Wikipedia

Brook trout

For the telecommunications company, seeBrooktrout Technology.

Thebrook trout(Salvelinus fontinalis) is aspeciesof freshwaterfishin thechargenusSalvelinusof thesalmonfamilySalmonidaenative toEastern North Americain theUnited StatesandCanada.[3][4]Two ecological forms of brook trout have been recognized by theUS Forest Service.[3]Oneecologicalform is long-livedpotamodromouspopulations inLake Superiorknown ascoaster troutorcoasters.The second ecological form is the short-livingpredaceousanadromouspopulations which are found in northern lakes and coastal rivers fromLong IslandtoHudson Bay,which are referred to assalters.[5]In parts of its range, it is also known as theeastern brook trout,speckled trout,brook char(orcharr),squaretail,brookie,ormud trout,among others.[6]Adult coaster brook trout are capable of reaching sizes over 2feet in length and weigh up to 6.8kg (15lb), whereas adult salters average between 6 and 15inches in length and weigh between 0.5 and 2.3kg (1 and 5lb).[7]The brook trout is characterized by its distinctive olive-green body with yellow and blue-rimmed red spots, white and black edged orangefins,anddorsalvermiculation.[8]The diet of the brook trout is restrictive to the season and location of the fish, but will typically consist of terrestrial andaquatic insects,fry,crustaceans,zooplankton,andworms.[3]

Brook trout
Eastern brook trout
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Salmoniformes
Family: Salmonidae
Genus: Salvelinus
Subgenus: Baione
Species:
S. fontinalis
Binomial name
Salvelinus fontinalis
(Mitchill,1814)
Subspecies

†S. f. agassizii(Garman, 1885)
S. f. timagamiensisHenn & Rinckenbach, 1925

Synonyms[2]
previous scientific names
  • Salmo fontinalisMitchill, 1814 Baione fontinalis(Mitchill, 1814) Salmo canadensisGriffith & Smith, 1834 Salmo hudsonicusSuckley, 1861 Salvelinus timagamiensisHenn & Rinckenbach, 1925

Throughout history, non-native brook trout have been transplanted beyond its native borders, where it has spread acrossNorth Americaand much of the world.[3]These brook trout have been introduced since the 1800s by means of artificial propagation andaquaculturein hope of promoting fishery resources.[9]Through this transplantation, brook trout have been observed to affect native populations by outcompeting,preyingupon, andhybridizingwith many nativeaquaticspecies.[10][11]Thisinvasivenature via human-mediated introductory has led to their classification in thelist of the top 100 globally invasive species.[12]

Since the 19th century, isolated native eastern brook trout populations have facedextirpationdue tostream pollution,habitat destruction,invasive species,and waterwaydamming.[13]Although facing these pressures, the brook trout is not listed as anendangeredspecies by theInternational Union for Conservation of Nature,but native population decline has been observed.[14]Some localsubspeciesof brook trout, such as theaurora trout,are listed as endangered by theCommittee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada.[15]

Taxonomy

edit

The scientific name of the brook trout isSalvelinus fontinalis.[11]Initially, the brook trout was scientifically described asSalmo fontinalisby the naturalistSamuel Latham Mitchillin 1814.[16]The species was later moved to the char genusSalvelinus,which in North America also includes thelake trout,bull trout,Dolly Varden,and theArctic char.[17][16]The specific epithet "fontinalis"comes from the Latin for" of a spring or fountain ", in reference to the clear, cold streams and ponds in its native habitat.[18][3]

Subspecies

edit

There is little recognized systematic substructure in the brook trout, but the two subspecies have been proposed. Theaurora trout(S. f. timagamiensis) is a subspecies native to two lakes in theTemagamiDistrict ofOntario,Canada.[19]Thesilver trout(S. agassiziiorS. f. agassizii)is anextincttrout species or subspecies last seen inDublin Pond,New Hampshire,in 1930.[20]It is considered by fisheries biologistRobert J. Behnkeas a highly specialized form of brook trout.[21]

Hybrids

edit
Tiger trout (top three), splake (bottom)

The brook trout produceshybridsboth with itscongenersthelake trout(S.namaycush) and theArctic char(S. alpinus), and intergeneric hybrids with thebrown trout(Salmo trutta).[22]

Thesplakeis an intrageneric hybrid between the brook trout andlake trout(S. namaycush). Although uncommon in nature, they are artificially propagated in substantial numbers for stocking into brook trout or lake trout habitats.[23]Although they arefertile,back-crossing in nature is behaviorally problematic and very little natural reproduction occurs.Splakegrow more quickly than brook trout, becomepiscivoroussooner, and are more tolerant of competitors than brook trout.[24]

Thetiger troutis an intergeneric hybrid between the brook trout and the brown trout. Tiger trout rarely occur naturally but are sometimes artificiallypropagated.Such crosses are almost always reproductivelysterile.They are popular with many fish-stocking programs because they can grow quickly, and may help keep coarse fish (wild non "sport" fish) populations in check due to their highly piscivorous (fish-eating) nature.[25]

The sparctic char is an intrageneric hybrid between the brook trout and the Arctic char.[26]

Ecological forms

edit

TheUS Forest Servicehas recognized two ecological forms of brook trout,saltersandcoasters.The forms express the same general features but vary in size, behavior, and location.[3]

Coasters

edit

Apotamodromouspopulation of brook trout native tolacustrineregions, whichmigrateintotributary riverstospawn,are called "coasters".[27]Coasters tend to be larger than most other populations of brook trout, often reaching 6 to 7 lb (2.7 to 3.2 kg) in size.[28]They also commonly live for longer periods of time and exhibit more predacious behavior than their counterparts.[29]Many coaster populations have been severely reduced byoverfishingand habitat loss by the construction ofhydroelectricpower dams on Lake Superior tributaries. InOntario,Michigan,andMinnesotaefforts are underway to restore and recover coaster populations.[30][31]

Salters

edit

When Europeans first settled inEastern North America,semi-anadromousor sea-run brook trout, commonly called "salters", ranged from southernNew Jersey,north throughout theCanadian maritime provinces,and west toHudson Bay.Salters are a short-lived form of brook trout that inhabit smaller bodies of water and exhibit less predacious behavior than coasters.[3]They may spend up to three months at sea feeding on crustaceans, fish, and marine worms in the spring. During this time they won't stray more than a few miles from the river mouth, but then return tofreshwatertributariestospawnin the late summer or autumn. While in saltwater, salters gain a more silvery color, losing much of the distinctive markings seen in freshwater. However, within two weeks of returning to freshwater, they assume typical brook trout color and markings.[28]Salters have faced threats such ashabitat destruction,water pollution,and water waydammingthat have led to their declining population numbers across theNortheastern United States.[32]

Description

edit
Brook trout from lake inWyoming'sWind River Range
Captive brook trout in an aquarium

The brook trout has a dark green to brown color, with a distinctive marbled pattern (calledvermiculation) of lighter shades across theflanksand back and extending at least to thedorsal fin,and often to the tail. A distinctive sprinkling of red dots, surrounded by blue halos, occurs along the flanks. The belly and lower fins are reddish in color, the latter with white leading edges. Often, the belly, particularly of the males, becomes very red or orange when the fish are spawning.[8][3]Typical lengths of the brook trout vary from 25 to 65 cm (9.8 to 25.6 in), and weights from 0.3 to 3 kg (0.66 to 6.61 lb). The maximum recorded length is 86 cm (34 in) and maximum weight 6.6 kg (15 lb). Brook trout can reach at least seven years of age, with reports of 15-year-old specimens observed inCaliforniahabitats to which the species has been introduced.Growth ratesare dependent on season, age, water and ambient air temperatures, andflow rates.In general, flow rates affect the rate of change in the relationship between temperature and growth rate. For example, in spring, growth increased with temperature at a faster rate with high flow rates than with low flow rates.[33]

Range and habitat

edit
U.S. native and introduced ranges of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)[34]
Native Appalachian brook trout

Brook trout are native to a wide area of EasternNorth America,but are increasingly confined to higher elevations southward in theAppalachian Mountainsto northernGeorgiaand northwestSouth Carolina,Canada from theHudson Baybasin east, theGreat Lakes–Saint Lawrencesystem, theCanadian maritime provinces,and the upperMississippi Riverdrainage as far west as easternIowa.[35]Their southern historic native range has been drastically reduced, with fish being restricted to higher-elevation, remote streams due to habitat loss and introductions of brown and rainbow trout. As early as 1850, the brook trout's range started to extend west from its native range throughintroductions.The brook trout was eventually introduced into suitable habitats throughout the western U.S. during the late 19th and early 20th centuries at the behest of theAmerican Acclimatization Societyand by private, state, and federal fisheries authorities.[36]Acclimatization movementsin Europe, South America, and Oceania resulted in brook trout introductions throughout Europe,[26]inArgentina,[37]andNew Zealand.[38]Although not all introductions were successful, a great many established wild, self-sustaining populations of brook trout in non-native waters.

Habitat

edit
Typical southern Appalachian brook trout habitat

The brook trout inhabits large and smalllakes,rivers,streams,creeks, and springpondsin coldtemperate climateswith mildprecipitation.[39]Clear spring water with adequate cover and moderate flow rates is indicative of strong habitability for brook trout. They exhibit high levels of adaptability when exposed to habitat changes from environmental effects, and have been observed to exhibit more resilience tohabitatchange than otherSalvelinusspecies.[39]The typical pH range of brook trout waters is 5.0 to 7.5, with pH extremes of 3.5 to 9.8 possible.[40]Water temperatures typically range from 34 to 72 °F (1 to 22 °C). Warm summer temperatures and low flow rates are stressful on brook trout populations—especially larger fish.[41]

Ecology and reproduction

edit

Diet

edit

Brook trout have a diverse diet that includeslarval,pupal,adult forms of aquatic insects (typicallycaddisflies,stoneflies,mayflies,and aquaticdipterans), adult forms of terrestrial insects (typicallyants,beetles,grasshoppers,andcrickets) that fall into the water,crustaceans,frogsand otheramphibians,molluscs,smaller fish, invertebrates, and even small aquatic mammals such asvolesand sometimes other young brook trout.[39]

Reproduction

edit

The female constructs a depression in a location in thestream bed,sometimes referred to as a "redd", wheregroundwaterpercolates upward through the gravel. One or more males approach the female, fertilizing the eggs as the female expresses them. Most spawning involve peripheral males, which directly influences the number of eggs that survive into adulthood. In general, the larger the number of peripheral males present, the more likely the eggs will be cannibalized.[42]The eggs are slightly denser than water. The female then buries the eggs in a small gravel mound where they hatch in 4 to 6 weeks.[43]

Life cycle

edit

Following the deposition of up to 5,000 eggs in gravel beds by the female brook trout, the eggs enter an incubation period from the winter months to early spring.[44]During thisincubation period,the eggs source oxygen from the stream that passes through the gravel beds and into theirgel-like shells.[45]The eggs will then successively hatch into miniaturefrythat rely upon theiryolksac for nutrients to compensate for the lack of nutrients provided by the parental trout during the early stages of development. In the ensuing stage of their life cycle, thefrywill seek cover frompredatory speciesin rock crevices and inlets.[44]During this period of hiding, the trout will begin to mature into fingerlings by summer and start expressing parr marks to aid in camouflage.[46]At this point, most brook trout will be between 2 and 3 inches in length.[46]Finally, in succeeding months, the trout will fully mature into a trout that is approximately between 10 and 34 inches long and capable ofspawningin the fall months.[8]These fully developed adult brook trout will express a vibrant olive-green back, cherry red underbelly, black accented fins, and wavydorsalpatterns.[47]A typical adult brook trout will live to the age of 3 to 4 years old, with occasional brooks living to over the age of 4.[48]

Brook trout eggs after the spawning of a female
Brook trout fingerling with visible parr marks
Typical adult brook trout

Angling

edit

The brook trout is a popular game fish withanglers,particularlyfly fishermen.[49]

Nathan Currier lithograph ofArthur Fitzwilliam Tait's painting "Catching a Trout", 1854, depicts fishermen catching a brook trout near South Haven Church in a mill pond onCarmans RiverinLong Island, New York.Purportedly it illustrates an occasion whenDaniel Webster,an avid angler, caught a large (about 14.5 lb (6.6 kg)) brook trout at the location in 1823 (or 1827).[50]
Brook trout chasing anartificial flyfromAmerican Fishes(1903)[51]

Until it was displaced by introducedbrown trout(1883) andrainbow trout(1875), the brook trout attracted the most attention of anglers from colonial times through the first 100 years of U.S. history. Sporting writers such as Genio ScottFishing in American Waters(1869), Thaddeus NorrisAmerican Anglers Book(1864),Robert Barnwell RooseveltGame Fish of North America(1864) andCharles HallockThe Fishing Tourist(1873) produced guides to the best-known brook trout waters in America.[52]As brook trout populations declined in the mid-19th century near urban areas, anglers flocked to theAdirondacksin upstate New York and theRangeleylakes region inMaineto pursue brook trout.[52]In July 1916 on theNipigon Riverin northern Ontario, an Ontario physician, John W. Cook, caught a 14.5 lb (6.6 kg) brook trout, which stands as the world record.[53] Today, many anglers practicecatch-and-releasetactics to preserve remaining populations. Organizations such asTrout Unlimitedhave been at the forefront of efforts to institute air and water quality standards sufficient to protect the brook trout. Revenues derived from the sale of fishing licenses have been used to restore many sections of creeks and streams to brook trout habitat.[54]

An angler pulls in a brook trout using aTenkarafly rod inYosemite National Park.

Record

edit

The current world angling record brook trout was caught by Dr. W. J. Cook on the Nipigon River, Ontario, in July 1915. The 31 in (79 cm) trout weighed only 14.5 lb (6.6 kg) because, at the time of weighing, it was badly decomposed after 21 days in the bush without refrigeration.[55]A 29 in (74 cm) brook trout, caught in October 2006 in Manitoba, is not eligible for record status since it was released alive.[56]This trout weighed about 15.98 lb (7.25 kg) based on the accepted formula for calculating weight by measurements, and it currently stands as the record brook trout forManitoba.[57]

Artificial propagation and aquaculture

edit
Juvenile brook trout grown in a rearing tank by the fish and wildlife services

Since the 1800s, brook trout populations have been grown by artificial propagation andaquaculture.[9]Artificial propagation in fish is the process by which eggs areinseminated,hatched, and grown in a controlled environment that minimizes unfavorable environmental pressures. The fish are then released into the wild when they have reached the appropriate age and size.[58][59]This process was introduced as a way to counteract the effects ofoverfishingandaquatic habitat lossand to reinforce brook trout populations across theNortheastern United States.[60]Hatchery rearing was also introduced to raise brook trout in large numbers for food production and sale for human consumption.[61]

The process of artificial propagation in brook trout begins by decreasing the temperature of the adult trout's propagation tank to mimic the seasonal changes associated with brook troutspawning season.Theacclimatedtrout are then collected, and the eggs are gently massaged out of the female trout into a collection vessel, and theninseminatedwith themiltof a male brook. Next, the inseminated eggs are strained of themiltand transferred to a jar for several weeks to develop into viableembryos.Once the eggs have begun to hatch, thefryare transported into rearing tanks where they will grow and develop before their release into the wild.[62]Their rearing tanks typically consist of large circular tanks with a constant water flow going through them to allow a current to circulate through the tank and keep it clean (some more elaborate systems operate on a re-circulation system where the water is filtered and reused). The fish are typically fed a pelleted food consisting of 40–50% protein and 15% fat made fromfish oil,animal protein, plant protein and vitamins and minerals.[63][64]Finally, once the fish have reached a viable size, around 2 inches in length, they are released into the wild.[62]

This means of brook troutaquaculturehas sparked controversy due to potential decrease in the fishes fitness, adaptability, and environmental resilience, effectively posing a threat to native brook trout populations.[60]Arguments against artificial propagation of brook trout claim that it can cause adegradationof the overallgenetic pooldue to the possibility ofinbreedingamong individuals. This lack ofgenetic variationcould lead to certain populations of brook trout to becomeextirpatedfrom their deficiency inadaptability.[9][60]

Conservation status

edit

As early as the late 19th century, native brook trout inNorth Americabecameextirpatedfrom many watercourses as land development,forest clear-cutting,andindustrializationtook hold.[65]Streams and creeks that were polluted, dammed, or silted up often became too warm to hold native brook trout, and were colonized by transplantedsmallmouth bassandperchor other introduced salmonids such as brown andrainbow trout.Thebrown trout,a species not native to North America, has replaced the brook trout in much of the brook trout's native water. If already stressed byoverharvestingor by temperature, brook trout populations are very susceptible to damage by the introduction ofexogenousspecies. Manylacustrinepopulations of brook trout have been extirpated by the introduction of other species, particularlypercids,but sometimes otherspiny-rayed fishes.[66]

In addition to chemical pollution and algae growth caused by runoff containing chemicals and fertilizers, air pollution has also been a significant factor in the disappearance of brook trout from their native habitats. In the U.S., acid rain caused by air pollution has resulted in pH levels too low to sustain brook trout in all but the highest headwaters of some Appalachian streams and creeks.[67]Brook trout populations across large parts of eastern Canada have been similarly challenged; a subspecies known as theaurora troutwas extirpated from the wild by the effects of acid rain.[68]

Organizations such as Trout Unlimited and Trout Unlimited Canada are partnering with other organizations such as the Southern Appalachian Brook Trout Foundation, the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture, and state, provincial, and federal agencies to undertake projects that restore native brook trout habitat and populations.[14][30][69][70]

As an invasive species

edit

Although brook trout populations are under stress in their native range, they are considered aninvasive specieswhere they have been introduced outside their historic native range.[71][72][73]In the northern Rocky Mountains, non-native brook trout are considered a significant contributor to the decline or extirpation of nativecutthroat trout(Oncorhynchus clarki) in headwater streams.[74][75]Invasive brook trout populations may provoke territorial competition with the nativecutthroat troutthat can impede the recovery efforts ofcutthroat troutby environmental agencies.[75]Non-native brook trout populations have been subject to eradication programs in efforts to preserve native species.[76][77]InYellowstone National Park,anglers may take an unlimited number of non-native brook trout in some watersheds. In theLamar Riverwatershed, a mandatory kill regulation for any brook trout caught is in effect.[78]In Europe, introduced brook trout, once established, have had negative impacts on growth rates of native brown trout (S. trutta).[26]

References

edit
  1. ^[1],NatureServe Explorer
  2. ^"Synonyms ofSalvelinus fontinalis(Mitchill, 1814) ".Fishbase.Retrieved2014-02-23.
  3. ^abcdefghAdams, Pauline; James, Christopher; Speas, Clay (March 2008)."Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Species and Conservation Assessment "(PDF).US Forest Service.
  4. ^"NatureServe Explorer 2.0".explorer.natureserve.org.Retrieved2024-03-22.
  5. ^"History".Sea-Run Brook Trout Coalition.Sea Run Brook Trout Coalition.Retrieved19 February2024.
  6. ^Common names ofSalvelinus fontinalisFishBase,retrieved 22 May 2015
  7. ^"Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service ".fws.gov.Retrieved2024-03-22.
  8. ^abc"Brook Trout | Species Breakdown".HookedinFishing.Retrieved2024-03-08.
  9. ^abcKazyak, David C.; Rash, Jacob; Lubinski, Barbara A.; King, Tim L. (2018-02-01)."Assessing the impact of stocking northern-origin hatchery brook trout on the genetics of wild populations in North Carolina".Conservation Genetics.19(1):207–219.Bibcode:2018ConG...19..207K.doi:10.1007/s10592-017-1037-4.ISSN1572-9737.
  10. ^Harbicht, Andrew B; Alshamlih, Mohammed; Wilson, Chris C; Dylan J, Fraser (May 2014)."Anthropogenic and habitat correlates of hybridization between hatchery and wild brook trout".Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences.71(5):688–697.Bibcode:2014CJFAS..71..688H.doi:10.1139/cjfas-2013-0460.
  11. ^abDay, Casey C; Landguth, Erin L; Bearlin, Andrew; Zachary A, Holden; Whiteley, Andrew R (May 2018)."Using simulation modeling to inform management of invasive species: A case study of eastern brook trout suppression and eradication".Biological Conservation.221:10–22.Bibcode:2018BCons.221...10D.doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.01.017.
  12. ^"100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species: A Selection From The Global Invasive Species Database",Encyclopedia of Biological Invasions,University of California Press, 2019-12-31, pp.715–716,doi:10.1525/9780520948433-159,ISBN978-0-520-94843-3,retrieved2024-03-22
  13. ^"Eastern Brook Trout: Status and Threats (2006) — EBTJV".easternbrooktrout.org.Retrieved2024-03-22.
  14. ^ab"Conserving the Eastern Brook Trout: An Overview of Status, Threats, and Trends"(PDF).dep.nj.gov.December 2005.Retrieved2024-03-22.
  15. ^Government of Canada, Public Services and Procurement Canada."Information archivée dans le Web"(PDF).publications.gc.ca.Retrieved2024-03-22.
  16. ^abSkip (2020-12-17)."Introducing The First Fish: Bob Mallard onSalmo fontinalis;brook trout ".Fly Life Magazine.Retrieved2024-03-23.
  17. ^Whiteley, Andrew R; Penaluna E, Brooke; Taylor, Eric B; Weiss, Steve; Abadia-Cardoso, Alicia; Gomez-Uchida, Daniel; Koizumi, Itsuro; Trotter, Patrick (2019)."Trout and Char: Taxonomy, Systematics, and Phylogeography".ResearchGate.
  18. ^DCNR (2018-08-24)."Wild About Native Trout!".Good Natured.Retrieved2024-03-23.
  19. ^Aurora trout Recovery Team (ATRT) (July 2006)."Recovery Strategy for the Aurora trout (Salvelinus fontinalis timagamiensis) in Canada "(PDF).Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2012-03-04.Retrieved2014-01-06.
  20. ^World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1996)."Salvelinus agassizii".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.1996:e.T19873A9089084.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.1996.RLTS.T19873A9089084.en.Retrieved13 November2021.
  21. ^Behnke, Robert J.(2002). "Brook TroutSalvelinus fontinalis".Trout and Salmon of North America.Tomelleri, Joseph R. (illustrator). The Free Press. pp.275–280.ISBN0-7432-2220-2.
  22. ^Dunham, Rex (2004).Aquaculture and Fisheries Biotechnology: Genetic Approaches.Wallingford: CABI Publishing. p. 42.ISBN0851999530.
  23. ^"Splake".Maine Department of Inland Fisheries. Archived fromthe originalon January 7, 2014.Retrieved2013-01-06.
  24. ^"NAS - Nonindigenous Aquatic SpeciesSalvelinus fontinalis x namaycush".U.S. Geological Survey.Retrieved2014-01-06.
  25. ^"Tiger trout".UtahFishingInfo - Utah Fishing Information. Archived from the original on May 28, 2006.Retrieved2014-05-28.
  26. ^abcJannson, K. (2013)."NOBANIS – Invasive Alien Species Fact SheetSalvelinus fontinalis"(PDF).Online Database of the European Network on Invasive Alien Species – NOBANIS nobanis.org. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2011-09-11.Retrieved2013-12-26.
  27. ^"A Completion Report on the Lake Superior Coaster Brook Trout Initiative"(PDF).Great Lakes Fishery Commission. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2015-04-27.Retrieved2013-12-27.
  28. ^abKaras, Nick (2002). "Salters and Coasters".Brook Trout: A Thorough Look at North America's Great Native Trout- Its History, Biology, and Angling Possibilities(Revised ed.). NY: Lyons Press. pp.100–119.ISBN978-1-58574-733-7.
  29. ^Adams, Pauline; James, Christopher; Speas, Clay (March 2008)."Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) Species and Conservation Assessment "(PDF).US Forest Service.
  30. ^ab"Coaster Brook Trout".Trout Unlimited Canada. Archived fromthe originalon 2014-05-29.Retrieved2014-05-28.
  31. ^Mamoozadeh, N.; Goldsworthy, C.; Miller, L.; Peterson, M.; Meek, M. (August 2023)."Sources of coaster brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) revealed by genomic analysis of brook trout populations along Minnesota's shoreline with Lake Superior ".Journal of Great Lakes Research.49(4):901–917.Bibcode:2023JGLR...49..901M.doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2023.06.005.
  32. ^Luell, Steven (August 21, 2020)."Movements of coastal brook trout after dam removals".The Habitat Section of the American Fisheries Society.
  33. ^Xu, Calin; Letcher, Benjamin H.; Nislow, Keith H. (Nov 2010). "Context-specific influence of water temperature on brook trout growth rates in the field".Freshwater Biology.55(11):2253–2264.Bibcode:2010FrBio..55.2253X.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2010.02430.x.
  34. ^"NAS - Nonindigenous Aquatic SpeciesSalvelinus fontinalis".U.S. Geological Survey.Retrieved2014-01-06.
  35. ^Behnke, Robert J.(2007). "Brook Trout".About Trout-The Best of Robert J. Behnke fromTroutMagazine.Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press. pp.85–90.ISBN978-1-59921-203-6.
  36. ^Karas, Nick (2002). "Expansion of the Brook Trout's Range Within the United States".Brook Trout: A Thorough Look at North America's Great Native Trout- Its History, Biology, and Angling Possibilities(Revised ed.). NY: Lyons Press. pp.331–339.ISBN978-1-58574-733-7.
  37. ^"Salvelinus fontinalisAurora trout ".animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu.Retrieved2013-12-26.
  38. ^"Brook Char or Brook Trout".fishingmag.co.nz.Retrieved2013-12-26.
  39. ^abcRaleigh, Robert F (September 1982).Habitat Suitability Index Models: Brook Trout.Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Services.
  40. ^"Brook Trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) ".Chebucto.ns.ca. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-12-14.Retrieved2013-07-10.
  41. ^Xu, C.L.; Letcher, B. H.; Nislow, K. H. (June 2010). "Size-dependent survival of brook troutSalvelinus fontinalisin summer: effects of water temperature and stream flow ".Journal of Fish Biology.76(10):2342–2369.Bibcode:2010JFBio..76.2342X.doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2010.02619.x.PMID20557596.
  42. ^Blanchfield, Paul; Ridgway, Mark S. (Mar 1999). "The cost of peripheral males in a brook trout mating system".Animal Behaviour.57(3):537–544.doi:10.1006/anbe.1998.1014.PMID10196043.S2CID25654976.
  43. ^"Trout in the Classroom".dnr.sc.gov.Retrieved2024-03-24.
  44. ^ab"Biology & Management"(PDF).Maine.gov.
  45. ^Harter, Till (February 12, 2021)."Warm fish eggs gasp for oxygen".Journal of Experimental Biology.224(3).Bibcode:2021JExpB.224B5150H.doi:10.1242/jeb.235150.Retrieved2024-03-08.
  46. ^ab"Brook Trout".PENNSYLVANIA TROUT IN THE CLASSROOM.Retrieved2024-03-08.
  47. ^Letcher, Benjamin H.; Schueller, Paul; Bassar, Ronald D.; Nislow, Keith H.; Coombs, Jason A.; Sakrejda, Krzysztof; Morrissey, Michael; Sigourney, Douglas B.; Whiteley, Andrew R.; O'Donnell, Matthew J.; Dubreuil, Todd L. (2015)."Robust estimates of environmental effects on population vital rates: an integrated capture—recapture model of seasonal brook trout growth, survival and movement in a stream network".Journal of Animal Ecology.84(2):337–352.Bibcode:2015JAnEc..84..337L.doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12308.ISSN0021-8790.JSTOR24698503.PMID25327608.
  48. ^Letcher, Benjamin H.; Schueller, Paul; Bassar, Ronald D.; Nislow, Keith H.; Coombs, Jason A.; Sakrejda, Krzysztof; Morrissey, Michael; Sigourney, Douglas B.; Whiteley, Andrew R.; O'Donnell, Matthew J.; Dubreuil, Todd L. (March 2015). Childs, Dylan (ed.)."Robust estimates of environmental effects on population vital rates: an integrated capture–recapture model of seasonal brook trout growth, survival and movement in a stream network".Journal of Animal Ecology.84(2):337–352.Bibcode:2015JAnEc..84..337L.doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12308.ISSN0021-8790.PMID25327608.
  49. ^O'Hara, David L.; Dickerson, Matthew T. (2014).Downstream: Reflections on Brook Trout, Fly Fishing, and the Waters of Appalachia.Eugene, OR:Cascade Books.ISBN978-1-62564-727-6.
  50. ^Karas, Nick (2002). "Daniel Webster and his" Devil Trout "".Brook Trout: A Thorough Look at North America's Great Native Trout- Its History, Biology, and Angling Possibilities(Revised ed.). NY: Lyons Press. pp.3–14.ISBN978-1-58574-733-7.
  51. ^Gill, Theodore; Goode, G. Brown (1903).American Fishes-A Popular Treatise upon the Game and Food Fishes of North America.Boston: L. C. Page and Company.
  52. ^abSchullery, Paul (1996). "The Fly-fishing Exploration".American Fly Fishing-A History.Norwalk, CT: The Easton Press. pp.43–57.
  53. ^Karas, Nick (2002). "Dr. John William Cook and his" Devil Trout "".Brook Trout: A Thorough Look at North America's Great Native Trout- Its History, Biology, and Angling Possibilities(Revised ed.). NY: Lyons Press. pp.15–26.ISBN978-1-58574-733-7.
  54. ^Moeller, Scott (August 2009)."Species Profile-Closeup on the Brook Trout".Minnesota Department of Natural Resources.Retrieved2014-05-30.
  55. ^"Dr. JW Cook's World Record Brook Trout Was Caught in 1915".Brooktrout.ca.Retrieved2013-07-10.
  56. ^"Browny.The Fish,Fish'n Line Magazine ".Anglingmasters. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-01-16.Retrieved2013-07-10.
  57. ^"Brook trout records".troutster.
  58. ^"The artificial propagation of warm-water finfishes A manual for extension".fao.org.Retrieved2024-03-24.
  59. ^Shelbourne, J. E. (1964-01-01),"The Artificial Propagation of Marine Fish",in Russell, F. S. (ed.),Advances in Marine Biology Volume 2,vol. 2, Academic Press, pp.1–83,doi:10.1016/S0065-2881(08)60030-9,ISBN978-0-12-026102-4,retrieved2024-03-24
  60. ^abcWhite, Shannon L.; Miller, William L.; Dowell, Stephanie A.; Bartron, Meredith L.; Wagner, Tyler (January 1960)."Limited hatchery introgression into wild brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) populations despite reoccurring stocking ".Evolutionary Applications.11(9):1567–1581.doi:10.1111/eva.12646.ISSN1752-4571.PMC6183464.PMID30344628.
  61. ^"Trout Profile".Agricultural Marketing Resource Center. March 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-12-03.Retrieved2014-05-28.
  62. ^ab"Pots of Gold: Hand-Spawning Native Trout · Tennessee Aquarium".Tennessee Aquarium.2021-11-10.Retrieved2024-03-24.
  63. ^"What's in fish feed? - Skretting Australia".Skretting.Archived fromthe originalon 2018-11-26.Retrieved2018-11-26.
  64. ^"Floating Feed — Corey Aquafeeds".Corey Aquafeeds.Archived fromthe originalon 2018-11-26.Retrieved2018-11-26.
  65. ^"Eastern Brook Trout: Status and Threats".Trout Unlimited for the Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture.Retrieved2013-12-29.
  66. ^"Bonneville cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii utah) – Species Profile ".Nonindigenous Aquatic Species.2012-01-30.Retrieved2022-03-17.
  67. ^Camuto, Christopher (1990). "Air and Rain".A Fly Fisherman's Blue Ridge.New York: Henry Holt & Company. pp.85–87.ISBN0-8050-1466-7.
  68. ^"Royal Ontario Museum's page on the Aurora trout".Rom.on.ca. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-07-03.Retrieved2013-07-10.
  69. ^"Protect, Restore and Enhance".Retrieved2013-12-29.
  70. ^"The Southern Appalachian Brook Trout Foundation".Archived fromthe originalon 2013-12-27.Retrieved2013-12-27.
  71. ^Jason B. Dunham; Susan B. Adams; Robert E. Schroeter & Douglas C. Novinger (2002)."Alien invasions in aquatic ecosystems: Toward an understanding of brook trout invasions and potential impacts on inland cutthroat trout in western North America"(PDF).Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries.12(4):373–391.Bibcode:2002RFBF...12..373D.doi:10.1023/A:1025338203702.S2CID8442159.
  72. ^"Salvelinus fontinalis(fish) ".IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). Archived fromthe originalon 2014-01-07.Retrieved2014-01-06.
  73. ^Peterson, Lesley (Spring 2013)."Loved in Eastern Canada, Loathed in the Rockies: The Two Sides of Brook Trout"(PDF).Currents.19(2). Trout Unlimited Canada:1–3. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-01-06.Retrieved2013-01-06.
  74. ^Shepard, Bradley B. (2009)."SWG Final Report: Factors that influence invasion of nonnative brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and their displacement of native cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii)in the Northern Rocky Mountains ".Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife & Parks. Archived fromthe originalon 2013-08-29.Retrieved2014-04-13.
  75. ^abPeterson, Douglas P.; Fausch, Kurt D.; White, Gary C. (June 2004)."Population Ecology of an Invasion: Effects of Brook Trout on Native Cutthroat Trout".Ecological Applications.14(3):754–772.Bibcode:2004EcoAp..14..754P.doi:10.1890/02-5395.ISSN1051-0761.
  76. ^Frank, Charles W. (2014-04-02)."Under the Radar – The Trout Eradication Program Save the Fish".eTerritorial Dispatch Yuba County, Sutter County, Nevada County and Colusa County.Retrieved2014-04-13.
  77. ^Carmona-Catot, Gerard; Moyle, Peter B.; Aparicio, Enric; Crain, Patrick K.; Thompson, Lisa C.; García-Berthou, Emili (2010-11-01)."Brook Trout Removal as a Conservation Tool to Restore Eagle Lake Rainbow Trout"(PDF).North American Journal of Fisheries Management.30(5). American Fisheries Society:1315–1323.Bibcode:2010NAJFM..30.1315C.doi:10.1577/m10-077.1.hdl:10256/7472.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2016-03-04.
  78. ^"2021 Yellowstone National Park Fishing Regulations"(PDF).National Park Service.Retrieved2014-04-13.

Further reading

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brook_trout&oldid=1274646238"