Canaan

For other uses, seeCanaan (disambiguation).

Canaan(/ˈkeɪnən/;Phoenician:𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍 –KNʿN;Hebrew:כְּנַעַן–Kənáʿan,inpausaכְּנָעַן‎–Kənāʿan;Biblical Greek:Χανααν–Khanaan;Arabic:كَنْعَانُ–Kan‘ān) was aSemitic-speaking civilization and region of theSouthern Levantin theAncient Near Eastduring the late2nd millennium BC.Canaan had significant geopolitical importance in theLate Bronze AgeAmarna Period(14th century BC) as the area where thespheres of interestof theEgyptian,Hittite,Mitanni,andAssyrian Empiresconverged or overlapped. Much of present-day knowledge about Canaan stems fromarchaeological excavationin this area at sites such asTel Hazor,Tel Megiddo,En Esur,andGezer.

Canaan 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍(Phoenician) כְּנַעַן‎(Hebrew) Χαναάν(Biblical Greek) كَنْعَانُ(Arabic)
Historical region
Map of Canaan byJohn Melish(1815)
Coordinates:32°N35°E
Politiesandpeoples	Phoenician city states Phoenicians Philistines Israelites Moab Ammon Tjeker Geshur Edom
Canaanite languages	Phoenician Ammonite Moabite Hebrew Edomite

The name "Canaan" appears throughout theBibleas a geography associated with the "Promised Land".Thedemonym"Canaanites" serves as an ethnic catch-all term covering various indigenous populations—both settled andnomadic-pastoralgroups—throughout the regions of the southernLevantor Canaan.It is by far the most frequently used ethnic term in the Bible.Biblical scholarMark Smith,citing archaeological findings, suggests "that theIsraeliteculture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. "

The name "Canaanites" is attested, many centuries later, as theendonymof the people later known to theAncient Greeksfromc. 500BC asPhoenicians,and after theemigration of Phoeniciansand Canaanite-speakers toCarthage(founded in the 9th century BC), was also used as a self-designation by thePunics(as"Chanani") of North Africa duringLate Antiquity.

Etymology

Canaan

The English term "Canaan" (pronounced/ˈkeɪnən/sincec. 1500,due to theGreat Vowel Shift) comes from the Hebrewכנען(Kənaʿan), via theKoine GreekΧαναανKhanaanand theLatinCanaan.It appears asKinâḫna(Akkadian:𒆳𒆠𒈾𒄴𒈾,^KURki-na-aḫ-na) in theAmarna letters(14th century BC) and several other ancient Egyptian texts.In Greek, it first occurs in the writings ofHecataeus(c. 550–476 BC) as "Khna"(Χνᾶ).It is attested in Phoenician on coins fromBerytusdated to the 2nd century BC.

The etymology is uncertain. An early explanation derives the term from theSemitic rootknʿ,"to be low, humble, subjugated".Some scholars have suggested that this implies an original meaning of "lowlands", in contrast withAram,which would then mean "highlands",whereas others have suggested it meant "the subjugated" as the name of Egypt's province in the Levant, and evolved into the proper name in a similar fashion toProvincia Nostra(the first Roman colony north of the Alps, which becameProvence).

An alternative suggestion, put forward byEphraim Avigdor Speiserin 1936, derives the term fromHurrianKinaḫḫu,purportedly referring to the colour purple, so that "Canaan" and "Phoenicia"would be synonyms (" Land of Purple "). Tablets found in the Hurrian city ofNuziin the early 20th century appear to use the term"Kinaḫnu"as a synonym for red orpurple dye,laboriously produced by theKassiterulers ofBabylonfrommurexmolluscs as early as 1600 BC, and on the Mediterranean coast by the Phoenicians from a byproduct of glassmaking. Purple cloth became a renowned Canaanite export commodity which is mentioned inExodus.The dyes may have been named after their place of origin. The name 'Phoenicia' is connected with the Greek word for "purple", apparently referring to the same product, but it is difficult to state with certainty whether the Greek word came from the name, or vice versa. The purple cloth ofTyrein Phoenicia was well known far and wide and was associated by theRomanswith nobility and royalty. However, according toRobert Drews,Speiser's proposal has generally been abandoned.

Djahy

Retjenu(Anglicised 'Retenu') was the usual ancient Egyptian name for Canaan and Syria, covering the region fromGazain the south, toTartousin the north. Its borders shifted with time, but it generally consisted of three regions.The region betweenAskalonandthe Lebanon,stretching inland to theSea of Galilee,was namedDjahy,which was approximately synonymous with Canaan.

Archaeology and history

Further information:Levantine archaeology

Overview

See also:Prehistory of the LevantandHistory of Palestine

There are several periodization systems for Canaan.One of them is the following.

• Prior to 4500 BC (prehistory –Stone Age): hunter-gatherer societies slowly giving way to farming and herding societies
• 4500–3500 BC (Chalcolithic): early metal-working and farming
• 3500–2000 BC (Early Bronze): prior to written records in the area
• 2000–1550 BC (Middle Bronze):city-states
• 1550–1200 BC (Late Bronze): Egyptian hegemony
• 1200–various dates by region (Iron Age)

After theIron Agethe periods are named after the various empires that ruled the region:Assyrian,Babylonian,Persian,Hellenistic(related toGreece) andRoman.

Canaanite culture developedin situfrom multiple waves of migration merging with the earlierCircum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex,which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestralNatufianandHarifian cultureswithPre-Pottery Neolithic B(PPNB) farming cultures, practicinganimal domestication,during the6200 BC climatic crisiswhich led to theNeolithic Revolution/First Agricultural Revolutionin theLevant.The majority of Canaan is covered by theEastern Mediterranean conifer–sclerophyllous–broadleaf forestsecoregion.

Chalcolithic (4500–3500 BC)

The Ghassulian star

Ghassulian dolmen, Kueijiyeh hill nearMadaba,Jordan

The first wave of migration, calledGhassulianculture, entered Canaan circa 4500 BC.This is the start of theChalcolithicin Canaan. From their unknown homeland they brought an already complete craft tradition of metal work. They were expert coppersmiths; in fact, their work was the most advancedmetal technologyin the ancient world.Their work is similar to artifacts from the laterMaykop culture,leading some scholars to believe they represent two branches of an original metalworking tradition. Their main copper mine was atWadi Feynan.The copper was mined from the Cambrian Burj Dolomite Shale Unit in the form of the mineralmalachite.All of the copper was smelted at sites inBeersheba culture.

Genetic analysis has shown that the Ghassulians belonged to theWest Asianhaplogroup T-M184.

The end of the Chalcolithic period saw the rise of the urban settlement of'En Esuron the southern Mediterranean coast.

Early Bronze Age (3500–2000 BC)

Tell es-Sakanin Gaza was inhabited from approximately 3300 BC to 2400/2350 BC.

By theEarly Bronze Ageother sites had developed, such asEbla(where anEast Semitic language,Eblaite,was spoken), which byc. 2300BC was incorporated into theMesopotamia-basedAkkadian EmpireofSargon the GreatandNaram-Sin of Akkad(biblical Accad). Sumerian references to theMar.tu( "tent dwellers", laterAmurru,i.e.Amorite) country west of theEuphratesRiver date from even earlier than Sargon, at least to the reign of theSumerianking,EnshakushannaofUruk,and one tablet credits the early Sumerian kingLugal-Anne-Munduwith holding sway in the region, although this tablet is considered less credible because it was produced centuries later.

Amorites atHazor,Kadesh(Qadesh-on-the-Orontes), and elsewhere inAmurru(Syria) bordered Canaan in the north and northeast. (Ugarit may be included among these Amoritic entities.)The collapse of the Akkadian Empire in 2154 BC saw the arrival of peoples usingKhirbet Kerakware (pottery),coming originally from theZagros Mountains(in modernIran) east of theTigris.In addition,DNAanalysis revealed that between 2500–1000 BC, populations from the Chalcolithic Zagros and Bronze AgeCaucasusmigrated to the Southern Levant.

The first cities in the southern Levant arose during this period. The major sites were'En EsurandMeggido.These "proto-Canaanites" were in regular contact with the other peoples to their south such asEgypt,and to the northAsia Minor(Hurrians,Hattians,Hittites,Luwians) andMesopotamia(Sumer,Akkad,Assyria), a trend that continued through theIron Age.The end of the period is marked by the abandonment of the cities and a return to lifestyles based on farming villages and semi-nomadic herding, although specialised craft production continued and trade routes remained open.Archaeologically, the Late Bronze Age state ofUgarit(atRas ShamrainSyria) is considered quintessentially Canaanite,even though itsUgaritic languagedoes not belong to theCanaanite language groupproper.

A disputed reference to a "Lord ofga-na-na"in the SemiticEbla tablets(dated 2350 BC) from the archive ofTell Mardikhhas been interpreted by some scholars to mention the deityDagonby the title "Lord of Canaan"If correct, this would suggest that Eblaites were conscious of Canaan as an entity by 2500 BC.Jonathan Tubb states that the termga-na-na"may provide a third-millennium reference toCanaanite",while at the same time stating that the first certain reference is in the 18th century BC.SeeEbla-Biblical controversyfor further details.

Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 BC)

Map of the Near East byRobert de Vaugondy(1762), indicating "Canaan" as limited to theHoly Land,to the exclusion of Lebanon and Syria

Urbanism returned and the region was divided among small city-states, the most important of which seems to have been Hazor.Many aspects of Canaanite material culture now reflected a Mesopotamian influence, and the entire region became more tightly integrated into a vast international trading network.

As early asNaram-Sin of Akkad's reign (c. 2240BC),Amurruwas called one of the "four quarters" surroundingAkkad,along withSubartu/Assyria,Sumer,andElam.Amorite dynasties also came to dominate in much of Mesopotamia, including inLarsa,Isinand founding the state of Babylon in 1894 BC. Later on,Amurrubecame the Assyrian/Akkadian term for the interior of south as well as for northerly Canaan. At this time the Canaanite area seemed divided between two confederacies, one centred uponMegiddoin theJezreel Valley,the second on the more northerly city ofKadeshon the Orontes River.An Amorite chieftain namedSumu-abumfounded Babylon as an independent city-state in 1894 BC. One Amorite king of Babylonia,Hammurabi(1792–1750 BC), founded theFirst Babylonian Empire,which lasted only as long as his lifetime. Upon his death the Amorites were driven from Assyria but remained masters of Babylonia until 1595 BC, when they were ejected by the Hittites.

The semi-fictionalStory of Sinuhedescribes an Egyptian officer, Sinuhe, conducting military activities in the area of "UpperRetjenu"and"Fenekhu"during the reign ofSenusret I(c. 1950BC). The earliestbona fideEgyptian report of a campaign to "Mentu", "Retjenu" and "Sekmem" (Shechem) is theSebek-khu Stele,dated to the reign ofSenusret III(c. 1862BC).

A letter fromMut-bisirtoShamshi-Adad I(c. 1809–1776BC) of theOld Assyrian Empire(2025–1750 BC) has been translated: "It is in Rahisum that the brigands (habbatum) and the Canaanites (Kinahnum) are situated". It was found in 1973 in the ruins ofMari,anAssyrianoutpost at that time inSyria.Additional unpublished references to Kinahnum in the Mari letters refer to the same episode.Whether the term Kinahnum refers to people from a specific region or rather people of "foreign origin" has been disputed,such that Robert Drews states that the "first certain cuneiform reference" to Canaan is found on the Alalakh statue of King Idrimi (below).

A reference to Ammiya being "in the land of Canaan" is found on theStatue of Idrimi(16th century BC) fromAlalakhin modern Syria. After a popular uprising against his rule, Idrimi was forced into exile with his mother's relatives to seek refuge in "the land of Canaan", where he prepared for an eventual attack to recover his city. The other references in the Alalakh texts are:

West Asian visitors to Egypt (c. 1900BC)

A group of West Asian foreigners, possibly Canaanites, labelled asAamu(ꜥꜣmw), with the leader labelled as aHyksos,visiting the Egyptian officialKhnumhotep IIc. 1900BC. Tomb of12th dynastyofficial Khnumhotep II, atBeni Hasan.

• AT 154 (unpublished)
• AT 181: A list of 'Apiru people with their origins. All are towns, except for Canaan
• AT 188: A list of Muskenu people with their origins. All are towns, except for three lands including Canaan
• AT 48: A contract with a Canaanite hunter.

Around 1650 BC, Canaanites invaded the easternNile delta,where, known as theHyksos,they became the dominant power.In Egyptian inscriptions,AmarandAmurru(Amorites) are applied strictly to the more northerly mountain region east of Phoenicia, extending to theOrontes.

CanaaniteAnra scarabshowing Egyptiannswt-bjtandankhsymbols bordering acartouchewith anundecipheredsequence of hieroglyphs c. 1648-1540

Archaeological excavations of a number of sites, later identified as Canaanite, show that prosperity of the region reached its apogee during this MiddleBronze Ageperiod, under the leadership of the city ofHazor,at least nominallytributaryto Egypt for much of the period. In the north, the cities ofYamkhadandQatnawerehegemonsof importantconfederacies,and it would appear that biblical Hazor was the chief city of another importantcoalitionin the south.

Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC)

In the early Late Bronze Age, Canaanite confederacies centered onMegiddoandKadesh,before being fully brought into theEgyptian Empireand Hittite Empire. Later still, theNeo-Assyrian Empireassimilated the region.

According to the Bible, the migrantancient Semitic-speaking peopleswho appear to have settled in the region included (among others) theAmorites,who had earlier controlled Babylonia. TheHebrew Biblementions theAmoritesin theTable of Peoples(Book of Genesis10:16–18a). Evidently, the Amorites played a significant role in the early history of Canaan. In Book of Genesis 14:7f.,Book of Joshua10:5f.,Book of Deuteronomy1:19f., 27, 44, we find them located in the southern mountain country, while verses such asBook of Numbers21:13, Book of Joshua 9:10, 24:8, 12, etc., tell of two great Amorite kings residing atHeshbonandAshteroth,east of the Jordan. Other passages, including Book of Genesis 15:16, 48:22, Book of Joshua 24:15,Book of Judges1:34, regard the nameAmoriteas synonymous with "Canaanite". The nameAmoriteis, however, never used for the population on the coast.

Map of theAncient Near Eastaround 1400 BC

In the centuries preceding the appearance of the biblical Hebrews, parts of Canaan and southwestern Syria became tributary to the Egyptianpharaohs,although domination by the Egyptians remained sporadic, and not strong enough to prevent frequent local rebellions and inter-city struggles. Other areas such as northern Canaan and northern Syria came to be ruled by the Assyrians during this period.

UnderThutmose III(1479–1426 BC) andAmenhotep II(1427–1400 BC), the regular presence of the strong hand of the Egyptian ruler and his armies kept the Amorites and Canaanites sufficiently loyal. Nevertheless, Thutmose III reported a new and troubling element in the population.Habiruor (in Egyptian) 'Apiru, are reported for the first time. These seem to have been mercenaries, brigands, or outlaws, who may have at one time led a settled life, but with bad luck or due to the force of circumstances, contributed a rootless element to the population, prepared to hire themselves to whichever local mayor, king, or princeling would pay for their support.

Although HabiruSA-GAZ(aSumerianideogramglossedas "brigand" inAkkadian), and sometimesHabiri(an Akkadian word) had been reported in Mesopotamia from the reign of theSumerianking,ShulgiofUr III,their appearance in Canaan appears to have been due to the arrival of a new state based in Asia Minor to the north of Assyria and based upon aMaryannuaristocracy of horse-drawncharioteers,associated with theIndo-Aryanrulers of theHurrians,known asMitanni.

Basalt lions from theOrthostatTemple ofHazor(c. 1500–1300 BC)Hazor was violently destroyed during the Bronze Age collapse.

The Habiru seem to have been more a social class than an ethnic group.One analysis shows that the majority were Hurrian, although there were a number of Semites and even someKassiteandLuwianadventurers amongst their number.The reign ofAmenhotep III,as a result, was not quite so tranquil for the Asiatic province, as Habiru/'Apiru contributed to greater political instability. It is believedthat turbulent chiefs began to seek their opportunities, although as a rule they could not find them without the help of a neighbouring king. The boldest of the disaffected nobles wasAziru,son ofAbdi-Ashirta,who endeavoured to extend his power into the plain ofDamascus.Akizzi,governor of Katna (Qatna?) (nearHamath), reported this to Amenhotep III, who seems to have sought to frustrate Aziru's attempts.In the reign of the next pharaoh,Akhenaten(reignedc.1352 toc.1335 BC) both father and son caused infinite trouble to loyal servants of Egypt likeRib-Hadda,governor ofGubla(Gebal),by transferring their loyalty from the Egyptian crown to the Hittite Empire underSuppiluliuma I(reignedc.1344–1322 BC).

Egyptian power in Canaan thus suffered a major setback when the Hittites (or Hat.ti) advanced into Syria in the reign of Amenhotep III, and when they became even more threatening in that of his successor, displacing the Amorites and prompting a resumption of Semitic migration. Abdi-Ashirta and his son Aziru, at first afraid of the Hittites, afterwards made a treaty with their king, and joining with the Hittites, attacked and conquered the districts remaining loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Hadda send touching appeals for aid to the distant Pharaoh, who was far too engaged in his religious innovations to attend to such messages.

The Amarna letters tell of the Habiri in northern Syria.Etakkamawrote thus to the Pharaoh:

Behold,Namyawazahas surrendered all the cities of the king, my lord to theSA-GAZin the land ofKadeshand inUbi.But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show myself subject to him; and I will expel theSA-GAZ.

Canaanite sarcophagi (Israel Museum)

Similarly,Zimrida,king ofSidon(named 'Siduna'), declared, "All my cities which the king has given into my hand, have come into the hand of the Habiri." The king ofJerusalem,Abdi-Heba,reported to the Pharaoh:

If (Egyptian) troops come this year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my lord.

Abdi-heba's principal trouble arose from persons calledIilkiliand the sons ofLabaya,who are said to have entered into a treasonable league with the Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death at the siege ofGina.All these princes, however, maligned each other in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protested their own innocence of traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Etakkama (see above) accused of disloyalty, wrote thus to the Pharaoh,

Behold, I and my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and mySA-GAZ,and mySuti?9 are at the disposal of the (royal) troops to go whithersoever the king, my lord, commands. "

Merneptah Stele (JE 31408) from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo

Around the beginning of theNew Kingdomperiod, Egypt exerted rule over much of the Levant. Rule remained strong during theEighteenth Dynasty,but Egypt's rule became precarious during theNineteenthandTwentieth Dynasties.Ramses IIwas able to maintain control over it in thestalemated battleagainst the Hittites atKadeshin 1275 BC, but soon thereafter, the Hittites successfully took over the northern Levant (Syria and Amurru). Ramses II, obsessed with his own building projects while neglecting Asiatic contacts, allowed control over the region to continue dwindling. During the reign of his successorMerneptah,theMerneptah Stelewas issued which claimed to have destroyed various sites in the southern Levant, including a people known as "Israel". However, archaeological findings show no destruction at any of the sites mentioned in the Merneptah Stele and so it is considered to be an exercise in propaganda, and the campaign most likely avoided the central highlands in the southern Levant. Egypt's withdrawal from thesouthern Levantwas a protracted process lasting some one hundred years beginning in the late 13th century BC and ending close to the end of the 12th century BC. The reason for the Egypt's withdrawal was most likely a product of the political turmoil in Egypt proper rather than the invasion by theSea Peoplesas there is little evidence that the Sea Peoples caused much destruction ca. 1200 BC. Many Egyptian garrisons or sites with an “Egyptian governor's residence” in the southern Levant were abandoned without destruction includingDeir al-Balah,Ascalon,Tel Mor,Tell el-Far'ah (South),Tel Gerisa,Tell Jemmeh,Tel Masos,and Qubur el-Walaydah.Not all Egyptian sites in the southern Levant were abandoned without destruction. The Egyptian garrison atAphekwas destroyed, likely in an act of warfare at the end of the 13th century.The Egyptian gate complex uncovered atJaffawas destroyed at the end of the 12th century between 1134-1115 based on C14 dates,whileBeth-Sheanwas partially though not completely destroyed, possibly by an earthquake, in the mid-12th century.

Amarna letters

Amarna tablet EA 9

References to Canaanites are also found throughout the Amarna letters of PharaohAkhenatenc. 1350BC. In these letters, some of which were sent by governors and princes of Canaan to their Egyptian overlordAkhenaten(Amenhotep IV) in the 14th century BC, are found, besideAmarandAmurru(Amorites), the two formsKinahhiandKinahni,corresponding toKenaandKena'anrespectively, and includingSyria in its widest extent,asEduard Meyerhas shown. The letters are written in the official and diplomaticEast SemiticAkkadian languageofAssyriaandBabylonia,though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are also in evidence.The known references are:

• EA 8: Letter fromBurna-Buriash IItoAkhenaten,explaining that his merchants "were detained in Canaan for business matters", robbed and killed "in Hinnatuna of the land of Canaan" by the rulers ofAcreand Shamhuna, and asks for compensation because "Canaan is your country"
• EA 9:Letter fromBurna-Buriash IItoTutankhamun,"all the Canaanites wrote toKurigalzusaying 'come to the border of the country so we can revolt and be allied with you' "
• EA 30: Letter fromTushratta:"To the kings of Canaan... Provide [my messenger] with safe entry into Egypt"
• EA 109: Letter ofRib-Hadda:"Previously, on seeing a man from Egypt, the kings of Canaan fled before him, but now the sons ofAbdi-Ashirtamake men from Egypt prowl about like dogs "
• EA 110: Letter ofRib-Hadda:"No ship of the army is to leave Canaan"
• EA 131: Letter ofRib-Hadda:"If he does not send archers, they will take [Byblos] and all the other cities, and the lands of Canaan will not belong to the king. May the king askYanhamuabout these matters. "
• EA 137: Letter ofRib-Hadda:"If the king neglectsByblos,of all the cities of Canaan not one will be his "
• EA 367:"Hani son (of) Mairēya," chief of the stable "of the king in Canaan"
• EA 162: Letter toAziru:"You yourself know that the king does not want to go against all of Canaan when he rages"
• EA 148: Letter fromAbimilkuto the Pharaoh: "[The king] has taken over the land of the king for the 'Apiru. May the king ask his commissioner, who is familiar with Canaan"
• EA 151: Letter fromAbimilkuto the Pharaoh: "The king, my lord wrote to me: 'write to me what you have heard from Canaan'." Abimilku describes in response what has happened in easternCilicia(Danuna), the northern coast of Syria (Ugarit), in Syria (Qadesh,Amurru,andDamascus) as well as inSidon.

Other Late Bronze Age mentions

Text RS 20.182 fromUgaritis a copy of a letter of the king of Ugarit toRamesses IIconcerning money paid by "the sons of the land of Ugarit" to the "foreman of the sons of the land of Canaan (*kn'ny) "According to Jonathan Tubb, this suggests that the people of Ugarit, contrary to much modern opinion, considered themselves to be non-Canaanite.The other Ugarit reference, KTU 4.96, shows a list of traders assigned to royal estates, one of the estates having three Ugaritans, an Ashdadite, an Egyptian and a Canaanite.

Ashur tablets

A MiddleAssyrianletter during the reign ofShalmaneser Iincludes a reference to the "travel to Canaan" of an Assyrian official.

Hattusa letters

Four references are known from Hattusa:

• An evocation to the Cedar Gods: Includes reference to Canaan alongside Sidon, Tyre and possibly Amurru
• KBo XXVIII 1:Ramesses IIletter toHattusili III,in which Ramesses suggested he would meet "his brother" in Canaan and bring him to Egypt
• KUB III 57 (also KUB III 37 + KBo I 17): Broken text which may refer to Canaan as an Egyptian sub-district
• KBo I 15+19:Ramesses IIletter toHattusili III,describing Ramesses' visit to the "land of Canaan on his way to Kinza and Harita

Bronze Age collapse

Main article:Late Bronze Age collapse

Map of Canaan during the Late Bronze Age

Ann Killebrew has shown that cities such asJerusalemwere large and important walled settlements in the pre-Israelite Middle BronzeIIB and the Israelite Iron Age IIC period (c. 1800–1550andc. 720–586BC), but that during the interveningLate Bronze(LB) andIron AgeI and IIA/B Ages sites likeJerusalemwere small and relatively insignificant and unfortified towns.

Just after the Amarna period, a new problem arose which was to trouble the Egyptian control of southern Canaan (the rest of the region now being under Assyrian control). Pharaoh Horemhab campaigned againstShasu(Egyptian = "wanderers" )living innomadic pastoralisttribes, who had moved across theJordan Riverto threaten Egyptian trade throughGalileeandJezreel.Seti I(c. 1290BC) is said to have conquered these Shasu, Semitic-speaking nomads living just south and east of theDead Sea,from the fortress of Taru (Shtir?) to "Ka-n-'-na".After the near collapse of theBattle of Kadesh,Rameses IIhad to campaign vigorously in Canaan to maintain Egyptian power. Egyptian forces penetrated intoMoabandAmmon,where a permanent fortress garrison (called simply "Rameses" ) was established.

Some believe the "Habiru"signified generally all the nomadic tribes known as" Hebrews ", and particularly the earlyIsraelitesof the period of the "judges",who sought to appropriate the fertile region for themselves.However, the term was rarely used to describe the Shasu. Whether the term may also include other related ancient Semitic-speaking peoples such as theMoabites,AmmonitesandEdomitesis uncertain.

There is little evidence that any major city or settlement in the southern Levant was destroyed around 1200 BC.AtLachish,The Fosse Temple III was ritually terminated while a house in Area S appears to have burned in a house fire as the most severe evidence of burning was next to two ovens while no other part of the city had evidence of burning. After this though the city was rebuilt in a grander fashion than before.ForMegiddo,most parts of the city did not have any signs of damage and it is only possible that the palace in Area AA might have been destroyed though this is not certain.While the monumental structures at Hazor were indeed destroyed, this destruction was in the mid-13th century BC long before the end of the Late Bronze Age began.However, many sites were not burned to the ground around 1200 BC including:Asqaluna,Asdudu,Tell es-Safi,Tel Batash,Tel Burna,Tel Dor,Tel Gerisa,Tell Jemmeh,Khirbet Rabud,Tel Zeror,andTell Abu Hawamamong others.

Despite many theories which claim that trade relations broke down after 1200 BC in the southern Levant, there is ample evidence that trade with other regions continued after the end of the Late Bronze Age in the Southern Levant.Archaeologist Jesse Millek has shown that while the common assuption is that trade in Cypriot and Mycenaean pottery ended around 1200 BC, trade inCypriot potteryactually largely came to an end at 1300, while forMycenaean pottery,this trade ended at 1250 BC, and destruction around 1200 BC could not have affected either pattern of international trade since it ended before the end of the Late Bronze Age.He has also demonstrated that trade withEgyptcontinued after 1200 BC.Archaeometallurgical studies performed by various teams have also shown that trade intin,a non-local metal necessary to makebronze,did not stop or decrease after 1200 BC, even though the closest source of the metal were modern Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, or perhaps even Cornwall, England.LeadfromSardiniawas still being imported to the southern Levant after 1200 BC during the early Iron Age.

Iron Age

Levant (c. 830 BC)

Main article:History of ancient Israel and Judah

By theEarly Iron Age,the southern Levant came to be dominated by thekingdoms of Israel and Judah,besides thePhilistinecity-states on the Mediterranean coast, and the kingdoms ofMoab,Ammon,andAram-Damascuseast of the Jordan River, andEdomto the south. The northern Levant was divided into various petty kingdoms, the so-calledSyro-Hittite statesand the Phoenician city-states.

The entire region (including all Phoenician/Canaanite andArameanstates, together withIsrael,Philistia,andSamaria) was conquered by theNeo-Assyrian Empireduring the 10th and 9th centuries BC, and would remain so for three hundred years until the end of the 7th century BC.Emperor-kings such asAshurnasirpal,Adad-nirari II,Sargon II,Tiglath-Pileser III,Esarhaddon,SennacheribandAshurbanipalcame to dominate Canaanite affairs. During theTwenty-fifth Dynastythe Egyptians made a failed attempt to regain a foothold in the region, but were vanquished by the Neo-Assyrian Empire, leading to anAssyrian conquest of Egypt.

Between 616 and 605 BC the Neo-Assyrian Empire collapsed due to a series of bitter civil wars, followed by an attack by an alliance ofBabylonians,Medes,and Persians and theScythians.TheNeo-Babylonian Empireinherited the western part of the empire, including all the lands in Canaan andSyria,together withKingdom of Israeland theKingdom of Judah.They successfully defeated the Egyptians and remained in the region in an attempt to regain a foothold in theNear East.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire itself collapsed in 539 BC, and the region became a part of theAchaemenid Empire.It remained so until in 332 BC it was conquered by theGreeksunderAlexander the Great,later to fall to theRoman Empirein the late 2nd century BC, and thenByzantium,until theArabIslamic invasion and conquest of the 7th century AD.

Egyptian hieroglyphic and hieratic (1500–1000 BC)

Further information:Timeline of the name Palestine

The name "Canaan" occurs inhieroglyphsask3nˁnˁon theMerneptah Stelein the 13th century BC

During the 2nd millennium BC,Ancient Egyptiantexts use the term "Canaan" to refer to an Egyptian-ruled colony, whose boundaries generally corroborate the definition of Canaan found in theHebrew Bible,bounded to the west by the Mediterranean Sea, to the north in the vicinity ofHamathin Syria, to the east by theJordan Valley,and to the south by a line extended from theDead Seato aroundGaza.Nevertheless, the Egyptian andHebrewuses of the term are not identical: the Egyptian texts also identify the coastal city ofQadeshin north west Syria near Turkey as part of the "Land of Canaan", so that the Egyptian usage seems to refer to the entireLevantinecoast of the Mediterranean Sea, making it a synonym of another Egyptian term for this coastland,Retjenu.

Lebanon, in northern Canaan, bordered by theLitani riverto the watershed of theOrontes River,was known by the Egyptians as upperRetjenu.In Egyptian campaign accounts, the termDjahiwas used to refer to the watershed of the Jordan river. Many earlier Egyptian sources also mention numerous military campaigns conducted inKa-na-na,just inside Asia.

Ramesses III prisoner tilesdepictingCanaanites and Shasu Leader captives

Archaeological attestation of the name "Canaan" inAncient Near Easternsources relates almost exclusively to the period in which the region operated as a colony of theNew Kingdom of Egypt(16th–11th centuries BC), with usage of the name almost disappearing following theLate Bronze Age collapse(c. 1206–1150BC).The references suggest that during this period the term was familiar to the region's neighbors on all sides, although scholars have disputed to what extent such references provide a coherent description of its location and boundaries, and regarding whether the inhabitants used the term to describe themselves.

16 references are known in Egyptian sources, from theEighteenth Dynasty of Egyptonwards.

• Amenhotep IIinscriptions: Canaanites are included in a list of prisoners of war
• Three topographical lists
• Papyrus Anastasi I27,1 "refers to the route from Sile to Gaza" the [foreign countries] of the end of the land of Canaan "
• Merneptah Stele
• Papyrus Anastasi IIIA5–6 andPapyrus Anastasi IV16,4 refer to "Canaanite slaves from Hurru"
• Papyrus HarrisAfter the collapse of the Levant under the so-called "Peoples of the Sea"Ramesses III(c. 1194BC) is said to have built a temple to the godAmento receive tribute from the southern Levant. This was described as being built inPa-Canaan,a geographical reference whose meaning is disputed, with suggestions that it may refer to the city of Gaza or to the entire Egyptian-occupied territory in the south west corner of theNear East.

Greco-Roman historiography

Further information:Syria PhoeniciaandPalestine

The Greek termPhoeniciais first attested in the first two works ofWestern literature,Homer'sIliadandOdyssey.It does not occur in theHebrew Bible,but occurs three times in theNew Testamentin theBook of Acts.In the 6th century BC,Hecataeus of Miletusaffirms that Phoenicia was formerly calledχνα,a name thatPhilo of Byblossubsequently adopted into his mythology as his eponym for the Phoenicians: "Khna who was afterwards calledPhoinix".Quoting fragments attributed toSanchuniathon,he relates thatByblos,BerytusandTyrewere among the first cities ever built, under the rule of the mythicalCronus,and credits the inhabitants with developing fishing, hunting, agriculture, shipbuilding and writing.

Coins of the city ofBeirut/ Laodicea bear the legend, "Of Laodicea, a metropolis in Canaan"; these coins are dated to the reign ofAntiochus IV(175–164 BC) and his successors until 123 BC.

Coin ofAlexander II Zabinaswith the inscription "Laodikeia, metropole of Canaan"

Saint Augustinealso mentions that one of the terms the seafaring Phoenicians called their homeland was "Canaan". Augustine also records that the rustic people ofHippoin North Africa retained thePunicself-designationChanani.Since 'punic' in Latin also meant 'non-Roman', some scholars however argue that the language referred to as Punic in Augustine may have beenLibyan.

The Greeks also popularized the termPalestine,named after the Philistines or the AegeanPelasgians,for roughly the region of Canaan, excluding Phoenicia, withHerodotus' first recorded use ofPalaistinê,c. 480BC. From 110 BC, theHasmoneansextended their authority over much of the region, creating aJudean-Samaritan-Idumaean-Ituraean-Galileanalliance. The Judean (Jewish, seeIoudaioi) control over the wider area resulted in it also becoming known asJudaea,a term that had previously only referred to the smaller region of theJudean Mountains,the allotment of theTribe of Judahand heartland of the formerKingdom of Judah.Between 73–63 BC, theRoman Republicextended its influence into the region in theThird Mithridatic War,conquering Judea in 63 BC, and splitting the former Hasmonean Kingdom into five districts. Around 130–135 AD, as a result of the suppression of theBar Kochbarevolt, the province of Iudaea was joined withGalileeto form new province ofSyria Palaestina.There iscircumstantial evidencelinkingHadrianwith the name change,although the precise date is not certain,and the interpretation of some scholars that the name change may have been intended "to complete the dissociation with Judaea"is disputed.

Later sources

Padiiset's Statueis the last known Egyptian reference to Canaan, a small statuette labelled "Envoy of the Canaan and ofPeleset,Pa-di-Eset, the son of Apy ". The inscription is dated to 900–850 BC, more than 300 years after the preceding known inscription.

During the period fromc. 900–330BC, the dominantNeo-AssyrianandAchaemenid Empiremake no mention of Canaan.

Canaanites

The Canaanites were the inhabitants of ancient Canaan, a region that roughly corresponds to present-dayIsraelandPalestine,westernJordan,southern and coastalSyria,Lebanon,and continued up to the southern border ofTurkey.They are believed to have been one of the oldest civilizations inhuman history.

History

TheLevantwas inhabited by people who referred to the land aska-na-na-umas early as the mid-third millennium BC.TheAkkadianword "kinahhu"referred to the purple-coloured wool, dyed from theMurexmolluscs of the coast—which was a key export of the region. When theancient Greekslater traded with the Canaanites, this meaning of the word seems to have predominated, as they referred to the Canaanites asPhoenikes(Φοίνικες;Phoenicians), which may derive from theGreek-languageword "phoenix"(φοίνιξ;transl.  "crimson" or "purple"), and also described the cloth for which the Greeks traded. The word "phoenix"wastranscribedby theRomansto "poenus";the descendants of the Canaanite settlers inCarthagewere likewise referred to asPunic.

Thus, while "Phoenician" and "Canaanite" refer to the same culture, archaeologists and historians commonly refer to theBronze Agepre-1200 BC Levantine peoples as Canaanites, while theirIron Agedescendants, particularly those living on the coast, are referred to as Phoenicians. More recently, the term "Canaanite" has been used for the secondary Iron Age states of the Levantine interior that were not ruled byAramean peoples,that is, that were ruled by a separate and closely related ethnic group which included thePhilistinesand theIsraelitekingdoms ofIsrael and Judah.

Culture

Further information:Canaanite languagesandCanaanite religion

Enthroned deity; 14–13th century BC; bronze and gold foil; height: 12.7 cm;Metropolitan Museum of Art(New York City)

According to archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb, "Ammonites,Moabites,Israelites,and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites "," the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC. "

There is uncertainty about whether the name "Canaan" refers to a specificSemitic-speaking ethnic groupwherever they live, the homeland of this ethnic group, a region under the control of this ethnic group, or perhaps any combination of the three.

Canaanite civilization was a response to long periods of stable climate interrupted by short periods ofclimate change.During these periods, Canaanites profited from their intermediary position between the ancient civilizations of the Middle East—Ancient Egypt,Mesopotamia(Sumer,Akkad,Assyria,Babylonia), the Hittites, andMinoan Crete—to become city states of merchant princes along the coast, with small kingdoms specializing in agricultural products in the interior. This polarity, between coastal towns and agrarian hinterland, was illustrated inCanaanite mythologyby the struggle between the storm god, variously calledTeshub(Hurrian) orBa'al Hadad(SemiticAmorite/Aramean) andYa'a, Yaw, or Yam,god of the sea and rivers. Early Canaanite civilization was characterized by small walled market towns, surrounded by peasant farmers growing a range of localhorticultural products,along with commercial growing ofolives,grapesfor wine, andpistachios,surrounded by extensivegraincropping, predominantlywheatandbarley.Harvest in early summer was a season whentranshumancenomadismwas practiced—shepherds staying with their flocks during the wet season and returning to graze them on the harvested stubble, closer to water supplies in the summer. Evidence of this cycle of agriculture is found in theGezer calendarand in the biblical cycle of the year.

Periods of rapid climate change generally saw a collapse of this mixed Mediterranean farming system; commercial production was replaced withsubsistence agriculturalfoodstuffs; and transhumancepastoralismbecame a year-round nomadic pastoral activity, whilst tribal groups wandered in a circular pattern north to the Euphrates, or south to the Egyptian delta with their flocks. Occasionally, tribal chieftains would emerge, raiding enemy settlements and rewarding loyal followers from the spoils or by tariffs levied on merchants. Should the cities band together and retaliate, a neighbouring state intervene or should the chieftain suffer a reversal of fortune, allies would fall away or intertribal feuding would return. It has been suggested that the Patriarchal tales of the Bible reflect such social forms.

Since 3100 BC, most Canaanites, particularly those that lived in Palestine, lived in walled settlements in the plains and coastal regions. These settlements were surrounded by mud-brick fortifications and agricultural hamlets, which the inhabitants relied on for food.In 2nd millennium BC, urban Canaanite elites ruled over rural and pastoral areas. The material culture of the city-states was relatively uniform.New burial customs were implicitly influenced by a belief in the afterlife.

During the periods of the collapse ofAkkadian EmpireinMesopotamiaand theFirst Intermediate Period of Egypt,the Hyksos invasions and the end of the Middle Bronze Age in Assyria and Babylonia, and the LateBronze Age collapse,trade through the Canaanite area would dwindle, as Egypt, Babylonia, and to a lesser degreeAssyria,withdrew into their isolation. When the climates stabilized, trade would resume firstly along the coast in the area of thePhilistineand Phoenician cities. As markets redeveloped, new trade routes that would avoid the heavy tariffs of the coast would develop fromKadesh Barnea,throughHebron,Lachish,Jerusalem,Bethel,Samaria,Shechem,ShilohthroughGalileetoJezreel,Hazor,andMegiddo.Secondary Canaanite cities would develop in this region. Further economic development would see the creation of a third trade route fromEilath,Timna,Edom(Seir),Moab,Ammon,and thence to the Aramean states ofDamascusandPalmyra.Earlier states (for example the Philistines andTyriansin the case ofJudahandSamaria,for the second route, and Judah and Israel for the third route) tried generally unsuccessfully to control the interior trade.

Eventually, the prosperity of this trade would attract more powerful regional neighbours, such asAncient Egypt,Assyria,the Babylonians,Persians,Ancient Greeks,andRomans,who would control the Canaanites politically, levying tribute, taxes, and tariffs. Often in such periods, thorough overgrazing would result in a climatic collapse and a repeat of the cycle (e.g.,PPNB,Ghassulian,Uruk,and theBronze Agecycles already mentioned). The fall of later Canaanite civilization occurred with the incorporation of the area into theGreco-Romanworld (asIudaeaprovince), and afterByzantinetimes, into theUmayyad Caliphate.Western Aramaic,one of the twolingua francasof Canaanite civilization, is still spoken in a number of small Syrian villages, whilstPhoenicianCanaanitedisappeared as a spoken language in about 100 CE. A separateAkkadian-infusedEastern Aramaicis still spoken by the existingAssyriansofIraq,Iran,northeast Syria, and southeastTurkey.

Tel Kabricontains the remains of a Canaanite city from the MiddleBronze Age(2000–1550 BC). The city, the most important of the cities in the WesternGalileeduring that period, had a palace at its center. Tel Kabri is the only Canaanite city that can be excavated in its entirety because after the city was abandoned, no other city was built over its remains. It is notable because the predominant extra-Canaanite cultural influence isMinoan;Minoan-style frescoes decorate the palace.

Significant figures

Further information:Kings of UgaritandKing of Tyre

Figures mentioned inhistoriographyor known through archaeology

Rulers of Ugarit

• Ammittamru Iof Ugarit (Amarna letters)
• Niqmaddu IIof Ugarit (Amarna letters) (1349–1315 BC)
• Arhalbaof Ugarit (1315–1313 BC)
• Niqmepaof Ugarit (1313–1260 BC)
• Ammittamru IIof Ugarit (1260–1235 BC)
• Ibiranuof Ugarit (1235–1220 BC)
• Ammurapiof Ugarit (1215–1185 BC)

Rulers of Tyre

• Abibaal990–978 BC
• Hiram I978–944 BC
• Baal-Eser I(Balbazer I) 944–927 BC
• Abdastartus927–918 BC
• Astarymus906–897 BC
• Phelles897–896 BC
• Ithobaal I896–863 BC
• Baal-Eser II(Balbazer II) 863–829 BC
• Mattan I829–820 BC
• Pygmalion820–774 BC
• Ithobaal II750–739 BC
• Hiram II739–730 BC
• Luli729 694 BC
• Baal I680–660 BC
• Abbar563–562 BC
• Abdemonc. 420–411BC

Others

• Aziru,ruler ofAmurru(Amarna letters)
• Labaya,lord ofShechem(Amarna letters)
• Abdi-Heba,local chieftain of pre-Israelite Jerusalem (Jebus) (Amarna letters)
• Šuwardata,king of the Canaanite city of Gath or 'mayor' of Qiltu (Amarna letters)
• Cronos(Ilus), founder ofByblosaccording toSanchuniathon

Genetic studies

See also:Genetic history of the Middle East,Phoenicia § Genetic studies,andIsraelites § Genetics

A 2017 study of five Canaanite skeletons found that approximately half of the skeletons’ genes originated from agricultural settlers in the Levant around 10,000 years ago. The other half was from a population tied to Iran, which researchers estimate arrived in the Levant approximately 5,000 years ago.

Hajjej (2018) revealed that when usingHLA genes,Levantine Arabs, such asPalestinians,Syrians,LebaneseandJordanians,were closely related populations with common Canaanite ancestry. They shared a common geographic territory, which was later disrupted by 19th century British and French colonization. Their Canaanite ancestors came from North Africa or the Arabian peninsula via Egypt in 3300 BC and settled in the Levant lowlands after theGhassuliancollapse in 3800-3350 BC. The Levantine Arabs were also related toEast Mediterraneanpopulations, such asTurks,GreeksandCretans,EgyptiansandIranians,which can be explained by high migratory flow between Levantine sub-regions. However, Levantine Arabs were genetically distant from Arabian Peninsula populations such asSaudis,KuwaitisandYeminisbefore the 7th centuryIslamic conquests.

Agranat-Tamir et al. (2020) stated that Canaanites from the Intermediate Bronze Age (c. 2500- 2000 BC) to late Iron Age I (c. 1000 BC) were genetically similar to each other. They lived in modern Israel, Jordan and Lebanon and could be modeled as "a mixture of local earlierNeolithicpopulations and populations from the northeastern part of the Near East (i.e.Zagros Mountains,Caucasians/Armeniansand possibly,Hurrians) ". Exceptions include the 2nd millennium BC inhabitants ofSidon,Abel Beth MaacahandAshkelon,who were relatively heterogenous due to inflow from the easternMediterranean basin.The inhabitants of Ba'qah in Jordan also have probable admixture from "eastern desert groups". Following the Bronze Age, there was an addition ofEuropean-related andEast African-related components, which were represented byLate NeolithicandBronze Age EuropeansandSomalis,from a north-south and south-north gradient respectively. The majority of modern Jewish and Levantine Arabic-speaking groups have 50% or more ancestry from peoples who were related to Bronze Age Levantines and Chalcolithic Zagros groups. But they have other ancestries that cannot be modeled by the available ancient DNA data.

Almarri et al. (2021) stated that Levantines and Arabians diverged from each other before the Neolithic period, with Levantines adopting a sedentary agricultural lifestyle. In the Bronze Age, immigrants with ancient Iranian-related ancestry replaced about 50% of the local Levantine ancestry. They were believed to introduce haplogroupJ1,which was not found in earlier Levantines. After the Bronze Age,Eastern Hunter Gatherer (EHG)ancestry was introduced, coinciding with the arrival of peoples with southeast European and Anatolian ancestry. Modern Levantines have significantly higher EHG ancestry than Arabians.

Lazaridis et al. (2022) clarified that ancient Levantines and their descendants exhibit a decrease of ~8% local Neolithic ancestry, which is mostlyNatufian,every millennium, starting from thePre-Pottery Neolithicto theMedievalperiod. It was largely replaced byCaucasus-related andAnatolian-related ancestries, from the north and west respectively. However, despite the decline in the Natufian component, this key ancestry source made an important contribution to peoples of later periods, continuing until the present.

A 1692 map of Canaan, byPhilip Lea

In Jewish and Christian scriptures

Map of Canaan, with the border defined by Numbers 34:1–12 shown in red.

Hebrew Bible

Canaan and the Canaanites are mentioned some 160 times in theHebrew Bible,mostly in theTorahand the books ofJoshuaandJudges.

They descended fromCanaan,who was the son ofHamand the grandson ofNoah.Canaan wascursed with perpetual slaverybecause his father Ham had "looked upon" the drunk and naked Noah. The expression "look upon" at times has sexual overtones in the Bible, as in Leviticus 20:11, "The man who lies with his father's wife has uncovered his father's nakedness..." As a result, interpreters have proposed a variety of possibilities as to what kind of transgression has been committed by Ham, including the possibility of castration, homosexual rape or maternal incest.However, some believe thatCanaanwas the perpetrator of the crime, based on the surrounding verses.

According to theTable of Nations,Canaan was also the ancestor of other nations, which were collectively considered to be Canaanite:

Canaan is the father ofSidon,his firstborn; and of the Hittites,Jebusites,Amorites,Girgashites,Hivites,Arkites,Sinites,Arvadites,Zemarites,andHamathites.Later the Canaanite clans scattered, and the borders of Canaan reached [across the Mediterranean coast] fromSidontowardGeraras far asGaza,and then [inland around theJordan Valley] towardSodom, Gomorrah,AdmahandZeboiim,as far asLasha.

— Genesis 10:15–19

The biblical ethnogenesis of Canaan is increasingly problematic as many scholars hold there is archaeological and linguistic evidence that suggests the Israelites were Canaanites themselves. In particular, they were a sub-set of Canaanite culture.Alternatively, other scholars have suggested that the Israelites originated from theShasuand other seminomadic peoples from the desert regions south of theLevant,only later settling in the highlands of Canaan.It has been also suggested that the Hamitic origin myth could be a reference to Canaan's colonization by the Egyptians in the Late Bronze Age, who were Hamites according to the Hebrew Bible.

Brian R. Doak argues that "Canaanite" does not necessarily refer to the direct blood descendants of Canaan. Instead, it refers to all ancient peoples that settled in the geographic region of Canaan, including the Israelites. In fact, only five nations overlap inGenesis 10:15–19andGenesis 15:18–21.In the conquest andEzra-Nehemiahnarratives, "Canaanite" is not necessarily an ethnonym but a descriptor of non-Israelite Canaanites who embody the "symbol(s) of the religious practices Israel should avoid" or all idolaters in Canaan, including Israelites. A similar approach is taken by later Judeo-Christian literature.

In addition, biblical scholar David Frankel argues that a narrative in theBooks of Chroniclestenuously indicates the historical reality of Israel's ethnogenesis. In this text, a reference is made to an established Israelite presence in Canaan before Joshua's conquest, which primarily consisted ofEphraimites.

According to the Hebrew Bible, Canaan was located to the west of theJordan River.The Canaanites were described as living "by the sea, and along by the side of the Jordan" (Book of Numbers13:29)and "around Jordan" (Book of Joshua22:9).More specifically, they inhabited the Mediterranean coastlands (Joshua 5:1), includingLebanoncorresponding to Phoenicia (Isaiah 23:11) and theGaza Stripcorresponding toPhilistia(Zephaniah 2:5) and theJordan Valley(Joshua 11:3,Numbers 13:29,Genesis 13:12). Numbers 34:3–12 provides even morespecific boundaries,which covered territory that was considered to be "small" for ancient standards.

John N. Oswaltobserves that "Canaan consists of the land west of theJordanand is distinguished from the area east of the Jordan. "Oswalt then goes on to say that in Scripture, Canaan" takes on a theological character "as" the land which is God's gift "and" the place of abundance ".

Whilst the inhabitants of Canaan are called Canaanites, they are also calledAmorites,similar to the citizens of the multi-ethnic Soviet Union being called Russian, andHethites/Hittites.Abraham,the ancestor of the Israelites, was most likely an Amorite-Aramean, according to some early theories.

Conquest of Canaan

Further information:Deuteronomist § Deuteronomistic history,andSeven Nations (Bible)

Yahwehpromises the land of Canaan toAbrahamin theBook of Genesisand eventually delivers it todescendants of Abraham,theIsraelites.The Hebrew Bible describes the Israeliteconquest of Canaanin the "Former Prophets"(Nevi'im Rishonim,נביאים ראשונים‎), viz. the books ofJoshua,Judges,Samuel,andKings.These books give the narrative of the Israelites after the death ofMosesand their entry into Canaan under the leadership ofJoshua.The renaming of theLand of Canaanas theLand of Israelmarks theIsraeliteconquestof thePromised Land.

The Canaanites (Hebrew:כנענים,Modern:Kna'anim,Tiberian:Kənaʻănîm) are said to have been one of seven "nations" driven out by theIsraelitesfollowingthe Exodus.The other nations were the Hittites, the Girgashites, the Amorites, thePerizzites,theHivites,and theJebusites(Deuteronomy 7:1). One of the613 commandmentsprescribes that no inhabitants of the cities of six Canaanite nations, the same as mentioned in 7:1, minus theGirgashites,were to be left alive. (Deuteronomy 20:16).

Kingdom of Israel and Judah

After the Israelite conquest of Canaan, Canaan existed as akritarchyand later, a monarchy.Under the Israelite monarchy, the Israelite tribes were united asone kingdom.However, it split into theKingdom of Israeland theKingdom of Judah.

In 738 BC, theNeo-Assyrian empireconquered the Kingdom of Israel. In 586 BC, the Kingdom of Judah was annexed into theNeo-Babylonian Empire.The city ofJerusalemfell aftera siegewhich lasted either eighteen or thirty months.By 586 BC, much of Judah was devastated, and the former kingdom suffered a steep decline of both economy and population.

Significant figures

Characters in the Hebrew Bible

• Canaan, son of Ham(Gen. 10:6)
• Sidon,firstborn son of Canaan (Gen. 10:15)
• Heth,son of Canaan (Gen. 10:15)
• Sihon,king of Amorites (Deut 1:4)
• Og,king ofBashan(Deut 1:4)
• Adonizedek,king ofJerusalem(Josh. 10:1)
• Debir,king ofEglon(Josh. 10:3)
• Jabin,name of two kings ofHazor(Josh. 11:1; Judges 5:6)

New Testament

"Canaan" (Ancient Greek:Χανάαν,romanized:Khanáan)is used only twice in the New Testament: both times inActs of the Apostleswhen paraphrasingOld Testamentstories.Additionally, the derivative"Khananaia"(Χαναναία,"Canaanite woman" ) is used inMatthew'sversion of theexorcism of the Syrophoenician woman's daughter,while theGospel of Markuses the term"Syrophoenician"(Συροφοινίκισσα). It is implied that the New Testament authors considered all non-Jewish inhabitants in the northern coastlines of Canaan to be Canaanite.

Uses of the name

By theSecond Temple period(530 BC – 70 AD), "Canaanite" in theHebrew languagehad come to be not an ethnic designation, so much as a general synonym for "merchant",as it is interpreted in, for example,Book of Job40:30, orBook of Proverbs31:24.

The name "Canaanites" is attested as theendonymof the people later known to theAncient Greeksfromc. 500BC as Phoenicians,and following the emigration of Canaanite-speakers toCarthage(founded in the 9th century BC), was also used as a self-designation by thePunics(chanani) of North Africa duringLate Antiquity.

TheSeptuagint(3rd and 2nd century BC) mostly renders Canaan as Χαναάν (Khanaan), but on two occasions as "Phoenicia" (Exod16:35 andJosh5:12).

Legacy

"Canaan" is used as a synonym of thePromised Land;for instance, it is used in this sense in the hymn "Canaan's Happy Shore", with thelines:"Oh, brothers, will you meet me, (3x)/On Canaan's happy shore," a hymn set to the tune later used inThe Battle Hymn of the Republic.

In the 1930s and 1940s, someRevisionist Zionistintellectuals inMandatory Palestinefounded the ideology ofCanaanism,which sought to create a unique Hebrew identity, rooted in ancient Canaanite culture, rather than a Jewish one.

Israeli Prime MinisterDavid Ben-Gurionobserved the contradictions between the secular and biblical records of Jewish indigeneity to Canaan, which was nonetheless affirmed in theDeclaration of Independence.Whilst he used secular arguments to justify Jewish indigeneity, he argued that the biblical narrative of Abraham migrating to Canaan was a "reunion with indigenous Hebrews who shared his theological belief". He also argued that not all Hebrews joinedJacob's family when they migrated to Egypt and later, birthed the generation of the Hebrews that endured theExodus.Some professors find this view tenable, based on1 Chronicles 7:20–24,which preserved heterodox traditions of Jewish indigeneity.

See also

• Amarna letters–localities and their rulers
• Archaeology of Israel
• Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions
• Canaanite gate of ancient Tell
• Canaanite shift
• Curse of Canaan
• Names of the Levant
• Proto-Canaanite Alpha bet
• Knanaya
• Ugarit
• Southern Levant
• Yahwism

Sources

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Cheyne, Thomas Kelly(1911). "Canaan, Canaanites".InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–142.
• Drews, Robert(1998). "Canaanites and Philistines".Journal for the Study of the Old Testament.23(81): 39–61.doi:10.1177/030908929802308104.S2CID144074940.
• Ember, Melvin;Peregrine, Peter Neal,eds. (2002). "Encyclopedia of Prehistory: Volume 8: South and Southwest Asia".Encyclopedia of Prehistory.Vol. 8: South and Southwest Asia. New York; London: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. p. 103.ISBN0-306-46262-1.
• Golden, Jonathan M. (2009).Ancient Canaan and Israel: An Introduction.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-537985-3.
• Goldenberg, David M. (2005)."What did Ham do to Noah?".In Stemberger, Günter; Perani, Mauro (eds.).The Words of a Wise Man's Mouth Are Gracious.Walter de Gruyter.ISBN9783110188493.
• Killebrew, Ann E. (2005).Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity.SBL.ISBN978-1-58983-097-4.
• Lemche, Niels-Peter (1991).The Canaanites and their Land: The Tradition of the Canaanites.Continuum.ISBN978-0-567-45111-8.
• Na'aman, Nadav (2005).Canaan in the 2nd Millennium BC.Eisenbrauns.ISBN978-1-57506-113-9.
• Noll, K.L. (2001).Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction.Continuum.ISBN978-1-84127-318-1.
• Shahin, Mariam (2005).Palestine: A Guide.Interlink Books.ISBN1-56656-557-X– viaInternet Archive.

Further reading

• Bishop Moore, Megan; Kelle, Brad E. (2011).Biblical History and Israel's Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History.Eerdmans.ISBN978-0-8028-6260-0.
• Buck, Mary Ellen (2019).The Canaanites: Their History and Culture from Texts and Artifacts.Cascade Books. p. 114.ISBN9781532618048.
• Coogan, Michael D. (1978).Stories from Ancient Canaan.Westminster Press.ISBN978-0-8061-3108-5.

• Day, John (2002).Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan.Continuum.ISBN978-0-8264-6830-7.

• Finkelstein, Israel(1996)."Towards a New Periodization and Nomenclature of the Archaeology of the Southern Levant".In Cooper, Jerrold S.; Schwartz, Glenn M. (eds.).The Study of the Ancient Near East in the Twenty-First Century.Eisenbrauns.ISBN978-0-931464-96-6.

• Smith, Mark S. (2002).The Early History of God.Eerdmans.ISBN978-9004119437.
• Tubb, Jonathan N. (1998).Canaanites.University of Oklahoma Press. p.40.ISBN978-0-8061-3108-5.The Canaanites and Their Land.

External links

• Canaan & Ancient Israel,University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Explores their identities (land-time, daily life, economy & religion) in pre-historical times through the material remains that they have left behind.
• Catholic Encyclopedia.
• Antiquities of the Jewsby Flavius Josephus.
• When Canaanites and Philistines Ruled Ashkelon– Biblical Archaeology Society (archived 19 May 2011)