Carlism

Carlism(Basque:Karlismo;Catalan:Carlisme;Galician:Carlismo;Spanish:Carlismo) is aTraditionalistandLegitimistpolitical movement in Spain aimed at establishing an alternative branch of theBourbon dynasty,one descended fromDon Carlos, Count of Molina(1788–1855), on theSpanish throne.

Carlist flag from theThird Carlist War(c. 1875), with the Carlist mottoDios, patria y rey( "God, Fatherland and King" )

The movement was founded as a consequence of an early 19th-century dispute over the succession of the Spanish monarchy and widespread dissatisfaction with theAlfonsineline of the House of Bourbon, and subsequently found itself becoming a notable element of Spanishconservatismin its 19th-century struggle against liberalism, which repeatedly broke out into military conflicts known as theCarlist Wars.

It was at its strongest in the 1830s but experienced a revival following Spain's defeat in theSpanish–American Warin 1898, when theSpanish Empirelost its last remaining significant overseas territories of thePhilippines,Cuba,Guam,andPuerto Ricoto the United States.

Carlism continued to play a notable role in the 20th century as part of theNationalist factionin theSpanish Civil Warand the subsequently triumphantFrancoist regimeuntil theSpanish transition to democracyin 1975. Carlism continues to survive as aminor party:

Objectively considered, Carlism appears as a political movement. It arose under the protection of a dynastic flag that proclaimed itself "legitimist", and that rose to the death ofFerdinand VII,in the year 1833, with enough echo and popular roots,... they distinguish in it three cardinal bases that define it:
a) A dynastic flag: that of legitimacy.
b) A historical continuity: that of Las Españas.
c) And a legal-political doctrine: the traditionalist.

— ¿Qué es el Carlismo?

Origins

Dynastic issue

Systems of succession in dispute

Traditionally, all but one of the Spanish kingdoms allowed the succession of daughters in the absence of sons and of sisters in the absence of brothers (male-preference primogeniture). The one exception,Aragon,tended to favoursemi-Salicism.The most elaborate rules formed the "Seven-part code" (Siete partidas) of the late 13th century.

On 1 November 1700 a French Bourbon prince,Philip V,acceded to the Spanish throne. In the French royal house,Salic lawapplied, which did not permit female succession. Accordingly, the traditional Spanish order of succession had to give way to a semi-Salic system, which excluded women from the crown unless all males in theagnaticdescent from Philip, in any branch, became extinct. It is not implausible that this change might have been enacted at the insistence of a hostile foreign power, as the scenario of such a union could impinge profoundly on questions of national importance (particularly among states that preferred to maintain their distance from policy positions occupied by the Franco-Spanish consensus, of which theHoly Roman Empirewas one). Some disagreement on this topic was evident for a number of years, even after it became clear that any question of a Franco-Spanish union was a political non-starter.

Although the Spanish government made several attempts to revert to the traditional order, as in the Decree of 1789 byCharles IV(see below), the succession question became pressing only when, by 1830,Ferdinand VIIfound himself ailing, without any issue, but with a pregnant wife. He decided in 1830 to promulgate the 1789 decree, securing the crown for the unborn child even if female. The law placed the child,Princess Isabel,ahead of Ferdinand's brotherInfante Carlos,who until then had beenheir presumptive.

Many contemporaries (starting with the King's brother and the cadetBourbonbranches) saw the changed succession as illegal on various counts.They formed the basis for the dynastic Carlist party, which only recognized the semi-Salic succession law that gave Infante Carlos precedence over Ferdinand's daughter, the futureIsabella II.

Historical timeline

• 13 May 1713:Philip V,first of the SpanishBourbons,together with theCortes,Spain's parliament, through anAuto Accordadochanges theorder of successionto the Spanish crown from that outlined in theSiete Partidas.Where the previous rule consisted of male-preference primogeniture, Philip's new law instituted semi-Salic law, under which accession of a female or her descendants is possible only following the extinction of all dynastic males descended in the male line from Philip V.
• 1789: During the reign ofCharles IV,the Cortes approves a reversion of the system of succession to the traditional Siete Partidas order of succession. However, the law was not promulgated, due in part to protests from thecadet branchesof the House of Bourbon (theSicilian branchand theParmesan branch), who saw it as diminishing their hereditary rights.
• 1812. A new Spanish constitution outlines the rules of succession in accordance with the Siete Partidas.
• 31 March 1830:Ferdinand VII,at the time without issue and his fourth wife pregnant, promulgates thePragmatic Sanction of 1830which ratifies the 1789 law, thereby re-establishing the pre-Philippine order of succession.
• 10 October 1830: The futureIsabella IIis born to Ferdinand VII. After several court intrigues, the Pragmatic Sanction was definitively approved in 1832. Ferdinand's brother, the Infante Don Carlos, up to that time theheir presumptive,feels robbed of his rights, and leaves forPortugal.
• 1833–1876Carlist Wars

Political landscape after the death of Ferdinand VII (1833)

Satire was used in attempts to discredit the opposition, whether Liberal or Royalist (Carlist)

As in many European countries, after theNapoleonicoccupation, the Spanish political class was split between the "absolutists", supporters of theancien régime,and the Liberals, influenced by the ideas of theFrench Revolution.The long war for Spain's independence from the Napoleonic Empire left a large supply of experiencedguerrillafighters and an oversized military officialdom—for the most part, staunch Liberals. The perceived success of the uprising of 1808 againstNapoleonleft also a broad, if unconscious, belief in the validity of the right ofrebellion,with long-lasting effects on the politics of Spain andSpanish America,extending through the 19th century and beyond.

The reign ofFerdinand VIIproved unable to overcome the political divide or to create stable institutions. The so-calledLiberal Triennium(1820–1823) re-instated the 1812 constitution after a military"pronunciamiento",but was followed by theOminous Decade(1823–1833), ten years of absolute rule by the king, that left bitter memories of persecution in both parties. While in power, both groups had divided themselves into moderate and radical branches. The radical branch of the absolutists (or royalists), known as theApostólicos,looked upon the heir presumptive,Don Carlos,as its natural head, as he was profoundly devout and, especially after 1820, staunchly anti-liberal.

In 1827,Cataloniawas shaken by the rebellion of theAgreujatsorAgraviados( "the Aggrieved" ),an ultra-absolutist movement, which, for a time, controlled large parts of the region. The infante was for the first time then hailed as king. He denied any involvement. The last years of King Ferdinand saw a political realignment due to the troubles surrounding his succession. In October 1832, the King formed a moderate royalist government underFrancisco Cea Bermúdez,which almost succeeded in curbing the Apostolic party and, through an amnesty, in gaining liberal support for Isabella's right to succeed under theregencyof her mother,Maria Christina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies.If only to get rid of Don Carlos, the Liberals accepted the newPrincess of Asturias.Moreover, the first years of the 1830s were influenced by the failure of theFrench Restoration,which meant the end of Bourbon rule in France, and thecivil war in Portugalbetween both legitimist and liberal parties.

Social and economic factors

Two typical Carlists of the 19th century: Francisco Solà i Madriguera, ofTaradell(Osona), with his son, around 1870.

Besides this political evolution, the years before the Carlist wars were marked by a deep economic crisis in Spain, partly spurred by the loss of the continental American provinces, and by the bankruptcy of the state. The last triggered enhanced tax pressures which further fueled social unrest. Certain economic measures proposed by the Liberals (such as theDesamortización,i.e. the takeover, division and sale of thecommonsandChurchproperty, initiated in 1821) were directly threatening the viability of many small farms, whose residents were accustomed to rely on the common pasture lands to feed, at little or no cost, their mules and oxen. Widespread poverty followed, as did the closure of most hospitals, schools and other charities.

An important factor was the religious question. The radical liberals (progresistas) after 1820 had grown more and moreanticlerical,strongly opposingreligious institutes.They were suspected of being adherents ofFreemasonry.This policy alienated them from many sectors of the (mostly deeplyCatholic) Spanish people, especially in rural areas.The only institution abolished in the "Liberal Triennium" that was not restored by Ferdinand VII wasthe Inquisition.One of the demands of the radical absolutist party was its reinstitution. Liberals had been, while in power, quite doctrinaire, pursuing centralization and uniform administration.

Besides the Basque Country, in many regions of Spain there were intense particularist feelings, which were thus hurt. While only a secondary factor at the outbreak of the first Carlist war, this anti-uniformist localism, exemplified in the defence of thefueros,would become in time one of the more important banners of Carlism. This won Carlism support in theBasque territories(Navarre,Gipuzkoa,BiscayandAraba), as well as the old realms of theCrown of Aragon(Aragon,Catalonia andValencia), as those areas resented the abolition of their ancient self-government privileges by issuance of theNueva Planta Decrees.

History

The history of Carlism can be usefully divided into four different stages,whose dates are only approximate (thus the overlap is intentional):

• 1833–1876: factions pursued power mainly by military means.
• 1876–1936: Carlism reverted to a peaceful political movement.
• 1936–1975: During theSpanish Civil War,Carlists were part ofFranco's coalition. During the Franco regime, some government ministers were drawn from Franco's Carlist supporters, but the movement as a whole was gradually marginalized by the generalissimo.
• 1975–present: After Franco's death, the Carlist movement declines into near irrelevance.

Carlist Wars (1833–1876)

Don Carlos calling the Navarrese in 1833.

Attack on the bridge of Luchana,near Bilbao during the first war.

Refugees fleeing through the port ofGuetariain the first war.

1846 rendition of the executions ordered by Maroto inEstella(1839)

ChapelgorrisinMiranda de Ebro

The period of theCarlist Wars,during which the party tried to attain power mainly through military means, is both classical Carlism, because the wars – or the threat of them – placed Carlism on the centre stage of Spain's political history, and formative, as Carlism evolved the cultural and sociological form it would retain for well over a hundred years. Historical highlights of this era are the:

• First Carlist War(1833–1840)—a civil war in Spain from 1833 to 1840, fought between factions over the succession to the throne and the nature of theSpanish monarchy.It was fought between supporters of the regent,Maria Christina,acting forIsabella II of Spain,and those of the late king's brother,Carlos de Borbón(orCarlos V). The Carlists' goal was the return to an absolute monarchy. Portugal, France and the United Kingdom supported the regency, and sent volunteer and even regular forces to confront the Carlist army.
• Affair of the Spanish Marriages(1846) was a series of intrigues betweenFrance,Spain,and theUnited Kingdomrelating to the marriages ofQueen Isabella II of Spainand her sister theinfantaLuisa Fernanda.
• Second Carlist War(1847–1849)—was a minorCatalanuprising. The rebels tried to installCarlos VIon the throne. InGalicia,the uprising was on a smaller scale. The war was ostensibly fought to facilitate the marriage of Isabella II with the Carlist pretender,Carlos de Borbón(orCarlos VI), but Isabella II was instead wed toFrancisco de Borbón.
• The 1860 expedition and its aftermath. That year the Count of Montemolín tried to seize power through apronunciamiento.He landed inSant Carles de la Ràpita(Tarragona), but was quickly detained, and forced to renounce his rights. This calamity, his behaviour after release, and the fact that the next in the line was his liberal brother, drove Carlism to the brink of extinction. It was only saved by the hand of his stepmother, theMaria Theresa of Braganza, Princess of Beira;and
• The "Glorious Revolution"1868. Isabella II managed to alienate almost everybody in Spain, until she was expelled that year by a progressivist revolution. At that point, Carlism, under its new headCarlos VII,became the rallying point for many political Catholics and conservatives, becoming the main bloc of right-wing opposition to the ensuing governments in Spain. After four years of political activity, and some hesitation, the martial option was again tried in
• TheThird Carlist War(1872–1876).

Points of convergence

All three wars share a common development pattern:

1. A first stage of guerrilla activity, across all of Spain.
2. A second stage of territorial resistance is created, with regular army units created. The 1847 war did not get further than this.
3. A third stage of territorial stability achieved through conventional leads to the creation of State structures. No Carlist war went further than this.

At the beginning of each war, no regular army unit was on the Carlist side, and only the third was the result of a planned uprising. The first war was noteworthy for being, on both sides, extremely brutal. The Liberal army mistreated the population, most of whom it suspected of being Carlist sympathizers, to the point of, sometimes, attempted extermination;Carlists, very often, treated Liberals no better than they had treated Napoleonic soldiers and agents, to such an extent that the international powers forced the warring parties to recognize somerules of war,namely the "Lord Eliot Convention".Brutality did not disappear completely, andgiving no quarterto one's enemy was not uncommon.

The areas over which Carlism could establish some sort of territorial authority during the first war (Navarre,Rioja,the rural Basque Country, inner Catalonia, and northern Valencia) would remain the main bulwarks of Carlism throughout its history, although there were active supporters of the movement everywhere else in Spain. Especially in Navarre, Asturias, and parts of the Basque Provinces Carlism remained a significant political force until the late 1960s.

Carlist military leaders

• Tomás de Zumalacárregui
• Manuel Santa Cruz Loidi
• Ramón Cabrera

• 
  Tomás de Zumalacárregui
• 
  Ramón Cabrera
• 
  Manuel Santa Cruz

Carlists in peace (1868–1936)

Main articles:Electoral Carlism (Restoration)andElectoral Carlism (Second Republic)

See also:Traditionalist Communion

The loss of prestige and subsequent fall of Isabel II in 1868, plus the staunch support of Carlism by PopePius IX,led a sizable number of former Isabelline conservative Catholics (e.g.,Francisco Navarro Villoslada,Antonio Aparisi,Cándido Nocedal,Alejandro Pidal) to join the Carlist cause. For a time, even beyond the start of the third war (1872), it became the most important, and best organized, "right-wing" opposition group to the revolutionary regime, with some 90 members of parliament in 1871.

After the defeat,a group (led by Alejandro Pidal) left Carlism to form a moderate, non-dynastic Catholic party in Spain, which later merged with the conservatives ofAntonio Cánovas del Castillo.

In 1879 Cándido Nocedal was charged with the reorganization of the party. His main weapon was a very aggressive press (in 1883 PopeLeo XIIIpublished the encyclicalCum multa,trying to moderate it). His stance was an uncompromising adherence to the Carlists' political and, especially, religious principles (hence the term "integrist"). This tendency became so radical that in 1888, Carlos VII had to expel the group centred aroundRamón Nocedal,Cándido's son, which thus gave rise to another small, but in clerical circles influential,Integrist Party.

Jaime, Duke of Madrid,at Villa Arbelaiz inSaint-Jean-de-Luz.From left to right:Joaquín Lloréns, marqués de Córdoba,Tirso de Olazábal y Álvarez de Eulate,Tirso de Olazábal, conde de Arbelaiz,Jaime IIIandFrancisco de Melgar, conde de Melgar del Rey.

Meanwhile,Marquis de Cerralbobuilt up a modern mass party, centered around the local assemblies (called "Círculos", of which several hundred existed throughout Spain in 1936) and their social action programmes, and in active opposition to the political system of the Restoration (participating even in broad coalitions, such as 1907's "Solidaritat Catalana", with regionalists and republicans). Duringelectoral campaignsthe Carlists,except Navarre,achieved little success.

From 1893 to 1918,Juan Vázquez de Mellawas its most important parliamentary leader and ideologue, seconded byVíctor Pradera,who had wide influence on Spanish conservative thinking beyond the party.World War Ihad a special influence on Carlism. As the Carlist claimant, thenJaime, Duke of Madrid,had close ties to theRussian Imperial Family,had been mistreated by Austrian EmperorFranz Josef,and was also Head of the House of Bourbon, he favoured theAllies,but was living under house arrest in Austria, atSchloss Frohsdorf,with almost no communication with the political leadership in Spain.As the war ended and Don Jaime could again freely communicate with Spain, a crisis erupted, andVázquez de Mellaand others had to leave the party's leadership (the so-called "Mellists").

In 1920, Carlism helped to found the "Sindicatos Libres"(Catholic Labour Unions) to counter the increased influence of leftist trade unions over the working class, clinging to a difficult balance between labour claims and the interests of the upper-class, to whom Carlism was so attached.Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship (1923–1930) was opposed but ambiguously viewed by Carlism, which, like most parties, entered a period of slumber, only to be awakened by the coming of theSecond Republicin 1931. In the run-up to the proclamation of the Republic, the Carlists got together with the re-foundedBasque Nationalist Partywithin the pro-chartersCoalición Católico Fueristain the core areas of Carlism, theBasque region,thus providing the springboard for the draft Basque Statute.

In October 1931, Carlist claimant to the Spanish throneDuke Jaimedied. He was succeeded by the 82-year-old claimantAlfonso Carlos de Borbón,reuniting under him the integralists led byOlazábaland the "Mellists". They represented a region-based Spanish nationalism with an entrenched identification of Spain and Catholicism. The ensuing radicalized Carlist scene overshadowed the "Jaimists" with a Basque inclination. The Basque(-Navarrese) Statute failed to take off over disagreements on the centrality of Catholicism in 1932, with the new Carlist partyComunión Tradicionalistaopting for an open confrontation with the Republic. The Republic established a secular approach of the regime, a division of Church and state, as well as freedom of cults, as France did in 1905, an approach traditionalists could not stand.

TheComunión Tradicionalista(1932) showed an ultra-Catholic, anti-secular position, and plotted for a military takeover, while adopting far-right apocalyptic views and talking of a final clash with an alliance of alleged anti-Christian forces. The most extreme proponent of these views wasJuan Vazquez de Mella,who argued that Jewish capital had financed the liberal revolution and was now behind the Communist revolution in order, in union with the "Muslim hordes" (even the nativetribesmen of the Riffighting for their freedom), to destroy Christian civilization and impose a "Jewish tyranny on the world".At the time, aRothschild-Marxlink and a bridgehead laid over Spain was being cited in the far-right circles to found these claims.

In Navarre, the main Carlist stronghold, the movement revolved around the newspaperEl Pensamiento Navarro,read almost exclusively by the clergy and second in circulation toElDiario de Navarra,another ultra-Conservative daily with an anti-Basquestreak. The dormant paramilitaryRequetéof the early 20th century was activated. As early as May 1931,Jaime del Burgo(father of the 1979 UPNnamesake party leader) and otherJaimistyoung members organized arms smuggling fromEibarto distribute them among "defence" parties calledDecurias,counting on the financing of wealthy personalities (big landowners, etc.). In 1932, the first coup d'état attempt took place against the Republic in theSanjurjada,with a Carlist inspiration.

TheOctober 1934 Revolutioncost the life of the Carlist deputyMarcelino Oreja Elósegui,withManuel Fal Condétaking over from young Carlists clustering around the AET (Jaime del Burgo and Mario Ozcoidi) in their pursuit to overthrow the Republic. The Carlists started to prepare for an armed definite clash with the Republic and its different leftist groups. From the initial defensiveDecuriasof Navarre (deployed in party seats and churches), theRequetégrew into a well-trained and strongest offensive paramilitary group in Spain when Manuel Fal Condé took the reins. It numbered 30,000red berets(8,000 in Navarre and 22,000 in Andalusia).

Spanish Civil War and Franco regime (1936–1975)

During the war (1936–1939)

TheValle de los Caídosnear Madrid, built by Republican prisoners of war used as forced labour

Monastery of Irache,where General Mola held preparatory conspiracy meetings with Carlist leaderManuel Fal Condeand other plotters (July 1936)

TheSan Cristóbal fortress-turned-prison,home to one of the darkest episodes of the Civil War in Navarre

The Carlist militia, theRequetés,had been receiving military training during theSecond Spanish Republicbut had significant ideological differences with many of the conspiring generals.With the July 1936 revolt and the ensuing Spanish Civil War, the Carlists fell naturally if uneasily on the side of theNationalistrebels.General Mola,known for his openness on his no-holds-barred, criminal approach,had just been relocated away to Pamplona by the Republican authorities, ironically to the very heart of the far-right rebellion.

In May 1936, the General met withIgnacio Baleztena,a Navarrese Carlist figure at the head of theRequetés,offering the participation of 8,400 voluntaries to support the uprising, turned into a counter-revolutionary reaction. The principles divide betweenManuel Fal Condeand Mola (basically aFalangist) almost broke the understanding for a Carlist allegiance to the coup on 4 July 1936. However, rebellious cooperation against the legitimate Republican government was restored by the intervention ofTomás Domínguez Arévalo,count of Rodezno.

The highest Carlist authority, Duke Alfonso Carlos, did not approve of the pact, but all the same, by then Mola was negotiating directly with the Carlist Navarre Council (Junta Navarra), one that opted for the support of the uprising. On 19 July, the state of war was declared in Pamplona and the Carlist corps (tercio) in the city took over. In a few days, just about all of Navarre was occupied by the military and theRequetés.There was no front.

Immediately the rebels, with a direct participation of theRequetésand the clergy (the Carlist core in Navarre), engaged in a brutal repression to stamp out dissent that affected all inconvenient, mildly progressive, or Basque nationalist inhabitants and personalities. The killing in the rearguard took a direct death toll (extrajudicial executions) ranging from 2,857to 3,000toc. 4,000.A bleak sceneof social humiliation and submission ensued for those surviving.

The Carlists' prospects in Gipuzkoa and Biscay were not auspicious. The military coup failed, and Carlist units were overwhelmed by forces loyal to the Republic, i.e. different leftist forces and the Basque nationalists. Many crossed the front line to make themselves safe in the rebel zone, and added to the Carlist regiments in Álava and Navarre. Pamplona became the rebel launching point for theWar in the North.

On 8 December 1936, Fal Conde had to leave temporarily for Portugal after a major clash with Franco. On 19 April 1937 the Carlist political bloc was "unified"with theFalangeunder the pro-Franco, umbrella nationalist party,FalangeEspañola Tradicionalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional SindicalistaorFET de las JONS.Unwilling to leave the Nationalist movement, but unhappy with the merger, the new Carlist claimantJavier, prince de Borbón-Parma,condemned those Carlists who joined the new party. He was expelled from the country, while Fal Conde was not allowed to return to Spain until after the war. Low-level Carlists, with the notable exception of those in Navarre, generally distanced themselves from the workings of the new party and in many cases never joined at all.

Francoist Spain

Henceforth, the mainstream kept an uncomfortable minority position inside the regime, more often than not at odds with its official policy, although the Ministry of Justice was thrice given to aloyal "Carlist"(who was accordingly expelled from the Traditionalist Communion). This time was also marred by the problem of succession and internal strife over Francoism. Carlist ministers in Franco's August 1939 cabinet included GeneralJosé Enrique Varelaat army, andEsteban Bilbaoat justice.At the same time, two of nine seats in the Junta Política were given to Carlists. Of the hundred-member National Council of the FET, seven seats were occupied by Carlists.

Carlists continued to clash with Falangists, notably in an incident atBilbao'sBasilica of Begoñaon 16 August 1942. Accounts of the violence vary, but a Carlist rally (where some allegedly shouted anti-Franco slogans) was targeted by two grenades hurled by Falangists.While alleged fatalities and the number of those injured have long been disputed, the incident led to a shakeup of the Franco cabinet and the judicial conviction of six Falangists (one, Juan José Domínguez, was executed for the crime).

In 1955, Fal Conde resigned as Jefe Delegado of the movement and was replaced byJosé María Valiente,who formally assumed the title in 1960. The change marked a shift from opposition to collaboration with Francoism, and the rapprochement ended in 1968 when Valiente left office. Franco recognized both the titles of nobility conceded by the Carlist claimants and those of the Isabelline branch. At his death, the movement was badly split, and unable to get wide public attention again. In 1971,Don Carlos Hugo, prince de Borbón-Parmafounded the newCarlist Partybased on theconfederalistvision forLas Españas( "the Spains" ) and socialistautogestion(then promoted inYugoslavia). AtMontejurra,on 9 May 1976, adherents of the old and new versions of Carlism brawled. Two Hugo supporters were killed by far-right militants, among whom wasStefano Delle Chiaie.The Carlist Party accused Hugo's younger brother,Don Sixto Enrique de Borbón-Parma,of aiding the militants, which collaboration the Traditionalist Communion denies.

Tourist sign to the Museum of Carlism in Estella

Post-Franco period (1975–present)

In thefirst democratic electionson 15 June 1977, only one Carlist senator was elected, journalist and writer Fidel Carazo fromSoria,who ran as an independent candidate. In the parliamentary elections of 1979, rightist Carlists integrated in the far-right coalitionUnión Nacional,which won a seat in the Cortes for Madrid; but the elected candidate was not himself a Carlist. The Carlists have since remained extra-parliamentary, obtaining only town council seats.

In 2002, Carlos Hugo donated the House's archives to theArchivo Histórico Nacional,which was protested by his brother Don Sixto Enrique and by all Carlist factions.Into the 21st century, there are three political organizations which claim the Carlist identity:

• Comunión Tradicionalista (led byJosé Miguel Gambra Gutiérrez)
• Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista (led byTelmo Aldaz de la Quadra-Salcedo)
• Partido Carlista(led by Jesús María Aragón Samanes)

Carlist claimants to the throne

Theregnal numbersare those used by their supporters. While they were not proclaimed kings, they made use of some titles associated with the Spanish throne.

Claimant	Portrait	Birth	Marriages	Death
Carlos, Count of Molina (Carlos V) (English: Charles V) 1833–1845		29 March 1788, Aranjuez son ofCarlos IV andMaria Luisa of Parma	Maria Francisca of Portugal September 1816 3 children Maria Teresa, Princess of Beira 1838 No children	10 March 1855 Trieste aged 66
Carlos, Count of Montemolin (Carlos VI) (English: Charles VI) 1845–1861		31 January 1818, Madrid son ofCarlos, Count of Molina andMaria Francisca of Portugal	Maria Carolina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies 10 July 1850 No children	31 January 1861 Trieste aged 43
Juan, Count of Montizón (Juan III) (English: John III) 1861–1868		15 May 1822, Aranjuez son ofCarlos, Count of Molina andMaria Francisca of Portugal	Beatrix of Austria-Este 6 February 1847 2 children Ellen Sarah Carter ? 2 children	21 November 1887 Hove aged 65
Carlos, Duke of Madrid (Carlos VII) (English: Charles VII) 1868–1909		30 March 1848,Ljubljana son ofJuan, Count of Montizón and Beatrix of Austria-Este	Margarita of Bourbon-Parma 4 February 1867 5 children Berthe de Rohan 28 April 1894 No children	18 July 1909 Varese aged 61
Jaime, Duke of Madrid (Jaime III) (English: James III) 1909–1931		27 June 1870,Vevey son ofCarlos, Duke of Madrid andMargarita of Bourbon-Parma	never married	2 October 1931 Paris aged 61
Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime (Alfonso Carlos I) (English: Alphonse Charles I) 1931–1936		12 September 1849 London son ofJuan, Count of Montizón and Beatrix of Austria-Este	Maria das Neves of Portugal 26 April 1871 1 child	29 September 1936 Vienna aged 87

The succession after Alfonso Carlos

At the death of Alfonso Carlos in 1936 most Carlists supportedPrince Xavier of Bourbon-Parmawhom Alfonso Carlos had named asregentof the Carlist Communion. A minority of Carlists supportedArchduke Karl Pius of Austria, Prince of Tuscany,a grandson through the female line of Carlos VII. A fringe movement of Carlists supportedAlfonso XIII,the exiled constitutional king of Spain, who was the senior male descendant of KingCharles IV.The majority of Carlists, however, considered Alfonso disqualified because he did not share the Carlist ideals (and, importantly, because Spanish lawexcluded from succession the descendants of those who commit treason against the king, as Carlists deem Alfonso's male-line ancestors to have done once Francisco de Paula recognized the reign of Isabella II). Many also regarded his descent as illegitimate, believing thatAlfonso XII's biological father was a lover of Queen Isabella's rather than her husband. Most of the following events happened under theregime of Francisco Franco,who skillfully played each faction off against the others.

Borbón-Parma claim

• Francisco Javier I

Coat of arms used by the supporters of the Carlist claimants to the Spanish Throne with the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Immaculate Heart of Mary adopted c.1942 by Xavier of Bourbon.

Prince Xavier of Bourbon-Parma(25 May 1889 – 7 May 1977), known in Spain asDon Javier de Borbón,had been named regent of the Carlist Communion by Alfonso Carlos in 1936 as the nearest member of the House of Bourbon who shared the Carlist ideals.

During theSecond World War,Prince Xavier returned to the Belgian army, where he had served duringWorld War I.He was demobilized and joined the Frenchmaquis.He was taken prisoner by theNazisand sent toNatzweilerandDachau concentration camp,where American troops liberated him in 1945. In 1952, Javier was proclaimed King of Spain, asserting Carlist legitimacy. Since the death of Alfonso Carlos, his successor by right ofagnaticprimogeniture had yet to be determined.To do so, it was necessary to trace the patriline of Philip V to his seniormost descendant who was not excluded from the throne by law (for treason,morganatic marriage,birth out-of-wedlock and other reasons legally established in theNovísima Recopilaciónof 1805, in force at the time of the First Carlist War). In 1952, when all lines senior to the House of Bourbon-Parma were deemed excluded,the claim was taken up by Don Javier (descended fromPhilip, Duke of Parma,third son of Philip V). Even though he was raised in the Carlist camp and named regent of the Carlist Communion in 1936, his proclamation as king later in 1956 was, it was asserted, not a political move based on ideology, but the consequence of dynastic legitimacy.He remained the Carlist claimant until his renunciation in 1975.

Changes in the views of some in the Carlist movement polarized Javier's supporters between his two sons, Carlos Hugo and Sixto Enrique (and many more endorsing neither) in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Carlos Hugo turned organized Carlism into a socialist movement, while his brother Sixto Enrique (supported by his motherMadeleine de Bourbon-Busset) followed afar rightistcourse. In 1977, Sixto Enrique's supporters published a manifesto from Javier condemning Carlos Hugo. Several days later Carlos Hugo's supporters published a manifesto from Javier recognising Carlos Hugo as his heir.

• Carlos Hugo I

Carlos Hugo (1968)

Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma(8 April 1930 – 18 August 2010), was the elder son of Xavier. He was a Carlist claimant from 1977 until his death. After alienating many Carlists by his attempts to approach Franco (1965–1967), Carlos Hugo switched to a leftistTitoist,workers' self-managementsocialist movement. In 1979 he accepted Spanish citizenship from KingJuan Carlos Iand in 1980 he renounced his membership in the Partido Carlista, which he had created. Carlos Hugo had the support of a minority of Carlists including the Partido Carlista.He also excluded the Luxembourger branch of the family from Carlist succession due tounequal marriagesby princes of that branch that were recognized as dynastic by the Grand Duke.

• Carlos Javier I

Prince Carlos, Duke of Parma(born 27 January 1970), is the elder son of Carlos Hugo. He inherited the Carlist claim on his father's death in 2010. Carlos has the support of a minority of Carlists including the Partido Carlista.

• Sixto Enrique

Prince Sixto Enrique of Bourbon-Parma(born 22 July 1940) claims to be the current regent of the Carlist Communion. He is known as the Duke of Aranjuez.

DonSixto Enrique is supported by the minorityComunión Tradicionalista,and some others who believe that his elder brother Carlos Hugo was the rightful heir, but ineligible for the succession on account of his socialism. Sixto Enrique has never claimed to be Carlist king, in the hopes that one of his nephews will one day accept traditional Carlist values.

Habsburgo-Borbón claim

The eldest daughter ofInfante Carlos, Duke of Madrid,wasBlanca de Borbón y Borbón-Parma(1868–1949). She marriedArchduke Leopold Salvator of Austria(1863–1931). In 1943, one of their sons presented himself as a Carlist claimant in succession to his great-uncle Alfonso Carlos. Since this claim comes through a female line, it is rejected by most Carlists:

• Archduke Karl Pius of Austria, Prince of Tuscany,was a Carlist claimant from 1943 to 1953. He was supported by some of General Franco's officials from theMovimiento Nacional.As he assumed the title of "King Carlos VIII", the movement that supports this branch of the family is calledCarloctavismo.
• Archduke Anton of Austria, Prince of Tuscany,was the brother of Karl Pius and was a Carlist claimant (Carlos IX) from 1953 to 1961.
• Archduke Franz Josef of Austria, Prince of Tuscany,was the brother of Karl Pius and Anton and was a Carlist claimant (Francisco I) from 1961 to 1975.
• Archduke Dominic of Austria, Prince of Tuscany,is the son of Anton and has been a Carlist claimant (Domingo I) since 1975.

In 2012, SenatorIñaki Anasagastiof theBasque Countryproposed the idea of creating a united Basque-Navarrese-Catalanmonarchy with Archduke Dominic of Austria its king.

Borbón claim

• Alfonso de Borbón

Alfonso XIIIbecame the senior representative by primogeniture of the House of Bourbon at the death of Alfonso Carlos in 1936. He had reigned as the constitutional king of Spain as Alfonso XIII until his exile in 1931. He was the son of KingAlfonso XII,son ofFrancisco de Asis de Borbón,son ofInfante Francisco de Paula,the younger brother of Charles V. He was recognised as Carlist claimant by a small number of Carlists who considered the death of Alfonso Carlos an opportunity to reunite Spanish monarchists, both Carlist and Isabelline. Nonetheless, despite this apparently attractive opportunity, Francisco de Paula and his descendants were considered legally and morally excluded from the line of succession by many Carlists as traitors, according to the Spanish laws of succession as they stood in 1833 (and as defended by Carlists since then).In 1941 Alfonso abdicated; he died two months later.

Alfonso's eldest son had died in 1938. His second sonInfante Jaime, Duke of Segoviahad been pressured to renounce his rights to the constitutional succession in 1933. Both had married morganatically. King Alfonso's third son,DonJuan, Count of Barcelonawas his chosen successor.

The5 pesetascoin of 1975 featured the official king,Juan Carlos I of Spainand a coat-of-arms with the San Andrés salitre, Carlists' assumed symbol.

• Juan de Borbón claim
  • Infante Don Juan, Count of Barcelona(20 June 1913 – 1 April 1993) was the third son of Alfonso XIII. He was a claimant to the throne of Spain from 1941 until his renunciation in 1977. In 1957, a group of Carlists recognized him as their chief in his exile atEstoril, Portugal.
  • KingJuan Carlos Iis the surviving son of Don Juan, Count of Barcelona. He was the King of Spain from 1975 until his abdication in 2014.
  • KingFelipe VIis the only son of Juan Carlos I. He is the current representative of this claim. He has been the king of Spain since 2014, confirmed by theSpanish Constitution of 1978.
• Jaime de Borbón claim
  • Infante Jaime, Duke of Segovia,was the second son of Alfonso XIII, and the older brother of Juan, Count of Barcelona. Despite his 1933 renunciation of the Spanish throne, in 1960 Jaime announced that he was the Carlist claimant and occasionally used the titleDuke of Madrid;he remained a claimant until his death in 1975. He had only a few Carlist supporters, but among these was Alicia de Borbón y de Borbón-Parma, the only surviving daughter of the previous Carlist claimantCarlos, Duke of Madrid.Jaime also became theLegitimistclaimant to the French throne, using the titleDuke of Anjou;in this capacity, he had some supporters.
  • Prince Alphonse, Duke of Anjou and Cádiz,was the son of Jaime. He did not claim the Carlist succession between 1975 and his death in 1989.
  • Prince Louis, Duke of Anjou,is the son of Alfonso. He has never claimed the Carlist succession.

Ideology

Carlism or Traditionalism can be labelled as acounter-revolutionarymovement. Carlism's intellectual landscape was a reaction against theLiberal, Radical,and anti-religious currents of theEnlightenment in Spain;in particular theBourbon Reforms,theconfiscation and sale of Church property by the State,the expulsion of thereligious orders,and Government bans onCatholic schoolsandClassical Christian educationbased on theTrivium.In this sense, it is akin to the French (Legitimism) andJoseph de Maistre's thinking, but it also bears a close similarity with theJacobitismof theBritish Isles.It is difficult to give an accurate description of Carlist thinking for several reasons:

• As adherents oftraditionalist conservatism,Carlists mistrusted radical solutions as a political driving force. Some 19th-century pamphlets expressed it in this form: against aphilosophicalconstitution (liberalism, based on ideology), ahistoricalconstitution is proposed (based on history, andCatholic social teaching).
• Carlism's long active history—it has been an important force for over 170 years—and the fact that it attracted a large and diverse following, makes a comprehensive categorization more difficult.
• As they were held together as a movement mainly by shared opposition to thestatus quo,there has almost never been a single cohesive ideology inside the Carlist movement.
• The ideas expressed inside Carlism were partly and openly shared with many other forces on the political spectrum. The more conservative, Catholic (orChristian democracy) andlanguage revivalwings of the various nationalist and regionalist movements throughout Spain have their roots in Carlist thought, particularly relating tofuerosand localized self-government.

While Carlism and Falangism had certain similarities—social conservatism,Catholic social teaching,anti-Marxism,and beginning the reversal of theSecularizationofSpanish cultureby overturning anti-Catholic laws and policies that began with theSuppression of the Jesuitsand theBourbon Reformsin the 18th-century—there were also stark differences between the two movements. Most significant, Falangism called for a strongcentralized government,coerciveHispanizationthrough the educational system, andSpanish nationalism,Carlism was more supportive of thefueros,preserving and reviving regional traditions,linguistic rightsfor localheritage languages,and regional autonomy were their main tenets. Carlism also supportsSalic Lawregarding royal succession to the Spanish throne and accordingly count asLegitimists.

Variant of the Spanish royal arms with theSacred Heart.It was a common emblem of the Carlism supporters during theSpanish Civil War.

Dios, Patria, Fueros, Rey

These four words (which can be translated as God, Fatherland, Local Rule, and King), have been the motto and cornerstone of Carlism throughout its existence. What Carlism understood by these was:

• Dios(God): Carlism believes in theCatholic Faithas a cornerstone of Spain and must be politically active in its defence.
• Patria(Fatherland): Carlism is heavily patriotic, Traditionalism sees the Fatherland as the nesting of communities (municipal, regional, Spain) united under one.
• Fueros(similar to medievalcharters): Part of the limitation of royal powers is the acknowledgement of local and regional self-rule (and of other types of communities in the political body, especially the Church). Although the result of a peculiar historical development in Spain, it converged with the concept ofsubsidiarityin Catholic social thought. Note that some versions of the motto omit the Fueros clause.
• Rey(King): The concept ofnational sovereigntyis rejected. Sovereignty is vested in the king, both legitimate in blood and in deeds. But this power is limited by the doctrine of theChurchand the Laws and Usages of the Kingdom, and through a series of Councils, traditionalCortesand state-independent intermediate bodies. The King must also be the Defender of the Poor and Keeper of Justice.

Supporters

Carlism was a truemass movementand drew its rank and file from all social classes, with a majority of peasant and working-class elements. Thus, it is no surprise that Carlism was involved in the creation of Catholic trade unions.

Offshoots and influence

• Cultural and politicalregionalismin Spain (not to be mistaken with regionalnationalismorseparatism) was largely Carlist-originated. The influence of Carlist thinkerJuan Vázquez de Mellain this field can still be traced today.
• One of the founders ofBasque nationalism,Sabino Arana, came from a Carlist background, and for many years competed for the same audience (BasqueCatholics). Compare the PNV slogan "God and Fueros".Spanish Carlists with Franco battled and defeated Basque nationalists in1936–1937.
• Fuerismowas a doctrine prevalent in the Basque provinces. It supported the Isabelline monarchy but wanted to preserve the Fuero autonomy of the provinces.
• Catholic politicsare essential for Carlism. Compare the sloganChristus Rex.
• Victor Pradera's thinking was very influential, through the groupAcción Española,in Spanish authoritarian thinking in the 1930s and 1940s.
• Fernando Sebastián Aguilar,Archbishop ofPamplonaandTudela(Spain) caused controversy by publicly stating on 7 May 2007 that the Traditionalist Carlist Communion, among others, is worthy of consideration and of electoral support.

The Carlist symbol

Symbols

• Motto: Dios, Patria, Fueros, Rey
• Flag: the redcross of Burgundyon white
• Thered beret.In Basque, the Carlist troops were hence calledtxapelgorri–though the name was also shared by units of the opposing Liberal side. The red beret was worn as a distinguishing device byCarlistssoldiers in theFirst Carlist Warand later became an emblem of Carlists in general, often with a yellowpom-pomortassel.
• Anthem:Oriamendi

Name and names

The term "carlistas" when applied to followers of Carlos Maria Isidro emerged in the mid-1820s and has even filtered out to public discourse overseas.Following outbreak of thecivil warin 1833 the liberal and pro-government press started to use the denomination commonly, though initially also the name of "carlinos" remained in circulation,along expressions like "facciosos","rebeldes",somewhat less frequent "absolutistas"and other denominations, often intended as insults. The followers of Carlos Maria initially did not use the term, and preferred to refer to themselves in general terms as defenders of faith, monarchy, traditional order and/or legitimism; they cautiously started to accept the name in the 1840s.Gradually in the Isabelline period the term became common and used universally, also by the Carlists themselves. In 1909–1931 the movement was often referred to as "Jaimismo" / "Jaimistas", as the claimantDon Jaimeexceptionally did not bear the iconic name of Carlos.

In the late 19th century a related but not equivalent term "tradicionalistas" entered into circulation and was also applied either to the movement in general or to some of its factions in particular;however, in press usage until the fall of the monarchy in 1931 "carlistas" / "carlismo" was 7 times more popular than "tradicionalistas" / "tradicionalismo".During the republican period of 1931–1936 public usage changed; "tradicionalistas" / "tradicionalismo" were used 2–3 times more frequently than "carlistas" / "carlismo", though the former assumed somewhat broader connotation.In the Francoist era of 1939–1975 the press, tightly censored especially until the mid-1960s, gave slight precedence to "carlistas" vs "tradicionalistas"and to "tradicionalismo" vs "carlismo".For the post-Francoist period there is no representative statistics available.Currently in historiography and political science there is little agreement as to mutual relationship between "traditionalism" and "carlism".

Until the late 1860s, the Carlist movement did not assume a formal structure. Shortly before the outbreak of theThird Carlist Warthe first Carlist political organization emerged; during the following 160 years the mainstream movement was embodied into various political entities, some of them loose and with somewhat different names adopted locally.Relatively little significance was attached to organization, as Carlists considered themselves a broad social movement which in a sense was antithetical to a party. Splinter factions used to build their own structures, and the names of these evolved as well,some names were re-cycledand in popular discourse various alternate, informal or incorrect formal names have been used.Differences between informal and formal names have been often disregarded.The result was naming confusion, e.g. in the early 20th century 48% of press references featured "partido carlista" or "Partido Carlista", 18% featured "Partido Tradicionalista", 15% featured "Partido Jaimista" and 13% "Comunión Tradicionalista", plus at least 4 other denominations in circulation. In the mid-1930s the claimant Alfonso Carlos intended to introduce some discipline and declared that the only formal name be this of "Comunión Tradicionalista Carlista",but he later himself referred to "Comunión Católico-Monárquico-Legitimista".Statistical summary of frequency of various names as in press usage is reviewed in the below table.

period	CCM	CJ	CL	CT	CTC	PC	PCM	PJ	PT
1860–1879	242	0	5	3	0	6807	117	0	143
1880–1899	686	0	3	1449	0	9947	82	3	2348
1900–1919	210	227	183	1390	0	5260	21	1601	1958
1920–1939	210	24	44	2671	7	362	5	257	1114
1940–1959	4	0	0	179	1	7	2	2	16
1960–1979	3	0	0	954	68	3726	4	1	17
total	1355	251	235	6646	76	26109	231	1864	5686

Related words

• Estella-Lizarrawas the site of the Carlist court.
• Bergara/Vergara was the place of theAbrazo de Vergara,which ended the First Carlist War in the North.
• Brigadas de Navarrawere National Army units formed mainly byRequetéforces fromNavarreat the start of theSpanish Civil War.They saw intensive action during the War.
• Detente bala( "Stop bullet!" ) a small patch with an image of theSacred Heart of Jesusworn on the uniform (over the heart) by mostrequetés.
• Margaritas.Carlist women's organization. They often worked aswar nurses.
• Ojalateroswere courtiers sayingOjalá nos ataquen y ganemos( "Wish they would attack us and we won" ), but doing nothing to achieve victory. The name is a pun onhojalatero( "tinkerer", "pot-seller" )
• RequetésThe armed Carlist militias.
• Trágala,expression marking the desire to forcibly impose the ideas most hated by the opponents. Also a Liberal fighting song (chorus: "Swallow it, you Carlist, you who don't want a Constitution." ).

Literary references to Carlism

Tourist information panel marking the so-called Route of Carlism

The liberal Spanish journalistMariano José de Larraopposed Carlism and published several lampoons against it.Nadie pase sin hablar al portero(1833) presents Carlists as a bunch of bandit priests.Ernest Hemingwayrefers to Carlism inFor Whom the Bell Tolls.He mentions two fascists and says, "They were Carlists from Navarra".Francisco Navarro-Villosladawas a Carlist writer that published ahistoric novel,Amaya o los vascos en el siglo VIII,in the fashion ofWalter Scott,presenting the legendary origins of Spanish monarchy as the start ofReconquista.The Arrow of GoldbyJoseph Conradis set against the background of the third Carlist war.

Ramón María del Valle-Inclán,novelist, poet and playwright, was a member of theSpanish Generation of 1898.He wrote novels about Carlism and was an active Carlist himself.Pío Barojawrote a novel,Zalacaín el aventurero(Zalacain the Adventurer), set during the Third Carlist War, and referred to Carlism in an unfavourable light in several other works.The Spanish philosopherMiguel de Unamunosuffered as a child the siege ofBilbaoduring theThird Carlist War.Later he wrote a novelPaz en la guerraabout that time. In 1895 he wrote toJoaquín Costaabout his plans for an essay on the "intrahistoric" element of rural socialism within the Carlist masses.The American conservative writer andNational Reviewcolumnist,L. Brent Bozell Jr.,sympathized with Carlism andFrancoismand considered Spanish Catholic authoritarianism to be preferable to American democracy.

See also

• Carloctavismo
• Historiography on Carlism during the Francoist era
• Integrism (Spain)
• Juan Vázquez de Mella
• Legitimist
• Loyalism
• Mellismo
• Miguelist
• Order of Prohibited Legitimacy
• Parties and factions in Isabelline Spain
• Reactionary
• Restoration (disambiguation)
• Royalism
• Traditionalism (Spain)
• War of succession
• List of movements that dispute the legitimacy of a reigning monarch

References

General sources

• Bibliographical resources:
  • Carlist bibliography
• Other references:
  • Tetralema – Bitácora LealtadCarlist weblog
  • Reino de GranadaCarlist weblog
  • Agencia FAROCarlist Press & Documentation Service. Some content in English

Further reading

• Blinkhorn, Martin (1972). "Carlism and the Spanish Crisis of the 1930s,"Journal of Contemporary History,Vol. 7, No. 3/4, pp. 65–88.
• Blinkhorn, Martin (1975).Carlism and Crisis in Spain, 1931–1939,Cambridge University Press.
• Brennan, Gerald (1960)."The Carlists."In:The Spanish Labyrinth.Cambridge University Press, pp. 203–214.
• Brooks, Sydney (1902). "The Situation in Spain,"The North American Review,Vol. 174, No. 546, pp. 640–653.
• Coverdale, John F. (1984).The Basque Phase of Spain's First Carlist War.Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press.
• Dillon, E. J. (1898)."The Coming of Carlism,"The Contemporary Review,Vol. LXXIV, pp. 305–334.
• Holt, Edgar (1967).The Carlist Wars in Spain.London: Putnam.
• Miguel López, Raimundo de (1993). "El Pensamiento Político del Primer Carlismo." In:Saints, Sovereigns, and Scholars.New York and Geneva: Peter Lamb.
• Mezei, Regina (1996). "Carlism and the Spanish–American War: The Role of the Pretender Carlos VII,"Mediterranean Studies,Vol. 6, pp. 113–128.
• O'Shea, John Augustus (1884)."With the Carlists,"The Catholic World,Vol. 39, No. 234, pp. 801–815.
• Parker, A. A. (1937). "History of Carlism in Spain,"Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review,Vol. 26, No. 101, pp. 16–25.
• Parker, A. A. (1937). "History and Policy of Carlism,"Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review,Vol. 26, No. 102, pp. 207–222.
• Parker, A. A. (1937). "Carlism in the Spanish Civil War,"Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review,Vol. 26, No. 103, 383–398.
• Preston, J. W. (1873). "Carlism in Spain,"Scribner's Monthly,Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 229–235.
• Roche, James (1899). "The Outlook for Carlism,"The North American Review,Vol. 168, No. 511, pp. 739–748.

External links

• Modern Carlist groups are:
  • Partido CarlistaOfficial page of the Carlist Party, recognizes Carlos Hugo's son as heir, but follows the leftist ideology many Carlists reject
  • Comunión Catolico-MonarquicaOfficial page of the Charles VIII Communion, supportingDominic von Habsburgas claimant
  • Comunión Tradicionalista CarlistaOfficial page of the Carlist Traditionalist Communion. Does not formally endorse any claimant
  • Comunión TradicionalistaArchived27 December 2010 at theWayback MachineOfficial page of the Traditionalist Communion officially supporting Sixtus Henry as regent, also rejects leftist ideology
• Carlism as a current topic of discussion in Spanish politics
• Ideological analysis of Carlism
• Extensive historical background
• Album de personajes carlistas con sus biografías,Francisco de Paula Oller,Barcelona, La Propaganda Catalana, Librería de Antonio Quintana y Bové, 1887. Page scans from the Navarrese Digital Library.
• Dios, Patria, Fueros, y Rey: The Story Of The Spanish Carlistasarticle by Eleonore Villarrubia on Catholicism.org