Wikipedia

Brown trout

Thebrown trout(Salmo trutta) is a species ofsalmonidray-finned fishand the most widely distributed species of thegenusSalmo,endemic to most ofEurope,West Asiaand parts ofNorth Africa,and has been widelyintroducedglobally as agame fish,even becomingone of the world's worstinvasive speciesoutside of itsnative range.

Brown trout
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Salmoniformes
Family: Salmonidae
Genus: Salmo
Species:
S. trutta
Binomial name
Salmo trutta
Morphs

Salmo truttamorphatrutta
Salmo truttamorphafario
Salmo truttamorphalacustris

Synonyms[2]
previous scientific names
  • Trutta fluviatilis(Duhamel, 1771) Trutta salmonata(Rutty, 1772) Fario trutta(Linnaeus, 1758) Salmo trutta trutta(Linnaeus, 1758) Trutta trutta(Linnaeus, 1758) Salmo fario(Linnaeus, 1758) Salmo trutta fario(Linnaeus, 1758) Trutta fario(Linnaeus, 1758) Salmo lacustris(Linnaeus, 1758) Fario lacustris(Linnaeus, 1758) Salmo trutta lacustris(Linnaeus, 1758) Salmo eriox(Linnaeus, 1758) Trutta lacustris(Linnaeus, 1758) Trutta marina(Duhamel, 1771) Salmo illanca(Wartmann, 1783) Trutta salmanata(Strøm, 1784) Salmo albus(Bonnaterre, 1788) Salmo stroemii(Gmelin, 1789) Salmo sylvaticus(Gmelin, 1789) Salmo cornubiensis(Walbaum, 1792) Salmo fario loensis(Walbaum, 1792) Salmo albus(Walbaum, 1792) Salmo saxatilis(Schrank, 1798) Salmo fario var. forestensis(Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Salmo faris var. forestensis(Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Salmo cumberland(Lacepède, 1803) Salmo gadoides(Lacepède, 1803) Salmo phinoc(Shaw, 1804) Salmo cambricus(Donovan, 1806) Salmo taurinus(Walker, 1812) Salmo montana(Walker, 1812) Salmo spurius(Pallas, 1814) Salmo lemanus(Cuvier, 1829) Salmo truttula(Nilsson, 1832) Salmo caecifer(Parnell, 1838) Salmo levenensis(Yarrell, 1839) Salmo orientalis(McClelland, 1842) Salar ausonii(Valenciennes, 1848) Fario argenteus(Valenciennes, 1848) Salar bailloni(Valenciennes, 1848) Salar gaimardi(Valenciennes, 1848) Salar spectabilis(Valenciennes, 1848) Salmo estuarius(Knox, 1855) Salar ausonii var. semipunctata(Heckel & Kner, 1858) Salar ausonii var. parcepunctata(Heckel & Kner, 1858) Salmo fario major(Walecki, 1863) Salmo venernensis(Günther, 1866) Salmo brachypoma(Günther, 1866) Salmo mistops(Günther, 1866) Salmo polyosteus(Günther, 1866) Salmo gallivensis(Günther, 1866) Salmo rappii(Günther, 1866) Salmo orcadensis(Günther, 1866) Salmo islayensis(Thomson, 1873) Salmo oxianus(Kessler, 1874) Salmo trutta oxianus(Kessler, 1874) Trutta variabilis(Lunel, 1874) Trutta marina(Moreau, 1881) Salmo lacustris rhenana(Fatio, 1890) Salmo lacustris septentrionalis(Fatio, 1890) Salmo lacustris romanovi(Kawraisky, 1896) Salmo trutta aralensis(Berg, 1908) Salmo trutta ezenami(non Berg, 1948) Salmo trutta ciscaucasicus(non Dorofeeva, 1967) Salmo abanticusTortonese, 1954

Brown trout are highly adaptable and have evolved numerousecotypes/subspecies.These include three main ecotypes: ariverineecotype calledriver troutorSalmo truttamorphafario;alacustrineecotype orS. truttamorphalacustris,also called thelake trout(not to be confused with thelake troutinNorth America);[3][4]andanadromouspopulations known as thesea troutorS. truttamorphatrutta,which upon adulthood migrate downstream to theoceansfor much of its life and only returns to fresh water tospawnin thegravelbedsofheadstreams.[citation needed]Sea trout inIrelandandGreat Britainhave many regional names:sewininWales,finnockinScotland,pealin theWest Country,mortinNorth West England,andwhite troutin Ireland.

The lacustrine and riverinemorphsof brown trout are bothpotamodromous,meaning they are also migratory, though only between freshwater bodies. Lacustrine trout mainly inhabit large lakes with calm andstratifieddeep water, while riverine trout forms fluvial populations typically in large rivers but sometimes in shallowercreeksandalpine streams,both still migrating upstream during reproductive seasons. Anadromous and potamodromous morphs coexisting in the same river appear geneticallyidentical.[5]What determines whether they migrate to sea or not remains unknown.

Taxonomy

edit

The scientific name of the brown trout isSalmo trutta.Thespecificepithettruttaderives from theLatintrutta,meaning, literally, "trout".Behnke(2007) relates that the brown trout was the first species of trout described in the1758 edition ofSystema Naturaeby Swedish zoologistCarl Linnaeus.Systema Naturaeestablished the system ofbinomial nomenclatureforanimals.Salmo truttawas used to describeanadromousor sea-run forms of brown trout. Linnaeus also described two other brown trout species in 1758.Salmo fariowas used for riverine forms.Salmo lacustriswas used for lake-dwelling forms.[6]

Range

edit
A sea trout jumping a weir inWales

The native range of brown trout extends from northernNorwayandWhite Seatributaries in Russia in theArctic Oceanto theAtlas Mountainsin North Africa. The western limit of their native range isIcelandin the north Atlantic, while the eastern limit is inAral Seatributaries inAfghanistanandPakistan.[7]

Introduction outside their natural range

edit

Brown trout have been widely introduced into suitable environments around the world, including North and South America, Australasia, Asia, and South and East Africa. Introduced brown trout have established self-sustaining, wild populations in many introduced countries.[8]The first introductions were in Australia in 1864 when 300 of 1500 brown trout eggs from theRiver Itchensurvived a four-month voyage fromFalmouth, CornwalltoMelbourneon the sailing shipNorfolk.By 1866, 171 young brown trout were surviving in aPlenty Riverhatchery inTasmania.Thirty-eight young trout were released in the river, a tributary of theRiver Derwentin 1866. By 1868, the Plenty River hosted a self-sustaining population of brown trout which became a brood source for continued introduction of brown trout into Australian and New Zealand rivers.[9]Successful introductions into theNatalandCape ProvincesofSouth Africatook place in 1890 and 1892, respectively. By 1909, brown trout were established in the mountains ofKenya.The first introductions into theHimalayasin northern India took place in 1868, and by 1900, brown trout were established inKashmirandMadras.[10]In the 1950s and 1960s,Edgar Albert de la Rue[fr],aFrenchgeologist, began the introduction of several species of salmonids on the remoteKerguelen Islandsin the southernIndian Ocean.Of the seven species introduced, onlybrook trout,Salvelinus fontinalis,and brown trout survived to establish wild populations.[11]

Introduction to Americas

edit

The first introductions in Canada occurred in 1883 inNewfoundland[12]and continued until 1933. The only Canadian regions without brown trout areYukonand theNorthwest Territories.Introductions into South America began in 1904 inArgentina.Brown trout are now established inChile,Peruand theFalklands.[9]Sea-run forms of brown trout exceeding 20 lb (9.1 kg) are caught by local anglers on a regular basis.[citation needed]

U.S. range of brown trout

The first introductions into the U.S. started in 1883 whenFred Mather,a New Yorkpisciculturistandangler,under the authority of the U.S. Fish Commissioner,Spencer Baird,obtained brown trout eggs from a Baron Lucius von Behr, president of theGerman Fishing Society[de].The von Behr brown trout came from both mountain streams and large lakes in theBlack Forestregion ofBaden-Württemberg.[7]The original shipment of "von Behr" brown trout eggs were handled by three hatcheries, one onLong Island,theCold SpringHatchery operated by Mather, one inCaledonia, New York,operated by pisciculturalistSeth Green,and other hatchery inNorthville, Michigan.Additional shipments of "von Behr" brown trout eggs arrived in 1884. In 1885, brown trout eggs fromLoch Leven, Scotland,arrived in New York. These "Loch Leven" brown trout were distributed to the same hatcheries. Over the next few years, additional eggs from Scotland, England, and Germany were shipped to U.S. hatcheries. Behnke (2007) believed all life forms of brown trout—anadromous, riverine, and lacustrine—were imported into the U.S. and intermingled genetically to create what he calls the American generic brown trout and a single subspecies the North European brown trout (S. t. trutta).[7]

In April 1884, theU.S. Fish Commissionreleased 4900 brown trout fry into theBaldwin River,a tributary of thePere Marquette Riverin Michigan. This was the first release of brown trout into U.S. waters. Between 1884 and 1890, brown trout were introduced into suitable habitats throughout the U.S.[7]By 1900, 38 states and two territories had received stocks of brown trout. Their adaptability resulted in most of these introductions establishing wild, self-sustaining populations.[9]

Conservation status

edit
Infographic about the brown trout

The fish is not considered to beendangered,although some individualstocksare under various degrees of stress mainly through habitat degradation,overfishing,and artificial propagation leading tointrogression.Increased frequency of excessively warm water temperatures in high summer causes a reduction in dissolvedoxygenlevels which can cause "summer kills" of local populations if temperatures remain high for sufficient duration and deeper/cooler or fast, turbulent moreoxygenatedwater is not accessible to the fish. This phenomenon can be further exacerbated byeutrophicationof rivers due topollution—often from the use of agriculturalfertilizerswithin thedrainage basin.[citation needed]

Overfishing is a problem where anglers fail to identify and return mature female fish into the lake or stream. Each large female removed can result in thousands fewer eggs released back into the system when the remaining fish spawn.[citation needed]

In small streams, brown trout are important predators ofmacroinvertebrates,and declining brown trout populations in these specific areas affect the entire aquaticfood web.[13]

Global climate change is also of concern.S. truttamorphafarioprefers well-oxygenated water in the temperature range of 60 to 65 °F (16 to 18 °C).S. truttabones from an archaeological site in Italy, and ancient DNA extracted from some of these bones, indicate that both abundance and genetic diversity increased markedly during the colderYounger Dryasperiod, and fell during the warmerBølling-Allerødevent.[14]

Cover or structure is important to trout, and they are more likely to be found near submerged rocks and logs, undercut banks, and overhanging vegetation. Structure provides protection from predators, bright sunlight, and higher water temperatures. Access to deep water for protection in winter freezes, or fast water for protection from low oxygen levels in summer are also ideal. Trout are more often found in heavy and strong currents.[citation needed]

Characteristics

edit

Defining characteristics include a slender body with a long, narrow head. The mouth is large, and on its roof, vomerine teeth are developed in a zig-zag pattern.[15][16]The caudal fin is deltaform without forking, unlike that of the relatedAtlantic salmon(Salmo salar).[15]Dark and red spots are often present on the sides, but do not extend to the tail.[16]Parr trout (juvenile) often have a red margin on theiradipose fin,with dark blotches along their sides that also become inconspicuous with age.[16]

Freshwater brown trout range in colour from largely silver with relatively few spots and a white belly, to the more well-known brassy reddish-brown cast fading to creamy white on the fish's belly, with medium-sized spots surrounded by lighter halos. The more silver forms can be mistaken for rainbow trout. Regional variants include the so-called "Loch Leven" trout, distinguished by larger fins, a slimmer body, and heavy black spotting, but lacking red spots. The continental European strain features a lighter golden cast with some red spotting and fewer dark spots. Notably, both strains can show considerable individual variation from this general description. Early stocking efforts in the United States used fish taken fromScotlandandGermany.

A 2.7-kg (6 lb), 60-cm (2 ft) sea trout, fromGalway Bayin the west ofIrelandbearing scars from afishing net
Brown trout in a creek
Brown trout inVärmland,Sweden, after the first summer
A young brown trout from theRiver Derwentin North East England
Brown trout from a westernWyomingcreek

The brown trout is a medium-sized fish, growing to 20 kg (44 lb) or more and a length of about 100 cm (39 in) in some localities, although in many smaller rivers, a mature weight of 1.0 kg (2.2 lb) or less is common.S. t. lacustrisreaches an average length of 40–80 cm (16–31 in) with a maximum length of 140 cm (55 in) and about 60 pounds (27 kg).[citation needed]

On September 11, 2009, a 41.45-lb (18.80-kg) brown trout was caught by Tom Healy in theManistee Riversystem in Michigan, setting a new state record.[17]As of late December 2009, the fish captured by Healy was confirmed by both the International Game Fish Association and the Fresh Water Fishing Hall of Fame as the new all-tackle world record for the species. This fish, which supplanted the former world record from the Little Red River in Arkansas,[17]has in turn been exceeded by a 20.1-kilogram (44 lb) specimen caught in theOhau CanalinTwizel, New Zealandon 27 October 2020. The all-tackle length IGFA world record is a 97-centimetre (38 in) fish caught in Milwaukee Harbor,Wisconsinon 16 December 2011.[18]

Waxworms

The spawning behaviour of brown trout is similar to that of the closely relatedAtlantic salmon.A typical female produces about 2,000 eggs per kg (900 eggs per lb) of body weight at spawning.

Brown trout can live 20 years, but as with the Atlantic salmon, a high proportion of males die after spawning, and probably fewer than 20% of anadromous female kelts recover from spawning[citation needed].The migratory forms grow to significantly larger sizes for their age due to abundantforage fishin the waters where they spend most of their lives. Sea trout are more commonly female in less nutrient-rich rivers. Brown trout are active both by day and by night and are opportunistic feeders. While in freshwater, their diets frequently includeinvertebratesfrom thestreambed,other fish, frogs, mice, birds, and insects flying near the water's surface. The high dietary reliance upon insectlarvae,pupae,nymphs,and adults allows trout to be a favoured target forfly fishing.Sea trout are fished for especially at night usingwet flies.Brown trout can be caught withluressuch as spoons, spinners, jigs, plugs, plastic worm imitations, and live or deadbaitfish.

Brown trout rarely formhybridswith other species; if they do, they are almost invariably infertile. One such example is thetiger trout,a hybrid with thebrook trout.

Diet

edit

Field studies have demonstrated that brown trout fed on several animal prey species, aquatic invertebrates being the most abundant prey items. However, brown trout also feed on other taxa such as terrestrial invertebrates (e.g. Hymenoptera) or other fish.[19]Moreover, in brown trout, as in many other fish species, a change in the diet composition normally occurs during the life of the fish,[20]and piscivorous behaviour is most frequent in large brown trout.[21]These shifts in the diet during fish lifecycle transitions may be accompanied by a marked reduction in intraspecific competition in the fish population, facilitating the partitioning of resources.[22][23]

First feeding of newly emerged fry is very important for brown trout survival in this phase of the lifecycle, and first feeding can occur even prior to emergence.[24][25]Fry start to feed before complete yolk absorption and the diet composition of newly emerged brown trout is composed of small prey such as chironomid larvae orbaetidnymphs.[26]

Stocking, farming and non-native brown trout

edit
S. t. farioin aFaroesestamp issued in 1994

The species has been widelyintroducedforsport fishingintoNorth America,South America,Australia,New Zealand,and many other countries, includingBhutan,where they are the focus of a specialised fly fishery. The first planting in the United States occurred on April 11, 1884, into the Baldwin River, one mile east ofBaldwin, Michigan.[27]Brown trout have had serious negative impacts onuplandnative fish species in some of the countries where they have been introduced, particularly Australia. InChile,Australia,New Zealandand other locations in the southern hemisphere, brown trout compete with fish from the familyGalaxiidae,which also have affinity for well-oxygenated, cold streams. Brown trout additionally are voracious predators of invertebrates and can carry microbial pathogens likeAeromonas salmonicida.[28]Genetic background is a very important factor when determining the success of trout populations, this information is vital to restore and enhance previous populations.[29]Because of the trout's importance as a food and game fish, it has beenartificially propagatedand stocked in many places in its range, and fully natural populations (uncontaminated byallopatricgenomes) probably exist only in isolated places, for example inCorsicaor in high alpine valleys on the European mainland.[citation needed]

Farming of brown trout has included the production of infertiletriploidfish by increasing the water temperature just after fertilisation of eggs, or more reliably, by a process known as pressure shocking. Triploids are favoured byanglersbecause they grow faster and larger thandiploidtrout. Proponents of stocking triploids argue, because they are infertile, they can be introduced into an environment that contains wild brown trout without the negative effects of cross-breeding. However, stocking triploids may damage wild stocks in other ways. Triploids certainly compete with diploid fish for food, space, and other resources. They could also be more aggressive than diploid fish and they may disturb spawning behaviour.[citation needed]

Angling

edit
Frontis and title page fromThe Fly-fisher's Entomology,1849, by Alfred Ronalds, showing a brown trout and a grayling

The brown trout has been a populargame fishof European anglers for centuries. It was first mentioned in angling literature as "fish with speckled skins" by Roman authorAelian(circa200 AD) inOn the Nature of Animals.This work is credited with describing the first instance of fly fishing for trout, the trout being the brown trout found in Macedonia.[30]TheTreatyse of Fysshynge with an Angle(1496) byDame Juliana Berners,O.S.Bis considered a foundational work in the history ofrecreational fishing,especially fly fishing. One of the most prominent fish described in the work is the brown trout of English rivers and streams:

The trout, because he is a right dainty fish and also a right fervent biter, we shall speak of next. He is in season from March until Michaelmas. He is on clean gravel bottom and in a stream.

— Treatyse of Fysshynge with an Angle(1496)[31]

The renownedThe Compleat Angler(1653) byIzaak Waltonis replete with advice on "the trout":

The Trout is a fish highly valued, both in this and foreign nations. He may be justly said, as the old poet said of wine, and we English say of venison, to be a generous fish: a fish that is so like the buck, that he also has his seasons; for it is observed, that he comes in and goes out of season with the stag and buck.Gesnersays, his name is of a German offspring; and says he is a fish that feeds clean and purely, in the swiftest streams, and on the hardest gravel; and that he may justly contend with all fresh water fish, as the Mullet may with all sea fish, for precedency and daintiness of taste; and that being in right season, the most dainty palates have allowed precedency to him.

— The Compleat Angler,(1653)[32]

Throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, angling authors, mostly British, some French, and later American, writing about trout fishing were writing about fishing for brown trout. Once brown trout were introduced into the U.S. in the 1880s, they became a major subject of American angling literature. In 1889,Frederic M. Halford,a British angler, author publishedDry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice,a seminal work codifying a half century of evolution of fly fishing with floating flies for brown trout. In the late 19th century, American angler and writerTheodore Gordon,often called the "Father of American Dry Fly Fishing", perfected dry-fly techniques for the newly arrived, but difficult-to-catch brown trout inCatskillrivers such as theBeaverkillandNeversink Rivers.[33]In the early 20th century, British angler and authorG. E. M. Skuespioneered nymphing techniques for brown trout on English chalk streams. HisMinor Tactics of the Chalk Stream(1910) began a revolution in fly fishing techniques for trout.[34]In 1917, Scottish author Hamish Stuart published the first comprehensive text,The Book of The Sea Trout,specifically addressing angling techniques for the anadromous forms of brown trout.[35]

Firehole river brown trout

Introductions of brown trout into theAmerican Westcreated new angling opportunities, none so successful from an angling perspective as was the introduction of browns into the upperFirehole RiverinYellowstone National Parkin 1890.[36]One of the earliest accounts of trout fishing in the park is from Mary Trowbridge Townsend's 1897 article inOuting Magazine"A Woman's Trout Fishing in Yellowstone Park" in which she talks about catching the von Behr trout in the river:

Long dashes down stream taxed my unsteady footing; the sharp click and whirr of the reel resounded in desperate efforts to hold him somewhat in check; another headlong dash, then a vicious bulldog shake of the head as he sawed back and forth across the rocks. Every wile inherited from generations of wily ancestors was tried until, in a moment of exhaustion, the net was slipped under him. Wading ashore with my prize, I had barely time to notice his size—a good four-pounder, and unusual markings, large yellow spots encircled by black, with great brilliancy of iridescent color—when back he flopped into the water and was gone. However, I took afterward several of the same variety, known in the Park as the Von Baer[sic]trout, and which I have since found to be theSalmo fario,the veritable trout of Izaak Walton.

— Outing Magazine,(1897)[37]

Within the US, brown trout introductions have created self-sustaining fisheries throughout the country. Many are considered "world-class" such as in the Great Lakes and in several Arkansas tailwaters.[38]Outside the U.S. and outside its native range in Europe, introduced brown trout have created "world-class" fisheries in New Zealand,[39]Patagonia,[40]and theFalklands.[41]

References

edit
  1. ^Freyhof, J. (2011)."Salmo trutta".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.2011:e.T19861A9050312.doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19861A9050312.en.Retrieved12 November2021.
  2. ^"Synonyms of Salmo trutta Linnaeus, 1758".Fishbase.org.Retrieved2014-02-22.
  3. ^Derwent Publications,Thesaurus of Agricultural Organisms,Vol. 1, London: Chapman and Hall, 1990, p. 1058.
  4. ^E. Brown,World Fish Farming: Cultivation and Economics,Connecticut: AVI, 1983, p. 93.
  5. ^Lack of genetic differentiation between anadromous and resident sympatric brown trout (Salmo trutta) in a Normandy population.Archived2007-05-18 at theWayback Machine.InAquatic Living Resources,Volume 18, N° 1, January–March 2005. Pages 65–69.
  6. ^Behnke, Robert J.;Williams, Ted (2007). "Brown Trout-Winter 1986".About Trout: The Best of Robert J. Behnke fromTrout Magazine.Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot. p. 45.ISBN978-1-59921-203-6.
  7. ^abcdBehnke, Robert J.;Williams, Ted (2007). "Brown Trout-Winter 1986".About Trout: The Best of Robert J. Behnke fromTrout Magazine.Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot. pp. 45–50.ISBN978-1-59921-203-6.
  8. ^"Global Invasive Species Database-Salmo trutta-Distribution".Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. Archived fromthe originalon 2020-06-03.Retrieved2014-02-01.
  9. ^abcHeacox, Cecil E. (1974)."Back Cast".The Complete Brown Trout.New York: Winchester Press. pp.7–23.ISBN0-87691-129-7.
  10. ^Newton, Chris (2013). "The Trout in India".The Trout's Tale – The Fish That Conquered an Empire.Ellesmere, Shropshire: Medlar Press. pp. 79–95.ISBN978-1-907110-44-3.
  11. ^Newton, Chris (2013). "The Monsters of Kerguelen".The Trout's Tale – The Fish That Conquered an Empire.Ellesmere, Shropshire: Medlar Press. pp. 161–170.ISBN978-1-907110-44-3.
  12. ^"Brown Trout".flr.gov.nl.ca.
  13. ^"Climate Change and Freshwater". 11 February 2009ArchivedFebruary 11, 2011, at theWayback Machine.
  14. ^Splendiani, Andrea; Fioravanti, Tatiana; Giovannotti, Massimo; Negri, Alessandra; Ruggeri, Paolo; Olivieri, Luigi; Nisi Cerioni, Paola; Lorenzoni, Massimo; Caputo Barucchi, Vincenzo; Consuegra, Sofia (22 June 2016)."The Effects of Paleoclimatic Events on Mediterranean Trout: Preliminary Evidences from Ancient DNA".PLOS ONE.11(6): e0157975.Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1157975S.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0157975.PMC4917132.PMID27331397.
  15. ^ab"Identification of Salmon and Brown Trout".Maine Department of Inland Fisheries & Wildlife.Retrieved30 March2023.
  16. ^abcR.P. Jacobs; E.B. O'Donnell; Connecticut DEEP."Brown Trout (Salmo trutta) - Introduced ".Connecticut Department of Energy & Environmental Protection.Retrieved30 March2023.
  17. ^ab"Record brown trout caught in Manistee River".Arkansas Democrat-Gazette.11 September 2009.Retrieved30 March2023.
  18. ^"Trout, brown (Salmo trutta) ".The International Game Fish Association.Retrieved30 March2023.
  19. ^Sánchez-Hernández, J.; Cobo, F. (2012)."Summer differences in behavioural feeding habits and use of feeding habitat among brown trout (Pisces) age classes in a temperate area".Italian Journal of Zoology.79(3): 468–478.doi:10.1080/11250003.2012.670274.
  20. ^Sánchez-Hernández, J., Servia, M.J., Vieira-Lanero, R. & Cobo F. (2013). Ontogenetic dietary shifts in a predatoryfreshwater fishspecies: the brown trout as an example of a dynamic fish species. In: New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology, Hakan Türker (Ed.).ISBN978-953-51-0909-9,InTech, Croatia, 271–298 pp.
  21. ^Jensen, H.; Kiljunen, M.; Amundsen, P-A. (2012). "Dietary ontogeny and niche shift to piscivory in lacustrine brown trout Salmo trutta revealed by stomach content and stable isotope analyses".Journal of Fish Biology.80(7): 2448–2462.Bibcode:2012JFBio..80.2448J.doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03294.x.PMID22650427.
  22. ^Elliott, J.M. (1967). "The food of trout (Salmo trutta) in a Dartmoor stream ".Journal of Applied Ecology.4(1): 59–71.Bibcode:1967JApEc...4...59E.doi:10.2307/2401409.JSTOR2401409.
  23. ^Amundsen, P-A.; Bøhn, T.; Popova, O.A.; Staldvik, F.J.; Reshetnikov, Y.S.; Kashulin, N.; Lukin, A. (2003). "Ontogenetic niche shifts and resource partitioning in a subarctic piscivore fish guild".Hydrobiologia.497(1–3): 109–119.doi:10.1023/A:1025465705717.hdl:10037/19124.S2CID23002949.
  24. ^Zimmerman, C.E.; Mosegaard, H. (1992). "Initial feeding in migratory brown trout (Salmo trutta L.) alevins".Journal of Fish Biology.40(4): 647–650.Bibcode:1992JFBio..40..647Z.doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1992.tb02612.x.
  25. ^Skoglund, H.; Barlaup, B.T. (2006). "Feeding pattern and diet of first feeding brown trout fry under natural conditions".Journal of Fish Biology.68(2): 507–521.Bibcode:2006JFBio..68..507S.doi:10.1111/j.0022-1112.2006.00938.x.
  26. ^Sánchez-Hernández, J.; Vieira-Lanero, R.; Servia, M.J.; Cobo, F. (2011a). "First feeding diet of young brown trout fry in a temperate area: disentangling constrains and food selection".Hydrobiologia.663(1): 109–119.doi:10.1007/s10750-010-0582-3.S2CID23870995.
  27. ^Brown Trout,Salmo truttaArchived2010-06-07 at theWayback MachineSea Grant. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
  28. ^Fuller, P.; Larson, J.; Fusaro, A.; Makled, T.H.; Neilson, M.; Bartos, A. (8 April 2022)."Salmo truttaLinnaeus, 1758 ".NOAA Great Lakes Aquatic Nonindigenous Species Information System.Gainesville, Florida & Ann Arbor, Michigan: U.S. Geological Survey, Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database.Retrieved30 March2023.
  29. ^
    Ferguson, Andrew; Reed, Thomas; Cross, Tom; McGinnity, Philip; Prodohl, Paulo (2019)."Anadromy, potamodromy and residency in brown troutSalmo trutta:the role of genes and the environment ".Journal of Fish Biology.95(3).John Wiley & Sons Ltd:692–718.Bibcode:2019JFBio..95..692F.doi:10.1111/jfb.14005.ISSN0022-1112.PMC6771713.PMID31197849.S2CID164814120.
    This review cites this research.
    Marco-Rius, Francisco; Sotelo, Graciela; Caballero, Pablo; Morán, Paloma (2013). "Insights for planning an effective stocking program in anadromous brown trout (Salmo trutta)".Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences.70(7): 1092–1100.doi:10.1139/cjfas-2013-0084..
  30. ^Herd, Andrew Dr (2001). "Beginnings".The Fly.Ellesmere, Shropshire: Medlar Press. pp. 19–74.ISBN1-899600-19-1.
  31. ^Andrew Herd."Translation-Treatyse of Fysshynge with an AngleFishes ".Flyfishinghistory. Archived fromthe originalon 2014-01-27.Retrieved2014-02-02.
  32. ^Walton, Izaak (1653).The Compleat Angler.London.
  33. ^McDonald, John (1972). "Gordan and American Fly-fishing".Quill Gordon.New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 34–44.ISBN0394469895.
  34. ^Gingrich, Arnold (1974).The Fishing In Print-A Guided Tour Through Five Centuries of Angling Literature.New York: Winchester Press. pp.224–225.ISBN9780876911570.
  35. ^Newton, Chris (2013). "Two Fish in One".The Trout's Tale – The Fish That Conquered an Empire.Ellesmere, Shropshire: Medlar Press. pp. 31–36.ISBN978-1-907110-44-3.
  36. ^Franke, Mary Ann (Fall 1996)."A Grand Experiment—100 Years of Fisheries Management in Yellowstone: Part I"(PDF).Yellowstone Science.4(4).
  37. ^Townsend, Mary Trowbridge (May 2, 1897), "A Woman's Trout Fishing in Yellowstone Park",Outing Magazine,XXX(2): 163
  38. ^Price, Steve.Arkansas Monster Browns.Field and Stream.Retrieved2014-02-22.
  39. ^McGinley, Morgan (January 26, 2010)."A Long Road to World-Class Fly Fishing in New Zealand".The New York Times.Retrieved2014-02-22.
  40. ^Kaminsky, Peter (February 11, 2006)."At the End of the World, the Fish Stories Are True".The New York Times.Retrieved2014-02-22.
  41. ^Newton, Chris (2013). "Falklands' Silver".The Trout's Tale – The Fish That Conquered an Empire.Ellesmere, Shropshire: Medlar Press. pp. 149–159.ISBN978-1-907110-44-3.The Chartres produces some great fishing...When he was reunited with the party a few hours later, he had taken 15 sea trout from 7 lbs to 14 1/2 lbs – world-class fishing by any yardstick

Further reading

edit
edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related toSalmo trutta.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brown_trout&oldid=1196476431"