Wikipedia

Canada goose

For the outerwear manufacturer, seeCanada Goose (clothing).

TheCanada goose(Branta canadensis) is a large wildgoosewith a black head and neck, white cheeks, white under its chin, and a brown body. It is native to thearcticandtemperate regionsofNorth America,and it is occasionally found duringmigrationacross theAtlanticinnorthern Europe.It has been introduced toFrance,theUnited Kingdom,Ireland,Finland,Sweden,Denmark,New Zealand,Japan,Chile,Argentina,and theFalkland Islands.[2]Like most geese, the Canada goose is primarilyherbivorousand normally migratory; often found on or close tofresh water,the Canada goose is also common inbrackishmarshes, estuaries, and lagoons.

Canada goose
Temporal range:Pleistocene–present
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AtSeedskadee National Wildlife Refuge
Call of Canada geese on Brownsea Island, Dorset, March 1966
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Anseriformes
Family: Anatidae
Genus: Branta
Species:
B. canadensis
Binomial name
Branta canadensis
Subspecies
Canada goose distribution:
Summer range (native)
Year-round range (native)
Wintering range (native)
Summer range (introduced)
Year-round range (introduced)
Wintering range (introduced)
Summer range (cackling goose)
Synonyms

Anas canadensisLinnaeus, 1758

Two individuals in the middle of a fight

Extremely adept atliving in human-altered areas,Canada geese have established breeding colonies in urban and cultivated habitats, which provide food and few natural predators. The success of this common park species has led to it often being considered apest speciesbecause of itsexcrement,its depredation of crops, its noise, its aggressiveterritorial behaviortoward both humans and other animals, and its habit ofstalkingandbegging for food,the latter a result of humans disobeyingartificial feeding policies toward wild animals.

Nomenclature and taxonomy

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The Canada goose was one of the many species described byCarl Linnaeusin his 18th-century workSystema Naturae.[3]It belongs to theBrantagenusof geese, which containsspecieswith largely blackplumage,distinguishing them from the gray species of the genusAnser.

Brantawas a Latinized form ofOld NorseBrandgás,"burnt (black) goose" and the specific epithetcanadensisis aNeo-Latinword meaning "fromCanada".[4]According to theOxford English Dictionary,the first citation for the 'Canada goose' dates back to 1772.[5][6][7]The Canada goose is also colloquially referred to as the "Canadian goose".[8]This name may annoy somebirders.[9]

Thecackling goosewas originally considered to be the same species or several subspecies of the Canada goose, but in July 2004, theAmerican Ornithologists' Union's Committee on Classification and Nomenclature split them into two species, making the cackling goose into a full species with the scientific nameBranta hutchinsii.TheBritish Ornithologists' Unionfollowed suit in June 2005.[10]

The AOU has divided the manysubspeciesbetween the two species. The subspecies of the Canada goose were listed as:

The distinctions between the two geese have led to confusion and debate among ornithologists. This has been aggravated by the overlap between the small types of Canada goose and larger types of cackling goose. The old "lesser Canada geese" were believed to be a partlyhybridpopulation, with the birds namedB. c. tavernericonsidered a mixture ofB. c. minima,B. c. occidentalis,andB. c. parvipes.Theholotypespecimen oftaverneriis a straightforward large pale cackling goose however, and hence thetaxonis still valid today and was renamed "Taverner's cackling goose".

In addition, thebarnacle goose(B. leucopsis) was determined to be a derivative of the cackling goose lineage, whereas theHawaiian goose(B. sandvicensis) originated from ancestral Canada geese. Thus, the species' distinctness is well evidenced. Ornithologist Harold C. Hanson, who had rediscovered wild populations of the Giant Canada Goose, proposed splitting Canada and cackling goose into six species and 200 subspecies.[11]The radical nature of this proposal has been controversial; Richard Banks of the AOU urges caution before any of Hanson's proposals are accepted.[12]International Code of Zoological Nomenclaturehas suppressed Hanson's proposals, based on the criticisms of Banks and other ornithologists.[13]

Description

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Profile view of a Canada goose head
Call
A flock of feeding Canada geese calling
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The black head and neck with a white "chinstrap" distinguish the Canada goose from all other goose species except the cackling goose and barnacle goose (the latter, however, has a black breast and gray rather than brownish body plumage).[14]Some Canada geese come with a pepper-spotted or brown neck with brown plumage, and these are assumed to be a leucistic variety.[15]

The seven subspecies of this bird vary widely in size and plumage details, but all are recognizable as Canada geese. Some of the smaller races can be hard to distinguish from the cackling goose, which slightly overlap in mass. However, most subspecies of the cackling goose (exclusive of Richardson's cackling goose,B. h. hutchinsii) are considerably smaller. The smallest cackling goose,B. h. minima,is scarcely larger than amallard.In addition to the size difference, cackling geese also have a shorter neck and smaller bill, which can be useful when small Canada geese comingle with relatively large cackling geese. Of the "true geese" (i.e., the generaAnserandBranta), the Canada goose is on average the largest living species, although some other species that are geese in name, if not of close relation to these genera, are on average heavier, such as thespur-winged gooseandCape Barren goose. Canada geese range from 75 to 110 cm (30 to 43 in) in length and have a 127–185 cm (50–73 in)wingspan.[16]Among standard measurements, thewing chordcan range from39 to 55 cm (15+1⁄2to21+1⁄2in), thetarsuscan range from6.9 to 10.6 cm (2+11⁄16to4+3⁄16in) and thebillcan range from4.1 to 6.8 cm (1+5⁄8to2+11⁄16in). The largest subspecies isB. c. maxima,or the giant Canada goose, and the smallest (with the separation of the cackling goose group) isB. c. parvipes,or the lesser Canada goose.[17]An exceptionally large male of raceB. c. maxima,which rarely exceed 8 kg (18 lb), weighed 10.9 kg (24 lb) and had a wingspan of 2.24 m (7 ft 4 in). This specimen is the largest wild goose ever recorded of any species.[18]

Photo: Tom Koerner/USFWS

The male Canada goose usually weighs2.6–6.5 kg (5+3⁄4–14+1⁄4lb), averaging amongst all subspecies3.9 kg (8+1⁄2lb). The female looks virtually identical, but is slightly lighter at2.4–5.5 kg (5+1⁄4–12+1⁄4lb), averaging amongst all subspecies 3.6 kg (8 lb), and generally 10% smaller in linear dimensions than the male counterparts.[19]Thehonkrefers to the call of the male Canada goose, while thehrinkcall refers to the female goose.[20]The calls are similar, however, thehrinkis shorter and more high-pitched than thehonkof males.[20]When agitated or aggressively defending territory, Canada geese will typically initiate an encounter with a high-pitched hiss.[21]Canada geese communicate with ten different vocalizations, each in response to a different situation confronting them.[22]

Distribution and habitat

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OnSpokane River,Washington state
Flock in flight
Flock swimming inHuntsville,Ontario
Canada Goose Branta canadensis, in flight at Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire

This species is native to North America. It breeds in Canada and the northern United States in a wide range of habitats. TheGreat Lakes regionmaintains a large population of Canada geese. Canada geese live year-round in the southern part of their breeding range, including the northern half of the United States' eastern seaboard and Pacific Coast, and areas in between. BetweenCaliforniaandSouth Carolinain the southern United States and in northernMexico,Canada geese are mainly present as migrants from further north during the winter.[23]

By the early 20th century, overhunting and loss of habitat in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had resulted in a serious decline in the numbers of this bird in its native range. The giant Canada goose subspecies was believed to be extinct in the 1950s until, in 1962, a small flock was discovered wintering inRochester, Minnesota,by Harold Hanson of the Illinois Natural History Survey.[24]

In 1964, the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center was built near Jamestown, North Dakota. Its first director, Harvey K. Nelson, talked Forrest Lee into leaving Minnesota to head the center's Canada goose production and restoration program. Forrest soon had 64 pens with 64 breeding pairs of screened, high-quality birds. The project involved private, state, and federal resources and relied on the expertise and cooperation of many individuals. By the end of 1981, more than 6,000 giant Canada geese had been released at 83 sites in 26 counties in North Dakota.[25]With improvedgame lawsand habitat recreation and preservation programs, their populations have recovered in most of their range, although some local populations, especially of the subspeciesB. c. occidentalis,may still be declining.[citation needed]

In recent years, Canada goose populations in some areas have grown substantially, so much so that many consider thempestsfor their droppings, bacteria in their droppings, noise, and confrontational behavior. This problem is partially due to the removal of naturalpredatorsand an abundance of safe, human-made bodies of water near food sources, such as those found on golf courses, in public parks and beaches, on sports fields, and in planned communities. Due in part to the interbreeding of various migratory subspecies with the introduced non-migratory giant subspecies, Canada geese are frequently a year-round feature of such urban environments.[26]

Contrary to its normal migration routine, large flocks of Canada geese have established permanent residence along the Pacific coast of North America from British Columbia's Lower Mainland and Vancouver Island area south to theSan Francisco Bay areaof Northern California. There are also resident Atlantic coast populations, such as onChesapeake Bay,inVirginia'sJames Riverregions, and in theTriangle area of North Carolina(Raleigh, Durham, Chapel Hill), and nearby Hillsborough. Some Canada geese have taken up permanent residence as far south as Florida, in places such asretention pondsin apartment complexes. In 2015, theOhiopopulation of Canada geese was reported as roughly 130,000, with the number likely to continue increasing. Many of the geese, previously migratory, reportedly had become native, remaining in the state even in the summer. The increase was attributed to a lack of natural predators, an abundance of water, and plentiful grass in manicured lawns in urban areas.[27]

Canada geese were eliminated in Ohio following theAmerican Civil Warbut were reintroduced in 1956 with 10 pairs. The population was estimated at 18,000 in 1979. The geese are considered protected, though a hunting season is allowed from September 1–15, with a daily bag limit of five.[28]TheOhio Department of Natural Resourcesrecommends several non-lethal scare and hazing tactics for nuisance geese, but if such methods have been used without success, they may issue a permit which can be used from March 11 through August 31 to destroy nests, conduct a goose roundup or exterminate geese.[29]

Outside North America

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Eurasia

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Approaching to beg for food in aManchesterpark, a learned behavior

Canada geese have reachedNorthern Europenaturally, as has been proved byringing recoveries.The birds include those of the subspeciesB. c. parvipes,and possibly others. These geese are also found naturally on theKamchatka Peninsulain easternSiberia,and easternChina.[citation needed]

Canada geese have also been introduced in Europe in the early 17th century by explorerSamuel de Champlainwho sent several pairs of geese to France as a present forKing Louis XIII.The geese were first introduced in Great Britain in the late 17th century as an addition toKing James II's waterfowl collection inSt. James's Park.By the middle of the 18th century, the Canada geese have established populations inFranceandGreat Britain,[30]but also in Ireland. They were also introduced in theNetherlands,Belgium,Germany,Scandinavia,andFinlandin the 20th Century, starting inSwedenin 1929. Most European populations are not migratory, but those in more northerly parts ofSwedenand Finland migrate to theNorth SeaandBalticcoasts.[31]

Semi-tameferalbirds are common in parks, and have become a pest in some areas. In Great Britain, they were spread by hunters, but remained uncommon until the mid-20th century. Their population grew from 2,200 to 4,000 birds in 1953 to an estimated 82,000 in 1999, as changing agricultural practices and urban growth provided new habitat. European birds are mostly descended from the nominate subspeciesB. c. canadensis,likely with some contributions from the subspeciesB. c. maxima.[32]

New Zealand

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Main article:Canada goose in New Zealand

Canada geese were introduced as agamebird into New Zealand in 1905. They have become a problem in some areas by fouling pastures and damaging crops. They were protected under theWildlife Act 1953and the population was managed byFish and Game New Zealand,which culled excessive bird numbers. In 2011, the government removed the protection status, allowing anyone to kill the birds.[33]

Behavior

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Bathing,Oxfordshire,England
Flying,New Jersey
Male Canada goose carefully watches nearby humans inWinnipeg.

Like most geese, the Canada goose is naturallymigratorywith the wintering range being most of the United States. The calls overhead from large groups of Canada geese flying in aV-shaped formationsignal the transitions into spring and autumn. In some areas, migration routes have changed due to changes in habitat and food sources. In mild climates from southwesternBritish Columbiato California to theGreat Lakes,some of the population has become nonmigratory due to adequate winter food supply and a lack of former predators.[citation needed][34]

Males exhibitagonistic behaviorboth on and off breeding and nesting grounds. This behavior rarely involves interspecific killing. One documented case involved a male defending his nest from abrantthat wandered into the area; the following attack lasted for one hour until the death of the brant. The cause of death was suffocation or drowning in mud as a direct result of the Canada goose's pecking the head of the brant into the mud. Researchers attributed it to high hormone levels and the brant's inability to leave the nesting area.[35]

Diet

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Eating a flower atDownsview Park

Canada geese are primarilyherbivores,[23]although they sometimes eat smallinsectsandfish.[36]Their diet includes green vegetation andgrains.The Canada goose eats a variety ofgrasseswhen on land. It feeds by grasping a blade of grass with the bill, then tearing it with a jerk of the head. The Canada goose also eatsbeansand grains such aswheat,rice,andcornwhen they are available. In the water, it feeds from aquatic plants by sliding its bill at the bottom of the body of water. It also feeds on aquatic plant-like algae, such asseaweed.[18]

In urban areas, it is also known to pick food out of garbage bins. They are also sometimes hand-fed a variety of grains and other foods by humans in parks. Canada geese prefer lawn grass in urban areas. They usually graze in open areas with wide clearance to avoid potential predators.[37]

Reproduction

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During the second year of their lives, Canada geese find a mate. They aremonogamous,and most couples stay together all of their lives. If one dies, the other may find a new mate. The female lays from two to nine eggs with an average of five, and both parents protect the nest while the eggsincubate,but the female spends more time at the nest than the male.[18]

Its nest is usually located in an elevated area near water such as streams, lakes, ponds, and sometimes on abeaverlodge. Its eggs are laid in a shallow depression lined with plant material and down.

The incubation period, in which the female incubates while the male remains nearby, lasts for 24–32 days after laying. Canada geese can respond to external climatic factors by adjusting their laying date to spring maximum temperatures, which may benefit their nesting success.[38] As the annual summer molt also takes place during the breeding season, the adults lose theirflight feathersfor 20–40 days, regaining flight about the same time as their goslings start to fly.[39]

As soon as the goslings hatch, they are immediately capable of walking, swimming, and finding their own food (a diet similar to that of adult geese). Parents are often seen leading their goslings in a line, usually with one adult at the front and the other at the back. While protecting their goslings, parents often violently chase away nearby creatures, from small blackbirds to lone humans who approach: first giving a warning hiss, and then attacking with bites and slaps of the wings. Although parents are hostile to unfamiliar geese, they may form groups of a number of goslings and a few adults, calledcrèches.

The offspring enter thefledglingstage any time from six to nine weeks of age. They do not leave their parents until after the spring migration, when they return to their birthplace.[23]

  • Canada goose gosling resting in the grass of a New York cemetery
  • Nesting in Wales
  • Eggs, collectionMuseum Wiesbaden, Germany
  • Goslings
  • Pair of adults with goslings,Norfolk
  • Geese and goslings on an English canal, showing formation
  • Family of Canada geese atLake Arlington
  • Family of Canada Geese inOntario

Migration

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Resting in a pond during spring migration,Ottawa,Ontario
A Canada goose inDaingerfield State Parkin Austin County, Texas, United States

Canada geese are known for their seasonal migrations. Most Canada geese have staging or resting areas where they join up with others. Their autumn migration can be seen from September to the beginning of November.[citation needed][40]The early migrants have a tendency to spend less time at rest stops and go through the migration much faster. The later birds usually spend more time at rest stops. Some geese return to the same nesting ground year after year and lay eggs with their mate, raising them in the same way each year. This is recorded from the many tagged geese which frequent the East Coast.

Canada geese fly in a distinctive V-shaped flight formation, with an altitude of 1 km (3,000 feet) for migration flight. The maximum flight ceiling of Canada geese is unknown, but they have been reported at 9 km (29,000 feet).[41]

Low flyover by five Canada geese
Call of the Canada geese
A flock of feeding Canada geese calling

Flying in the V formation has been the subject of study by researchers. The front position is rotated since flying in front consumes the most energy. Canada geese leave the winter grounds more quickly than the summer grounds. Elevatedthyroid hormones,such as T3and T4,have been measured in geese just after a big migration. This is believed because of the long days of flying in migration the thyroid gland sends out more T4which help the body cope with the longer journey. The increased T4levels are also associated with increased muscle mass (hypertrophy) of the breast muscle, also because of the longer time spent flying. It is believed that the body sends out more T4to help the goose's body with this long task by speeding up the metabolism and lowering the temperature at which the muscles work.[42]Also, other studies show levels of stress hormones such ascorticosteronerise dramatically in these birds during and after a migration.[43]

Survival

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The lifespan in the wild of geese who survive to adulthood ranges from 10 to 24 years.[18]The British longevity record is held by a specimen tagged as a nestling, which was observed alive at theUniversity of Yorkat the age of 31.[44][45]In order to survive the extreme winter temperatures, the geese prefer to stay in urban areas rather than in green spaces since industrial areas retain heat.[46]

Predators

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Canada geese instinctively nest on higher ground near water. This female is nesting on abeaver lodge.

Known predators of eggs and goslings includecoyotes(Canis latrans),[47]Arctic foxes(Vulpes lagopus),northern raccoons(Procyon lotor),red foxes(Vulpes vulpes), largegulls(Larusspecies),common ravens(Corvus corax),American crows(Corvus brachyrhynchos),carrion crows(in Europe,Corvus corone) and bothbrown(Ursus arctos) andAmerican black bears(Ursus americanus).[23][48][49][50][51]Geese and their goslings are occasionally preyed upon by domestic dogs—these occurrences can be prevented by leashing a pet dog.[52]

Once they reach adulthood, due to their large size and often aggressive behavior, Canada geese are rarely preyed on, although prior injury may make them more vulnerable to natural predators.[53]Beyond humans, adults can be taken by coyotes[54]andgrey wolves(Canis lupus).[55]Avian predators that are known to kill adults, as well as young geese, includesnowy owls(Bubo scandiacus),golden eagles(Aquila chrysaetos) andbald eagles(Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and, though rarely on large adult geese,great horned owls(Bubo virginianus),northern goshawks(Accipiter gentilis),[56][57]peregrine falcons(Falco peregrinus), andgyrfalcons(Falco rusticolus).[23][50]

Adult geese are quite vigorous at displacing potential predators from the nest site, with predator prevention usually falling to the larger male of the pair.[58][59][60]Males usually attempt to draw attention of approaching predators and toll (mob terrestrial predators without physical contact) often in accompaniment with males of other goose species. Eagles frequently cause geese to fly offen massefrom some distance, though in other instances, geese may seem unconcerned at perched bald eagles nearby, seemingly only reacting if the eagle is displaying active hunting behavior.[61]Canada geese are quite wary of humans where they are regularly hunted and killed, but can otherwise become habituated to fearlessness toward humans, especially where they are fed by them.[62]This often leads to the geese becoming overly aggressive toward humans, and large groups of the birds may be considered a nuisance if they are causing persistent problems to humans and other animals in the surrounding area.[citation needed]

Salinity

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Salinity plays a role in the growth and development of goslings. Moderate to high salinity concentrations without fresh water results in slower development, growth, and saline-induced mortality. Goslings are susceptible to saline-induced mortality before their nasal salt glands become functional; the majority of such deaths occur before the sixth day of life.[63]

Disease

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Canada geese are susceptible to avian bird flus, such asH5N1.A study carried out using the HPAI virus, a H5N1 virus, found that the geese were susceptible to the virus. This proved useful for monitoring the spread of the virus through the high mortality of infected birds. Prior exposure to other viruses may result in some resistance to H5N1.[64]

Relationship with humans

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Nesting in a parking lot

The Canada goose is considered part of the Canadian national identity.[65]

In North America, nonmigratory Canada goose populations have been on the rise. The species is frequently found on golf courses, parking lots, and urban parks, which would have previously hosted only migratory geese on rare occasions. Owing to its adaptability to human-altered areas, it has become one of the most commonwaterfowlspecies in North America. In many areas, nonmigratory Canada geese are now regarded as pests by humans. They are suspected of being a cause of an increase in highfecal coliformsat beaches.[66]An extended hunting season, deploying noise makers, and hazing by dogs have been used in an attempt to disrupt suspect flocks.[67]A goal of conservationists has been to focus hunting on the nonmigratory populations (which tend to be larger and more of a nuisance) as opposed to migratory flocks showing natural behavior, which may be rarer.

Since 1999, theUnited States Department of AgricultureWildlife Services agency has been engaged in lethal culls of Canada geese primarily in urban or densely populated areas. The agency responds to municipalities or private land owners, such as golf courses, which find the geese obtrusive or object to their waste.[68]Addlinggoose eggs and destroying nests are promoted as humane population control methods.[69]Flocks of Canada geese can also be captured during molt and this method of culling is used to control invasive populations.[70]

Canada geese are protected from hunting and capture outside of designated hunting seasons in the United States by theMigratory Bird Treaty Act,[71]and in Canada under theMigratory Birds Convention Act.[72]In both countries, commercial transactions such as buying or trading are mostly prohibited and the possession, hunting, and interfering with the activity of the animals are subject to restrictions.[73][74]In the UK, as with native bird species, the nests and eggs of Canada geese are fully protected by law, except when their removal has been specifically licensed, and shooting is generally permitted only during the definedopen season.[75][76][77] Geese have a tendency to attack humans when they feel themselves or their goslings to be threatened. First, the geese stand erect, spread their wings, and produce a hissing sound. Next, the geese charge. They may then peck or attack with their wings.[78]

Aircraft strikes

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A feather from a Canada goose that was ingested into the engines of theAirbus A320operatingUS Airways Flight 1549.Multiple Canada geese were ingested by the aircraft's engines, disabling the aircraft and leading to it successfully ditching in theHudson River.

Canada geese have been implicated in a number ofbird strikesby aircraft. Their large size and tendency to fly in flocks may exacerbate their impact. In the United States, the Canada goose is the second-most damaging bird strike to airplanes, with the most damaging beingturkey vultures.[79]Canada geese can cause fatal crashes when they strike an aircraft's engine. TheFAAhas reported 1,772 known civil aircraft strikes within the United States between 1990 and 2018.[80]The total cost of these bird strikes to general and commercial aviation has been reported to exceed $130 million.[81]

In 1995, aU.S. Air ForceE-3 Sentryaircraft atElmendorf AFB,Alaska,struck a flock of Canada geese on takeoff, losing power in both port side engines. It crashed 2 mi (3.2 km) from the runway, killing all 24 crew members.The accidentsparked efforts to avoid such events, including habitat modification, aversion tactics, herding and relocation, and culling of flocks.[82][83][84]In 2009, a collision with a flock of migratory Canada geese resulted inUS Airways Flight 1549suffering a total loss of power from both engines after takeoff, forcing the crew of the aircraft to ditch the plane in theHudson Riverwith no loss of human life.[85][86][87]

Cuisine

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As a large, common wild bird, the Canada goose is a common target of hunters, especially in its native range. Drake Larsen, a researcher in sustainable agriculture atIowa State University,described them toThe Atlanticmagazine as "so yummy...good, lean, rich meat. I find they are similar to a good cut of beef."[88]TheBritish Trust for Ornithology,however, has described them as "reputedly amongst the most inedible of birds." The U.S. goose harvest for 2013–14 reported over 1.3 million geese taken.[89] Canada geese are rarely farmed, and sale of wild Canada goose meat is rare due to regulation and slaughterhouses' lack of experience with wild birds. Geese in New York City parks culled by theNew York City Department of Environmental Protectionhave been donated to food banks in Pennsylvania.[90]

Population

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In 2000, the North American population of the geese was estimated to be between 4 million and 5 million birds.[91]A 20-year study from 1983 to 2003 inWichita, Kansas,found the size of the winter Canada goose population within the city limits increased from 1,600 to over 18,000 birds.[91]

References

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  2. ^Long, John L. (1981).Introduced Birds of the World.Agricultural Protection Board of Western Australia. pp. 21–493.
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