Brassica oleraceais a plantspeciesfrom the familyBrassicaceaethat includes many commoncultivarsused asvegetables,such ascabbage,broccoli,cauliflower,kale,Brussels sprouts,collard greens,Savoy cabbage,kohlrabi,andgai lan.The uncultivated form of the species,wild cabbage,is native to southwest Europe.
| Brassica oleracea | |
|---|---|
| |
| Wild cabbage plants | |
Scientific classification
| |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Brassicales |
| Family: | Brassicaceae |
| Genus: | Brassica |
| Species: | B. oleracea
|
| Binomial name | |
| Brassica oleracea | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
|
List
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Description
editWildB. oleraceais a tallbiennial plantthat forms a stoutrosetteof largeleavesin the first year. The leaves are fleshier and thicker than otherBrassicaspecies—an adaptation that helps it store water and nutrients in its difficult growing environment. In its second year, it uses the stored nutrients to produce aflowerspike 1 to 2 metres (3–7 ft) tall with numerous yellow flowers. Wild cabbage is a hardy plant with a high tolerance for salt and lime and low tolerance to competition from other plants.[3]
Taxonomy
editOrigins
editAccording to theTriangle of Utheory,B. oleraceais very closely related to five other species of the genusBrassica.[4]A 2021 study suggests thatBrassica cretica,native to the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly Greece and theAegean Islands,was the closest living relative of cultivatedB. oleracea,thus supporting the view that its cultivation originated in the Eastern Mediterranean region, with later admixture from otherBrassicaspecies.[5]Genetic analysis of nine wild populations on the French Atlantic coast indicated their commonferalorigin, deriving from domesticated plants escaped from fields and gardens.[6]
The cultivars ofB. oleraceaare grouped by developmental form into several majorcultivar groups,of which theAcephala ( "non-heading" ) groupremains most like the natural wild cabbage in appearance.
Etymology
edit'Brassica' wasPliny the Elder's name for several cabbage-like plants.[7]
Itsspecific epithetoleraceameans "vegetable/herbal" inLatinand is a form ofholeraceus(oleraceus).[8][9]
Distribution and habitat
editIts uncultivated form,wild cabbage,native to coastal southern and western Europe, is a hardy plant with high tolerance forsaltandlime.However, its intolerance of competition from other plants typically restricts its natural occurrence to limestone sea cliffs, like the chalk cliffs on both sides of theEnglish Channel.[10]
Cultivation
edit
B. oleraceahas become established as an important human foodcropplant, used because of its large food reserves, which are stored over the winter in its leaves. It has been bred into a wide range ofcultivars,including cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, collards, and kale, some of which are hardly recognizable as being members of the same genus, let alone species.[11]The historical genus ofCrucifera,meaning "cross-bearing" in reference to the four-petaled flowers, may be the only unifying feature beyond taste.
Researchers believe it has been cultivated for several thousand years, but its history as a domesticated plant is not clear beforeGreekandRomantimes, when it was a well-established garden vegetable.Theophrastusmentions three kinds ofrhaphanos(ῤάφανος):[12]a curly-leaved, a smooth-leaved, and a wild-type.[13]He reports the antipathy of the cabbage and the grape vine, for the ancients believed cabbages grown near grapes would impart their flavour to the wine.[14]
History
editThroughartificial selectionfor various phenotype traits, the emergence of variations of the plant with drastic differences in appearance occurred over centuries. Preference for leaves, terminal buds, lateral buds, stems, and inflorescences resulted in selection of varieties of wild cabbage into the many forms known today. The wild plant (and its ancestors) originated in the eastern Mediterranean region of Europe. Estimated fromSanskritwritings 4,000 years ago, as well as Greek writings from the sixth century BC, plant cultivation may have occurred.[15]
Impact of preference
editThe preference for eating the leaves led to the selection of plants with larger leaves being harvested and their seeds planted for the next growth. Around the fifth century BC, the formation of what is now known as kale had developed.[16]Preference led to further artificial selection of kale plants with more tightly bunched leaves or terminal buds. Around the first century AD, the phenotype variation ofB. oleraceaknown as cabbage emerged.[citation needed]Phenotype selection preferences in Germany resulted in a new variation from the kale cultivar. By selecting for wider stems, the variant plant known askohlrabiemerged around the first century AD.[citation needed]
European preference emerged for eating immature buds, selection forinflorescence.Early records in 15th century AD, indicate that earlycauliflowerandbroccoliheading types were found throughout southern Italy and Sicily, although these types may not have been resolved into distinct cultivars until about 100 years later.[17][11][18][19]Further selection in Belgium in lateral bud led toBrussels sproutsin the 18th century.
Cultivar groups
editAccording to the Royal Botanic Gardens (Kew Species Profiles)[20]the species has eightcultivar groups.Each cultivar group has manycultivars,like 'Lacinato' kale or 'Belstar' broccoli.
- Acephala:non-heading cultivars (kale, collards, ornamental cabbage, ornamental kale, flowering kale, tree cabbage).
- Alboglabra:Asian Cuisine cultivars (Chinese kale, Chinese broccoli, gai lan, kai lan).
- Botrytis:cultivars that form compact inflorescences (broccoli, cauliflower, broccoflower, calabrese broccoli, romanesco broccoli).[a]
- Capitata:cabbage and cabbage-like cultivars (cabbage, savoy cabbage, red cabbage).
- Gemmifera:bud-producing cultivars (sprouts, Brussels sprouts)
- Gongylodes:turnip-like cultivars (kohlrabi, knol-kohl)
- Italica:sprouts (purple sprouting broccoli, sprouting broccoli). Edible inflorescences not compacted into a single head.
- Tronchuda:low-growing annuals with spreading leaves (Portuguese cabbage, seakale cabbage).
A 2024 study compares 704B. oleraceasequences and establishes aphylogenetic treeof cultivars. The authors find large-scale changes in gene expression and gene presence. Some genes are putatively linked to certain traits such as arrested inflorescence (typical of cauliflower and broccoli).[22]
| Cultivar | Image | Cultivar group(Kew) | Name (variety,form) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Wild cabbage | 
|
N/A | Brassica oleraceavar.oleracea |
| Cabbage | 
|
Capitata | Brassica oleraceavar.capitataf.alba |
| Savoy cabbage | 
|
Capitata | Brassica oleraceavar.capitataf.sabauda |
| Red cabbage | 
|
Capitata | Brassica oleraceavar.capitataf.rubra |
| Cone cabbage | 
|
Capitata | Brassica oleraceavar.capitataf.acuta |
| Gai lan | 
|
Alboglabra | Brassica oleraceavar.alboglabra |
| Collardgreens | 
|
Acephala | Brassica oleraceavar.viridis |
| Jersey cabbage |
|
Acephala | Brassica oleraceavar.longata |
| Ornamental kale | 
|
Acephala | Brassica oleraceavar.acephala |
| Kale | 
|
Acephala | Brassica oleraceavar.sabellica |
| Lacinato kale | 
|
Acephala | Brassica oleraceavar.palmifolia |
| Perpetual kale | 
|
Acephala | Brassica oleraceavar.ramosa |
| Kalette | 
|
Hybrid | Brassica oleraceavar.viridis x gemmifera |
| Marrow cabbage | 
|
Acephala | Brassica oleraceavar.medullosa |
| Tronchuda kale | 
|
Tronchuda | Brassica oleraceavar.costata |
| Brussels sprout | 
|
Gemmifera | Brassica oleraceavar.gemmifera |
| Kohlrabi | 
|
Gongylodes | Brassica oleraceavar.gongylodes |
| Broccoli | 
|
Botrytis[a] | Brassica oleraceavar.italica |
| Cauliflower | 
|
Botrytis | Brassica oleraceavar.botrytis |
| Caulini | 
|
Botrytis | Brassica oleraceavar.botrytis |
| Romanesco broccoli | 
|
Botrytis | Brassica oleraceavar.botrytis |
| Broccoli di Torbole | 
|
Botrytis | Brassica oleraceavar.botrytis |
| Broccoflower | 
|
Hybrid(within Botrytis) | Brassica oleraceavar.botrytis×italica |
| Broccolini | 
|
Hybrid | Brassica oleraceavar.italica×alboglabra |
Uses
editHuman genetics in relation to taste
editTheTAS2R38gene encodes aG protein-coupled receptorthat functions as a taste receptor, mediated by ligands such asPROPandphenylthiocarbamidethat bind to the receptor and initiate signaling that confers various degrees of taste perception.Vegetables in the brassica family, such as collard greens, kale, broccoli, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts, containglucosinolatesandisothiocyanates,which resemblePROP,and therefore much of the perceived "bitterness" of these vegetables is mediated throughTAS2R38.[dubious–discuss]Bitter taste receptors in the TS2R family are also found in gut mucosal and pancreatic cells in humans and rodents. These receptors influence release of hormones involved in appetite regulation, such aspeptide YYandglucagon-like peptide-1,and therefore may influence caloric intake and the development of obesity. Thus, bitter taste perception may affect dietary behaviors by influencing both taste preferences and metabolic hormonal regulation.[23]
Three variants in theTAS2R38gene –rs713598,rs1726866,andrs10246939– are in highlinkage disequilibriumin most populations and result in amino acid coding changes that lead to a range of bitter taste perception phenotypes. The PAVhaplotypeis dominant; therefore, individuals with at least one copy of the PAV allele perceive molecules in vegetables that resemble PROP as tasting bitter, and consequently may develop an aversion to bitter vegetables. In contrast, individuals with two AVI haplotypes are bitter non-tasters. PAV and AVI haplotypes are the most common, though other haplotypes exist that confer intermediate bitter taste sensitivity (AAI, AAV, AVV, and PVI). This taste aversion may apply to vegetables in general.[23][24]
Notes
edit- ^abTechnically, broccoli is aninflorescence,and so it belongs to the Botrytis group. However, because its subspecies name isBrassica oleraceavar.italica,some many put it in the Italica group, including The North Carolina State University Cooperative Extension.[21]
References
edit- ^Holubec, V., Uzundzhalieva, K., Vörösváry, G., Donnini, D., Bulińska, Z. & Strajeru, S. 2011.Brassica oleracea.TheIUCN Red Listof Threatened Species 2011: e.T170110A6717557.https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T170110A6717557.en.Downloaded on 02 July 2021.
- ^"Brassica oleraceaL. "Plants of the World Online.Board of Trustees of theRoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew.2017.Retrieved27 August2020.
- ^"Wild Cabbage (Brassica oleracea)".Cambridge University Botanic Garden.University of Cambridge Museums and Botanic Garden.RetrievedNovember 21,2024.
- ^Dixon, G.R. (2007).Vegetable brassicas and related crucifers.Wallingford:CABI.ISBN978-0-85199-395-9.
- ^Mabry, Makenzie E; Turner-Hissong, Sarah D; Gallagher, Evan Y; McAlvay, Alex C; An, Hong; Edger, Patrick P; Moore, Jonathan D; Pink, David A C; Teakle, Graham R; Stevens, Chris J; Barker, Guy; Labate, Joanne; Fuller, Dorian Q; Allaby, Robin G; Beissinger, Timothy; Decker, Jared E; Gore, Michael A & Pires, J Chris (2021)."The Evolutionary History of Wild, Domesticated, and FeralBrassica oleracea(Brassicaceae) ".Molecular Biology and Evolution.38(10): 4419–4434.doi:10.1093/molbev/msab183.PMC8476135.PMID34157722.
- ^Maggioni, Lorenzo; von Bothmer, Roland; Poulsen, Gert; Härnström Aloisi, Karolina (2020). "Survey and genetic diversity of wildBrassica oleraceaL. Germplasm on the Atlantic coast of France ".Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution.67(7): 1853–1866.doi:10.1007/s10722-020-00945-0.hdl:10568/121870.S2CID218772995.
- ^Gledhill, David (2008). "The Names of Plants".Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521866453(hardback),ISBN9780521685535(paperback). pp 76
- ^Parker, Peter (2018).A Little Book of Latin for Gardeners.Little Brown Book Group.p. 328.ISBN978-1-4087-0615-2.
oleraceus, holeraceus= relating to vegetables or kitchen garden
- ^Whitney, William Dwight (1899).The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia.Century Co.p. 2856.
L.holeraceus,prop.oleraceus,herb-like,holus,prop.olus(oler-), herbs, vegetables
- ^Snogerup, Sven; Gustafsson, Mats; Bothmer, Roland Von (1990-01-01). "Brassicasect.Brassica(Brassicaceae) I. Taxonomy and Variation ".Willdenowia.19(2): 271–365.JSTOR3996645.
- ^abStansell, Zachary; Hyma, Katie; Fresnedo-Ramírez, Jonathan; Sun, Qi; Mitchell, Sharon; Björkman, Thomas; Hua, Jian (2018-07-01)."Genotyping-by-sequencing ofBrassica oleraceavegetables reveals unique phylogenetic patterns, population structure and domestication footprints ".Horticulture Research.5(1): 38.Bibcode:2018HorR....5...38S.doi:10.1038/s41438-018-0040-3.ISSN2052-7276.PMC6026498.PMID29977574.S2CID49552482.
- ^Compare Theophrastus;raphanis(ραφανίς), "radish",also aBrassica.
- ^Zohary, Daniel; Hopf, Maria; Weiss, Ehud (2012).Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin.Oxford:Oxford University Press(OUP)). p. 199.ISBN978-0199549061.
- ^Theophrastus,Enquiry into Plants,IV.6.16;Deipnosophistae,I, noting the effects of cabbages on wine and wine-drinkers, also quotes Apollodorus ofCarystus:"If they think that our calling it arhaphanos,while you foreigners call it akrambê,makes any difference to us women! "(on-line English text).
- ^"The History of Brassica oleracea: 300+ Versions of a Single Plant".The Seed Collection. 2024.Retrieved21 November2024.
- ^"Vegetables - University of Saskatchewan".agbio.usask.ca.Archived fromthe originalon 2016-03-29.Retrieved2016-04-07.
- ^Maggioni, Lorenzo; von Bothmer, Roland; Poulsen, Gert; Branca, Ferdinando (2010-06-01)."Origin and Domestication of Cole Crops (Brassica oleraceaL.): Linguistic and Literary Considerations1 ".Economic Botany.64(2): 109–123.doi:10.1007/s12231-010-9115-2.hdl:10568/121874.ISSN1874-9364.S2CID2771884.
- ^Maggioni, Lorenzo (June 2015)."Domestication ofBrassica oleraceaL. "pub.epsilon.slu.se(in Swedish).Retrieved2020-11-29.
- ^Stansell, Zachary; Björkman, Thomas (2020-10-01)."From landrace to modern hybrid broccoli: the genomic and morphological domestication syndrome within a diverse B. oleracea collection".Horticulture Research.7(1): 159.Bibcode:2020HorR....7..159S.doi:10.1038/s41438-020-00375-0.ISSN2052-7276.PMC7528014.PMID33082966.
- ^"Brassica oleracea (wild cabbage)".kew.org.Royal Botanic Gardens.Accessed March 23, 2023 – see "Descriptions" subsection "According to Kew Species Profiles"
- ^"Brassica oleracea groups".ces.ncsu.edu.North Carolina State University.Accessed March 23, 2023
- ^Li, Xing; Wang, Yong; Cai, Chengcheng; Ji, Jialei; Han, Fengqing; Zhang, Lei; Chen, Shumin; Zhang, Lingkui; Yang, Yinqing; Tang, Qi; Bucher, Johan; Wang, Xuelin; Yang, Limei; Zhuang, Mu; Zhang, Kang; Lv, Honghao; Bonnema, Guusje; Zhang, Yangyong; Cheng, Feng (13 February 2024)."Large-scale gene expression alterations introduced by structural variation drive morphotype diversification in Brassica oleracea".Nature Genetics.56(3): 517–529.doi:10.1038/s41588-024-01655-4.PMC10937405.
- ^abCalancie, Larissa; Keyserling, Thomas C.; Smith-Taillie, Lindsey; Robasky, Kimberly; Patterson, Cam; Ammerman, Alice S.; Schisler, Jonathan C. (2018)."TAS2R38 predisposition to bitter taste associated with differential changes in vegetable intake in response to a community-based dietary intervention".G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics.8(6): 2107–2119.doi:10.1534/g3.118.300547.PMC5982837.PMID29686110.
Text was copied fromthe preprint version,which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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External links
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