the black kite occurs only as a wanderer on migration. These birds are usually of the nominate race, but in November 2006 a juvenile of the easternlineatus,not previously recorded in western Europe, was found inLincolnshire.[17]

The species is not found in theIndonesianarchipelagobetween theSouth East Asianmainland and theWallace Line.[18]Vagrants, most likely of the black-eared kite, on occasion range far into thePacific,out to theHawaiian Islands.[19][20]

In India, the population ofM. m. govindais particularly large especially in areas of high human population. Here the birds avoid heavily forested regions. A survey in 1967 in the 150 square kilometres of the city of New Delhi produced an estimate of about 2200 pairs or roughly 15 per square kilometre.[16][21]Another survey in 2013 estimated 150 pairs for every 10 square kilometres.[22]

Vagrants from Australia occasionally reach New Zealand, however, only one individual has persisted there (currently ~21 years old).[23]

Behaviour and ecology

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Food and foraging

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Black kites are most often seen gliding and soaring on thermals as they search for food. Their flight isbuoyantand the bird glides effortlessly, changing directions easily. They will swoop down with their legs lowered to snatch small live prey,fish,household refuse andcarrion,for which behaviour they are known in Britishmilitary slangas theshite-hawk.They are opportunist hunters and have been known to takebirds,bats,[24]androdents.[25]They are attracted to smoke and fires, where they seek escaping prey.[26]Kites are also known to spread wildfires in northern Australia by picking up and dropping burning twigs so as to flush prey,[27][28]leading to them being known in some circles as "firehawks".[29]

The Indian populations are well adapted to living in cities and are found in densely populated areas. Large numbers may be seen soaring inthermalsover cities. In some places, they will readily swoop and snatch food held by humans.[16][30]In Delhi, where black kites breed within the cities, religious offerings of meat to the kites are common among those who practice Islam. The meat is thrown into the air and the kites dive-bomb for the meat. Humans who are in the vicinity may suffer serious injury due to the sharp talons of the kites. The reinforcement between human proximity and being fed have decreased the kite's fear of humans.[31]Black kites in Spain prey on nestling waterfowl especially during summer to feed their young. Predation of nests of other pairs of black kites has also been noted.[32]Kites have also been seen to tear and carry away the nests ofbaya weaversin an attempt to obtain eggs or chicks.[33]

Flocking and roosting

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Black kite catching fish, Nepal

In winter, kites form large communal roosts. Flocks may fly about before settling at the roost.[30]When migrating, the black kite has a greater propensity to form large flocks than other migratory raptors, particularly prior to making a crossing over water.[34]In India, the subspeciesgovindashows large seasonal fluctuations with the highest numbers seen from July to October, after the monsoons, and it has been suggested that they make local movements in response to high rainfall.[35]

Breeding

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The breeding season of the black kite in India begins in winter (mainly January and February[36]), the young birds fledging before themonsoons.The nest is a rough platform of twigs and sticks placed in a tree. Nest sites may be reused in subsequent years. European birds breed in summer. Birds in the Italian Alps tend to build their nest close to water in steep cliffs or tall trees.[37]Nest orientation may be related to wind and rainfall.[38]The nests may sometimes be decorated with bright materials such as white plastic and a study in Spain suggests that they may have a role in signalling to keep away other kites.[39]

After pairing, the male frequently copulates with the female. Unguarded females may be approached by other males, and extra pair copulations are frequent. Males returning from a foraging trip will frequently copulate on return, as this increases the chances of his sperm fertilizing the eggs rather than a different male.[40]Both the male and female take part in nest building, incubation and care of chicks.

Eggs

The typical clutch size is 2 or sometimes 3 eggs.[30][41]The incubation period varies from 30 to 34 days. Chicks of the Indian population stay at the nest for nearly two months.[36]Chicks hatched later in European populations appear to fledge faster. The care of young by the parents also rapidly decreased with the need for adults to migrate.[42][43]Siblings show aggression to each other and often the weaker chick may be killed, but parent birds were found to preferentially feed the smaller chicks in experimentally altered nests.[44]

Newly hatched young have down (prepennae) which are sepia on the back and black around the eye and buff on the head, neck and underparts. This is replaced by brownish-gray second down (preplumulae). After 9–12 days, the second down appears on the whole body except the top of the head. Body feathers begin to appear after 18 to 22 days. The feathers on the head become noticeable from the 24th to 29th day. The nestlings initially feed on food fallen at the bottom of the nest and begin to tear flesh after 33–39 days. They are able to stand on their legs after 17–19 days and begin flapping their wings after 27–31 days. After 50 days, they begin to move to branches next to the nest.[45][46]Birds are able to breed after their second year.[36]Parent birds guard their nest and will dive aggressively at intruders. Humans who intrude the nest appear to be recognized by birds and singled out for dive attacks.[47]

Mortality factors

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Black-eared kites in Japan were found to accumulate nearly 70% of mercury accumulated from polluted food in the feathers, thus excreting it in the moult process.[48]Black kites often perch on electric wires and are frequent victims of electrocution.[49][50]Their habit of swooping to pick up deadrodentsor otherroadkillleads to collisions with vehicles.[51]Instances of mass poisoning as a result of feeding on poisoned voles in agricultural fields have been noted.[52]They are also a major nuisance at someairports,where their size makes them a significantbirdstrikehazard.[53]

As a large raptorial bird, the black kite has few natural predators. However, they do have a single serious predator: theEurasian eagle-owl(Bubo bubo). The eagle-owl freely picks off kites of any age and eagle-owls were noted to precipitously decrease kite breeding success when nesting within kilometres of the kites in theItalian Alps.[54]Like most bird species, they have parasites; several species of endoparasitictrematodesare known[55]and someDigeneaspecies that are transmitted via fishes.[56][57][58]

Birds with abnormal development of a secondary upper mandible have been recorded ingovinda[59]andlineatussubspecies.[60]

References

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