Boers(/bʊərz/BOORZ;Afrikaans:Boere([ˈbuːrə]) are the descendants of the protoAfrikaans-speakingFree Burghersof the easternCapefrontier[2]inSouthern Africaduring the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. From 1652 to 1795, theDutch East India CompanycontrolledDutch Cape Colony,but theUnited Kingdomincorporated it into theBritish Empirein 1806.[3]The name of the group is derived from Trekboer then later "boer", which means "farmer" inDutchand Afrikaans.[4]
Boervolk | |
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![]() Boer family in 1886 | |
Total population | |
c. 1.5 million[1] | |
Languages | |
Afrikaans,Boeraans | |
Religion | |
Protestant ChristianityandMessianism | |
Related ethnic groups | |
In addition, the termBoerenalso applied to those who left theCape Colonyduring the 19th century to colonise in theOrange Free State,Transvaal(together known as theBoer Republics), and to a lesser extentNatal.They emigrated from the Cape to live beyond the reach of the British colonial administration, with their reasons for doing so primarily being the new Anglophonecommon lawsystem being introduced into the Cape and theBritish abolition of slaveryin 1833.[3][need quotation to verify][5]
The termAfrikanersorAfrikaans people[6][7][8]is generally used in modern-day South Africa for the white Afrikaans-speaking population ofSouth Africa(the largest group ofWhite South Africans) encompassing the descendants of both the Boers, and theCape Dutchwho did not embark on theGreat Trek.
Origin
editEuropean colonists
editTheDutch East India Company(Dutch:Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie;VOC) was formed in theDutch Republicin 1602, and at this time the Dutch had entered the competition for the colonial and imperial trade of commerce in Southeast Asia. The end of theThirty Years' Warin 1648 saw European soldiers and refugees widely dispersed across Europe. Immigrants from Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland traveled to the Netherlands in the hope of finding employment with the VOC. During the same year, one of their ships was stranded inTable Baynear what would eventually becomeCape Town,and the shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months. They were so impressed with the natural resources of the country that on their return to the Republic, they represented to the VOC directors the great advantages to be had for the Dutch Eastern trade from a properly provided and fortified station at the Cape. As a result, the VOC sent a Dutch expedition in 1652 led byJan van Riebeek,who constructed a fort and laid out vegetable gardens at Table Bay and took control over Cape Town, which he governed for a decade.
Free Burghers
editVOC favoured the idea of freemen at the Cape and many workers of VOC requested to be discharged in order to become free burghers. As a result Jan van Riebeeck approved the notion on favourable conditions and earmarked two areas near theLiesbeek Riverfor farming purposes in 1657. The two areas which were allocated to the freemen, for agricultural purposes, were named Groeneveld and Dutch Garden. These areas were separated by the Amstel River (Liesbeek River). Nine of the best applicants were selected to use the land for agricultural purposes. The freemen or free burghers as they were afterwards termed, thus became subjects of VOC and were no longer its servants.[9]
In 1671, the Dutch first purchased land from the indigenousKhoikhoibeyond the limits of the fort built by Van Riebeek; this marked the development ofthe Colony proper.As the result of the investigations of a 1685 commissioner, the government worked to recruit a greater variety of immigrants to develop a stable community. They formed part of the class ofvrijlieden,also known asvrijburgers('free citizens'), former VOC employees who remained at the Cape after serving their contracts.[10]A large number ofvrijburgersbecame independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from VOC administration.[10]
Dutch free immigrants
editVOC authorities had been endeavouring to induce gardeners and small farmers to emigrate from Europe to South Africa, but with little success. They were only able to attract a few families through tales of wealth, but the Cape had little charm in comparison. In October 1670, however, the Chamber of Amsterdam announced that a few families were willing to leave for the Cape and Mauritius during the following December. Among the new names of burghers at this time are Jacob and Dirk van Niekerk, Johannes van As, Francois Villion, Jacob Brouwer, Jan van Eden, Hermanus Potgieter, Albertus Gildenhuis, and Jacobus van den Berg.[11]
French Huguenots
editDuring 1688–1689, the colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of nearly two hundred FrenchHuguenots,who were political refugees from the religious wars in France following the revocation of theEdict of Nantes.They joined colonies atStellenbosch,Drakenstein,FranschhoekandPaarl.[12]The influence of the Huguenots on the character of the colonists was marked, leading to the VOC directing in 1701 that onlyDutchshould be taught in schools. This resulted in the Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss in the use and knowledge ofFrench.The colony gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 land as far asAlgoa Baywas included in the colony.
At this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, and were famed for the good quality of theirwines.But their chief wealth was in cattle. They enjoyed considerable prosperity.
Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, troubles arose between the colonists and the government as the VOC administration wasdespotic.Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, but to using it to profit the VOC. VOC closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they were to grow, demanded a large part of their produce as a kind of tax, and made other exactions.
Trekboers
editThis sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(February 2021) |
From time to time, indentured VOC servants were endowed with the right offreeburghersbut the VOC retained the power to compel them to return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary. This right to force into servitude those who might incur the displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves; it was claimed by the government to be applicable to their children as well.
Thetyrannycaused many to feel desperate and to flee from oppression, even before 1700trekkingbegan. In 1780,Joachim van Plettenberg,the governor, proclaimed theSneeubergeto be the northern boundary of the colony, expressing "the anxious hope that no more extension should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the rambling peasants to wander beyond". In 1789, so strong had feelings amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities atAmsterdam.After this deputation, some nominal reforms were granted.
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Descending from the Sneeuberge, a scene nearGraaff-Reinet,byBurchell
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Passing Cradock Pass,Outeniqua Mountains,byCharles Collier Michell
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AnaquatintbySamuel Daniellof Trekboers making camp
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Trekboers crossing theKaroobyCharles Davidson Bell
It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government. VOC, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy atSwellendamin 1745 and another atGraaff Reinetin 1786. TheGamtoos Riverhad been declared,c. 1740,the eastern frontier of the colony but it was soon passed. In 1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with theBantu peoples,agreed with them to make theGreat Fish Riverthe common boundary. In 1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no protection against the Bantus, expelled the VOC officials, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet.
The trekboers of the 19th century[who?]were the lineal descendants of the trekboers of the 18th century. The end of the 19th century saw a revival of the same tyrannical monopolist policy as that in the VOC government in theTransvaal.If the formula, "In all things political, purely despotic; in all things commercial, purely monopolist", was true of the VOC government in the 18th century, it was equally true ofKruger's government in the latter part of the 19th.[citation needed][clarification needed]
The underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral and nomadic habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for their flocks and herds, possessing no special affection for any particular locality. These people, thinly scattered over a wide territory, had lived for so long with little restraint from the law that when, in 1815, by the institution of "Commissions of Circuit", justice was brought nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light, the remedying of which caused much resentment.
The Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony, as a result of theGreat Trek,had removed themselves from governmental rule and become widely spread out. However, the institution of "Commissions of Circuit" in 1815 allowed the prosecution of crimes, with offences committed by the trekboers—notably including many against people they had enslaved—seeing justice. These prosecutions were very unpopular amongst the trekkers and were seen as interfering with their rights over the enslaved people they viewed as their property.
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A map of the expansion of the Trekboers (1700–1800)
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Evolution of theDutch Cape Colony(1700–1800)
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Administrative divisions of the Dutch Cape Colony
Invasion of the Cape Colony
editTheInvasion of the Cape Colonywas a British military expedition launched in 1795 against theDutch Cape Colonyat theCape of Good Hope.The Netherlands had fallen underthe revolutionary government of Franceand a British force underGeneralSirJames Henry Craigwas sent to Cape Town to secure the colony from the French for thePrince of Orange,a refugee in England.The governor of Cape Townat first refused to obey the instructions from the Prince, but when the British proceeded to land troops to take possession anyway, he capitulated. His action was hastened by the fact that the Khoikhoi, escaping from their former enslavers, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them; in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of thepeace of Amiens(February 1803), the colony was handed over to theBatavian Republicwhich introduced many reforms, as had the British during their eight years' rule. One of the first acts of General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of justice. The country still remained essentially Dutch, and few British citizens were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer during this period was£16,000,000.[citation needed]The Batavian Republic entertained very liberal views as to the administration of the country, but had little opportunity to enact them.[citation needed]
When theWar of the Third Coalitionbroke out in 1803, a British force was once again sent to the Cape. After an engagement (January 1806) on the shores of Table Bay, the Dutch garrison ofCastle of Good Hopesurrendered to the British underSir David Baird,and in the1814 Anglo-Dutch treatythe colony was ceded outright by The Netherlands tothe British crown.At that time the colony extended to the line of mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland (after a name for theSan people), and had an area of about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000, of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Khoikhoi and the rest enslaved people, mostly non-indigenous blacks and Malays.
Dislike of British rule
editAlthough the colony was fairly prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they had been with that of the VOC, though their grounds for complaint were not the same. In 1792,Moravianmissions had been established which targeted the Khoikhoi, and in 1799 theLondon Missionary Societybegan work among both Khoikhoi and Bantu peoples. The missionaries' championing of Khoikhoi grievances caused much dissatisfaction among the majority of the Dutch colonists, whose views temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Khoikhoi children as apprentices under conditions which differed little fromslavery.[13]Simultaneously, the movement for theabolition of slaverywas gaining strength in England, and the missionaries appealed from the colonists to the mother country.[citation needed]
Slachter's Nek
editA farmer named Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the complaint of a Khoikhoi, and, firing on the party sent to arrest him, was killed by the return fire. This caused a smallrebellionin 1815, known asSlachters Nek,described as "the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men to wage war against their sovereign" by Henry Cloete. Upon its suppression, five ringleaders were publicly hanged at the spot where they had sworn to expel "the English tyrants". The feeling[clarification needed]caused by the hanging of these men was deepened by the circumstances of the execution, as the scaffold on which the rebels were simultaneously hanged broke down from their united weight and the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance was passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts oflanddrostandheemraden(residentmagistratesbeing substituted) and establishing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted in English. The granting in 1828, as a result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with whites to the Khoikhoi and other freecolouredpeople, the imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of enslaved people, and finally the emancipation of the enslaved people in 1834, were measures which combined to aggravate the farmers' dislike of government. Moreover, what the Boers viewed as the inadequate compensation for the freeing of the slaves, and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment, caused much resentment; and in 1835 the farmers again removed themselves to unknown country to escape the government. While emigration beyond the colonial border had been continuous for 150 years, it now took on larger proportions.[citation needed]
Cape Frontier Wars (1779–1879)
editThe migration of the trekboers from theCape Colonyinto theEastern Capeparts of South Africa, where the native Xhosa people had established settlements, gave rise to a series of conflicts between the Boers and the Xhosas. In 1775 the Cape government established a boundary between the trekboers and the Xhosas at the Bushmans and Upper Fish Rivers. The Boers and Xhosas ignored the boundary, with both groups establishing homes on either side of the frontier. Governor van Plettenberg attempted to persuade both groups to respect the boundary line without success. The Xhosas were accused of stealing cattle and in 1779 a series of skirmishes erupted along the border which initiated the 1st Frontier War.[14]
The frontier remained unstable, resulting in the outbreak of the 2nd Frontier War in 1789. Raids carried out by Boers and Xhosas on both sides of the boundary caused much friction in the area which resulted in several groups being drawn into the conflict. In 1795, the British invasion of the Cape Colony resulted in a change of government. After the government takeover the British began to draw up policies with regards to the frontier resulting in a Boer rebellion inGraaff-Reinet.The policies caused the Khoisan tribes to join some Xhosa chiefs in attacks against British forces during the 3rd Frontier War (1799–1803).[14]
Peace was restored to the area when the British, under theTreaty of Amiens,returned the Cape Colony to the Dutch Batavian Republic in 1803. In January 1806 during a second invasion, the British reoccupied the colony after theBattle of Blaauwberg.Tensions in the Zuurveld led the colonial administration and Boer colonists to expel many of the Xhosa tribes from the area, initiating the 4th Frontier War in 1811. Conflicts between the Xhosas on the frontier led to the 5th Frontier War in 1819.[14]
The Xhosas, due to dissatisfaction with vacillating government policies regarding where they were permitted to live, undertook large-scale cattle thefts on the frontier. The Cape government responded with several military expeditions. In 1834 a large Xhosa force moved into the Cape territory, which began the 6th Frontier War. Additional fortifications were built by the government and mounted patrols were not well received by the Xhosas, who continued with raids on farms during the 7th Frontier War (1846–1847). The 8th (1850–1853) and 9th Frontier Wars (1877–1878) continued at the same pace as their predecessors. Eventually the Xhosas were defeated and the territories were brought under British control.[14]
Great Trek
editThe Great Trek occurred between 1835 and the early 1840s. During that period some 12,000 to 14,000 Boers (including women and children), impatient with British rule, emigrated from Cape Colony into the great plains beyond theOrange River,and across them again intoNataland the vastness of theZoutspansberg,in the northern part of the Transvaal. Those Trekboers who occupied the eastern Cape were semi-nomadic. A significant number in the eastern Cape frontier later becameGrensboere('border farmers') who were the direct ancestors of theVoortrekkers.
The Boers addressed several correspondence to the British Colonial Government before leaving the Cape Colony as reasons for their departure.Piet Retief,one of the leaders of the Boers during the time, addressed a letter to the government on 22 January 1837 inGrahamstownstating that the Boers did not see any prospect for peace or happiness for their children in a country with such internal commotions. Retief further complained about the severe financial losses which they felt had resulted from the laws of the British administration. While there was financial compensation for the freeing of the people they had enslaved, the Boers found it to be inadequate. They also felt that the English church system was incompatible with theDutch Reformed Church.By this time the Boers had already formed a separate code of laws in preparation for the great trek and were aware of the dangerous territory they were about to enter. Retief concluded his letter with "We quit this colony under the full assurance that the English Government has nothing more to require of us, and will allow us to govern ourselves without its interference in future".[15]
Boer states and republics
editAs theVoortrekkersprogressed further inland, they continued to establish Boer colonies on the interior of South Africa.
Description | Dates | Area |
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Republic of Swellendam | 17 June - 4 November 1795 | Swellendam, Western Cape |
Republic of Graaff-Reinet | 1 February 1795–November 1796 | Graaff-Reinet, Eastern Cape |
Zoutpansberg | 1835–1864 | Limpopo |
Winburg | 1836–1844 | Free State |
Potchefstroom | 1837–1844 | North West |
Natalia Republic | 1839–1902 | Eastern Cape |
Winburg-Potchefstroom | 1844–1843 | Potchefstroom, North West |
Republic of Klip River | 1847–1848 | Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal |
Lydenburg Republic | 1849–1860 | Lydenburg, Mpumalanga |
Utrecht Republic | 1852–1858 | Utrecht, KwaZulu-Natal |
South African Republic | 1852–1877, 1881–1902 | Gauteng,Limpopo |
Orange Free State | 1854–1902 | Free State |
Klein Vrystaat | 1876–1891 | Piet Retief, Mpumalanga |
State of Goshen | 1882–1883 | North West |
Republic of Stellaland | 1882–1883 | North West |
United States of Stellaland | 1883–1885 | North West |
New Republic | 1884–1888 | Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal |
Republic of Upingtonia/Lijdensrust | 1885–1887 | Namibia |
Anglo-Boer wars
editFollowing the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877,Paul Krugerwas a key figure in organizing a Boer resistance which led to expulsion of the British from the Transvaal. The Boers then fought theSecond Boer Warin the late 19th and early 20th century against the British in order to ensure the republics of the Transvaal (theZuid-Afrikaansche Republiek) and theOrange Free State,remaining independent, ultimately capitulating in 1902.[16]
Boer War diaspora
editAfter the Second Boer War, a Boerdiasporaoccurred. Starting in 1903, the largest group emigrated to thePatagoniaregion ofArgentinaand toBrazil.Another group emigrated toBritish colony of Kenya,from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of GeneralBen Viljoenemigrated toMexicoand toNew MexicoandTexasin the southwestern United States.
1914 Boer Revolt
editThe Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt, the Five Shilling Rebellion or the Third Boer War) occurred in 1914 at the start ofWorld War I,in which men who supported the re-creation of theBoer republicsrose up against the government of theUnion of South Africabecause they did not want to side with the British against theGerman Empireso soon after the war with the British.[citation needed]
Many Boers hadGerman ancestryand many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with the Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War. The rebellion was put down byLouis BothaandJan Smuts,and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment. One,Jopie Fourie,an officer in theUnion Defence Force,was convicted for treason when he refused to take up arms alongside the British, and was executed by the South African government in 1914.
Characteristics
editLanguage
editAfrikaans is aWest Germanic languagespoken widely inSouth AfricaandNamibia,and to a lesser extent inBotswanaandZimbabwe.It evolved from the Dutch vernacular[17][18]ofSouth Holland(Hollandic dialect)[19][20]spoken by the mainly Dutch colonists of what is now South Africa, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the 18th century.[21]Hence, it is adaughter languageof Dutch, and was previously referred to asCape Dutch(also used to refer collectively to theearly Cape colonists) orkitchen Dutch(a derogatory term used in its earlier days). However, it is also variously (although incorrectly) described as acreoleor as a partiallycreolisedlanguage.[n 1]The term is ultimately derived from DutchAfrikaans-HollandsmeaningAfrican Dutch.
Culture
editThe desire to wander, known astrekgees,was a notable characteristic of the Boers. It figured prominently in the late 17th century when the Trekboers began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, again during the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Capeen masse,and after the major republics were established during the Thirstland ('Dorsland') Trek.[22]One such trekker described the impetus for emigrating as, "a drifting spirit was in our hearts, and we ourselves could not understand it. We just sold our farms and set out northwestwards to find a new home".[22] A rustic characteristic and tradition was developed quite early on as Boer society was born on the frontiers of white colonisation and on the outskirts of Western civilisation.[2]
The Boer quest for independence manifested in a tradition of declaring republics, which predates the arrival of the British; when the British arrived, Boer republics had already been declared and were in rebellion from the VOC.[23]
Beliefs
editThe Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism.[23]
The Boers had cut their ties to Europe as they emerged from the Trekboer group.[24]
The Boers possessed a distinctProtestant culture,and the majority of Boers and their descendants were members of aReformed Church.TheNederduitsch Hervormde Kerk('Dutch Reformed Church') was the national Church of the South African Republic (1852–1902). The Orange Free State (1854–1902) was named after the ProtestantHouse of Orangein theNetherlands.
TheCalvinistinfluence, in such fundamental Calvinist doctrines such as unconditionalpredestinationanddivine providence,remains present in a minority of Boer culture, who see their role in society as abiding by the national laws and accepting calamity and hardship as part of their Christian duty. Many Boers have since converted denominations and are now members ofBaptist,Charismatic,PentecostalorLutheran Churches.
Modern usage
editDuring recent times, mainly during theapartheidreform and post-1994 eras, some whiteAfrikaans-speaking people, mainly with conservative political views, and of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent, have chosen to be calledBoere,rather thanAfrikaners,to distinguish their identity.[25]They believe that many people ofVoortrekkerdescent were not assimilated into what they see as theCape-based Afrikaner identity. They suggest that this developed after theSecond Anglo-Boer Warand the subsequent establishment of theUnion of South Africain 1910. Some Boer nationalists have asserted that they do not identify as aright-wingelement of the political spectrum.[26]
They contend that the Boers of the South African Republic and Orange Free State republics were recognised as a separate people or cultural group under international law by theSand River Convention(which created the South African Republic in 1852),[27]theBloemfontein Convention(which created the Orange Free State Republic in 1854), thePretoria Convention(which re-established the independence of the South African Republic 1881), theLondon Convention(which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in 1884), and theVereeniging Peace Treaty,which formally ended the Second Anglo-Boer War on 31 May 1902. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identityper se.
The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner label was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of politically unifying the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established.[25]
Since the Anglo-Boer war, the termBoerevolk('farmer people') was rarely used in the 20th century by the various regimes because of the effort to assimilate theBoerevolkwith the Afrikaners. A portion of those who are the descendants of theBoerevolkhave reasserted use of this designation.[25]
The supporters of theBoerdesignation view the termAfrikaneras an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture, turning Boer achievements into Afrikaner achievements. They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners – whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards – took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War. At that time, the Afrikaners attempted to assimilate the Boers into the new politically-based cultural label.[28][29][30]
In contemporary South Africa,BoerandAfrikanerhave often been used interchangeably.[dubious–discuss]The Boers are the smaller segment within the Afrikaner designation,[original research?]as the Afrikaners of Cape Dutch origin are more numerous.Afrikanerdirectly translated meansAfrican,and thus refers to all Afrikaans-speaking people in Africa who have their origins in the Cape Colony founded by Jan Van Riebeeck.Boeris a specific group within the larger Afrikaans-speaking population.[31][verification needed]
During apartheid,Boerwas used by opponents of apartheid in various contexts, referring to institutional structures such as theNational Party,or to specific groups of people, such as members of thePolice Force(colloquially known asBoere) andArmy,Afrikaners, orwhite South Africansgenerally.[32][33]This usage is often viewed as pejorative in contemporary South Africa.[34][7][35]
Politics
edit- Boere-Vryheidsbeweging
- Boerestaat Party
- Freedom Front Plus
- Front National
- Herstigte Nasionale Party
- National Conservative Party of South Africa
Education
editTheMovement for Christian-National Educationis a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12.[36]
Media
editSome local radio stations promote the ideals of those who identify with the Boer people, likeRadio Rosestad 100.6 FM(in Bloemfontein),Overvaal StereoandRadio Pretoria.An internet-based radio station,Boerevolk Radio,promotes Boer separatism.
Territories
editTerritorial areas in the form of aBoerestaat('Boer State') are being developed as colonies exclusively for Boers/Afrikaners, notablyOraniain the Northern Cape andKleinfonteinnearPretoria.
Notable Boers
editVoortrekker leaders
Great trek
Participants in the Second Anglo-Boer War
- Koos de la Rey,general; regarded as being one of the great military leaders of the Second Anglo-Boer War
- Danie Theron,soldier
- Christiaan Rudolf de Wet,general
- Siener van Rensburg,considered a prophet by some
Politicians
- Hendrik Verwoerd,chief architect of apartheid
- Louis Botha,first prime minister of South Africa (1910–1919) and former Boer general
- Petrus Jacobus Joubert,general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic
- Paul Kruger,president of theTransvaal Republic
- Martinus Theunis Steyn,6th State President of theOrange Free State
Spies
- Robey Leibbrandt
- Fritz Joubert Duquesne,Boer captain known as theBlack Pantherwho served in theSecond Boer War
In modern fiction
editThe history of the Cape Colony and the Boers in South Africa is covered at length in the 1980 novelThe Covenantby American author James A. Michener.
See also
editNotes
edit- ^Afrikaans is a daughter language of Dutch; seeBooij 1999,p. 2,Jansen, Schreuder & Neijt 2007,p. 5,Mennen, Levelt & Gerrits 2006,p. 1,Booij 2003,p. 4,Hiskens, Auer & Kerswill 2005,p. 19,Heeringa & de Wet 2007,pp. 1, 3, 5.
Afrikaans was historically called Cape Dutch; seeDeumert & Vandenbussche 2003,p. 16,Conradie 2005,p. 208,Sebba 1997,p. 160,Langer & Davies 2005,p. 144,Deumert 2002,p. 3,Berdichevsky 2004,p. 130.
Afrikaans is rooted in seventeenth century dialects of Dutch; seeHolm 1989,p. 338,Geerts & Clyne 1992,p. 71,Mesthrie 1995,p. 214,Niesler, Louw & Roux 2005,p. 459.
Afrikaans is variously described as acreole,a partially creolised language, or a deviant variety of Dutch; seeSebba 2007,p. 116.
References
edit- ^Stürmann, Jan (2005).New Coffins, Old Flags, Microorganisms and the Future of the Boer.Retrieved2 December2011.
- ^abDu Toit, Brian M. (1998).The Boers in East Africa: Ethnicity and Identity.p. 1. Archived fromthe originalon 15 February 2020.Retrieved2 December2011.
- ^ab Trewhella Cameron; S. B. Spies (October 1991).A new illustrated history of South Africa.Southern Book Publishers.ISBN9781868123612.
- ^Bosman, D. B.; Van der Merwe, I. W.; Hiemstra, L. W. (1984).Tweetalige Woordeboek Afrikaans-Engels.Tafelberg-uitgewers.ISBN0-624-00533-X.
- ^
Compare:Walker, Eric Anderson(1936). "14: The Formation of new states, 1835–1854". InWalker, Eric Anderson(ed.).The Cambridge History of the British Empire.Vol. 8: South Africa, Rhodesia and the protectorates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 320–321.Retrieved15 September2018.
In the latter part of 1834, the frontier districts were full of talk of a mass trek. Exploring parties rode out to South-West Africa, to the north-eastern Transvaal, and along the coast belt to Natal. [...] These preparations are conclusive evidence against the traditional idea that the two primary causes of the Great Trek were the inadequate compensation paid for emancipated slaves and the upsetting of D'Urban's settlement of the eastern frontier after the Kaffir War of 1834–5 by the combined forces of Downing Street and Exeter Hall. It is true that many Trekkers, and those the most vocal, came from the eastern frontier lands, but others came from the northern districts where there was no Kaffir menace. The overthrow of the settlement was only a subsidiary cause though a powerful one.
- ^Pollak, Sorcha."'The Irish remind me of Afrikaans people. They're quite reserved'".The Irish Times.Retrieved21 June2021.
- ^ab"Don't call me a boer".iol.co.za.Retrieved21 June2021.
- ^"Afrikaans culture (ZA)".southafrica.net.Retrieved21 June2021.
- ^Precis of the Archives of the Cape of Good Hope, January 1652 – December 1658, Riebeeck's Journal, H.C.V. Leibrandt, pp. 47–48
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External links
edit- Media related toBoersat Wikimedia Commons
- Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 25 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 469–81. .
- New International Encyclopedia.1905. .