Wikipedia

ChromeOS

This article is about the operating system. For the web browser, seeGoogle Chrome.For open-source version of the OS, seeChromiumOS.

ChromeOS,sometimes styled aschromeOSand formerly styled asChrome OS,is aLinux distributiondeveloped and designed byGoogle.[8]It is derived from the open-sourceChromiumOSoperating system and uses theGoogle Chromeweb browser as its principaluser interface.

ChromeOS
Logo as of March 2022
ChromeOS 120 desktop
DeveloperGoogle
Written inC,C++,assembly,JavaScript,HTML5,Python,Rust
OS familyUnix-like(Linux)[1]
Working statePreinstalled onChromebooks,Chromeboxes,Chromebits,Chromebases
Source modelClosed-sourcewithopen-sourcecomponents
Initial releaseJune 15, 2011;13 years ago(2011-06-15)
Latest release130.0.6723.84 (October 29, 2024;3 days ago(2024-10-29)[2])[±]
Latest preview
Beta

131.0.6778.17 (October 29, 2024;3 days ago(2024-10-29)[3])[±]

Dev
131.0.6778.0 (October 16, 2024;16 days ago(2024-10-16)[4])[±]
Repositorychromium.googlesource/codesearch/chromium/src/+/refs/heads/master-original/chromeos/
Update methodRolling release
Package managerPortage[a]
PlatformsARM32,ARM64,IA-32,x86-64
KerneltypeMonolithic(Linux kernel)[6]
UserlandAura Shell (Ash), Ozone (display manager);X11apps can be enabled in recent ChromeOS
Default
user interface		Google Chrome
LicenseProprietary[7]
Official websitewww.google/chromebook/chrome-os/Edit this at Wikidata

Google announced the project in July 2009, initially describing it as an operating system where applications and user data would reside in thecloud.ChromeOS was used primarily to runweb applications.[9]

ChromeOS supportsprogressive web applications,Androidapps fromGoogle PlayandLinuxapplications.[10][11]

History

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To ascertain marketing requirements, developers relied on informal metrics, including monitoring the usage patterns of 200 machines used by Google employees. Developers also noted their own usage patterns.[12]

Google requested that its hardware partners usesolid-state drives"for performance and reliability reasons"[13]as well as the lower capacity requirements inherent in an operating system that accesses applications and most user data on remote servers. In November 2009, Matthew Papakipos, engineering director for the ChromeOS, announced that ChromeOS would only supportsolid-state storage(i.e. not mechanical hard-disks), and noted that ChromeOS only required one-sixtieth as much drive space asWindows 7.[14]Ten years later, in 2019, the recovery images Google provided for ChromeOS were still only between 1 and 3 GB in size.[15]

On November 19, 2009, Google released ChromeOS'ssource codeas theChromiumOSproject.[16]At a November 19, 2009 news conference,Sundar Pichai–at the time Google's vice president overseeing Chrome–demonstrated an early version of the operating system. He previewed a desktop which looked very similar to the desktop Chrome browser, and in addition to the regular browser tabs also had application tabs, which take less space and can be pinned for easier access. At the conference, the operating systembootedup in seven seconds, a time Google said it would work to reduce.[13][17][18][19]Additionally, Chris Kenyon, vice president of OEM services atCanonical Ltd,announced that Canonical was under contract to contribute engineering resources to the project with the intent to build on existing open-source components and tools where feasible.[20]

Canonicalwas an early engineering partner on the project,[20]and initially ChromiumOS could only be built on anUbuntusystem. In February 2010, the ChromiumOS development team switched toGentoo Linuxbecause Gentoo's package management systemPortagewas more flexible.[21]The ChromiumOS build environment is no longer restricted to any particular distribution, but installation and quick-start guides useDebian's (and thus also Ubuntu's)aptsyntax.

Early Chromebooks (2010)

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In 2010, Google released the unbranded Cr-48 Chromebook in a pilot program.[22][23]The launch date for retail hardware featuring ChromeOS was delayed from late 2010[24]until the next year.

On May 11, 2011, Google announced two Chromebooks fromAcerandSamsungatGoogle I/O.[25][26]The Samsung model was released on June 15, 2011, and the Acer model in mid-July.[27][28]In August 2011,Netflixannounced official support for ChromeOS through its streaming service, allowing Chromebooks to watch streaming movies and TV shows via Netflix. At the time, other devices had to useMicrosoft Silverlightto play videos from Netflix.[29]Later in that same month,Citrixreleased a client application for ChromeOS, allowing Chromebooks to accessWindowsapplications and desktops remotely.[30]Dublin City University became the first educational institution in Europe to provide Chromebooks for its students when it announced an agreement with Google in September 2011.[31]

Expansion (2012)

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An open Samsung Chromebook

By 2012, demand for Chromebooks had begun to grow, and Google announced a new range of devices, designed and manufactured by Samsung. In so doing, they also released the firstChromebox,the Samsung Series 3, which was ChromeOS' entrance into the world of desktop computers.[32]Although they were faster than the previous range of devices, they were still underpowered compared to other desktops and laptops of the time, fitting in more closely with theNetbookmarket. Only months later, in October, Samsung and Google released a new Chromebook at a significantly lower price point ($250, compared to the previous Series 5 Chromebooks' $450).[33]It was the first Chromebook to use anARM processor,one from Samsung'sExynosline. To reduce the price, Google and Samsung also reduced the memory and screen resolution of the device. An advantage of using the ARM processor, however, was that the Chromebook did not require a fan. Acer followed quickly after with the C7 Chromebook, priced even lower ($199), but containing an IntelCeleronprocessor.[34]One notable way Acer reduced the cost of the C7 was to use a laptophard diskrather than asolid-state drive.

In April 2012, Google made the first update to ChromeOS's user interface since the operating system had launched, introducing a hardware-accelerated window manager called "Aura" along with a conventional taskbar. The additions marked a departure from the operating system's original concept of a single browser with tabs and gave ChromeOS thelook and feelof a more conventional desktop operating system. "In a way, this almost feels as if Google is admitting defeat here", wrote Frederic Lardinois onTechCrunch.He argued that Google had traded its original version of simplicity for greater functionality. "That's not necessarily a bad thing, though, and may just help ChromeOS gain more mainstream acceptance as new users will surely find it to be a more familiar experience."[35]LenovoandHPfollowed Samsung and Acer in manufacturing Chromebooks in early 2013 with their own models.[36]Lenovo specifically targeted their Chromebook at students, headlining their press release with "Lenovo Introduces Rugged ThinkPad Chromebook for Schools".[37][38]

When Google releasedGoogle Drive,they also included Drive integration in ChromeOS version 20, released in July 2012.[39]While ChromeOS had supportedAdobe Flashsince 2010,[40]by the end of 2012 it had been fullysandboxed,preventing issues with Flash from affecting other parts of ChromeOS.[41]This affected all versions of Chrome including ChromeOS.

Chromebook Pixel (2013)

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Main article:Chromebook Pixel
Chromebook Pixel (Wi-Fi) open

Until 2013, Google had never made their own ChromeOS device. Instead, ChromeOS devices were much more similar to theirNexusline of Android phones, with each ChromeOS device being designed, manufactured, and marketed by third-party manufacturers, but with Google controlling the software. However, in February 2013 this changed when Google released theChromebook Pixel.[42]The Chromebook Pixel was totally different from previous devices. Not only was it entirely Google-branded, but it contained anIntel Core i5processor, a high-resolution (2,560 × 1,700) touchscreen display, and came at a price more competitive with business laptops.[43]

2013 to present

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By the end of 2013, analysts were undecided on the future of ChromeOS. Although there had been articles predicting the demise of ChromeOS since 2009,[44][45][46][47][48]ChromeOS device sales continued to increase substantially year-over-year. In mid-2014,Timemagazine published an article titled "Depending on Who's Counting, Chromebooks are Either an Enormous Hit or Totally Irrelevant", which detailed the differences in opinion.[49]This uncertainty was further spurred byIntel's announcement of Intel-basedChromebooks,Chromeboxes,and an all-in-one offering from LG called theChromebase.[50]

Seizing the opportunity created by the end of life forWindows XP,Google pushed hard to sell Chromebooks to businesses, offering significant discounts in early 2014.[51]

ChromeOS devices outsoldApple Macsworldwide for the year 2020.[52][53][54]

Since July 2021, ChromeOS'sembedded controllerwas changed to be based on a Google maintained fork ofZephyr,a real time operating system.[55]

Pwnium competition

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In March 2014, Google hosted a hacking contest aimed at computer security experts called "Pwnium". Similar to thePwn2Owncontest, they invited hackers from around the world to find exploits in ChromeOS, with prizes available for attacks. Twoexploitswere demonstrated there, and a third was demonstrated at that year's Pwn2Own competition. Googlepatchedthe issues within a week.[56]

Material Design and app runtime for Chrome

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Although theGoogle Native Clienthas been available on ChromeOS since 2010,[57]there originally were few Native Client apps available, and most ChromeOS apps were stillweb apps.However, in June 2014, Google announced atGoogle I/Othat ChromeOS would both synchronise withAndroidphones to share notifications and begin to run Android apps, installed directly fromGoogle Play.[58]This, along with the broadening selection of Chromebooks,[59]laid the groundwork for future ChromeOS development.

At the same time, Google was also moving towards the then-newMaterial Designdesign languagefor its products, which it would bring to its web products as well asAndroid Lollipop.[60]One of the first Material Design items to come to ChromeOS was a new default wallpaper.[61]Google's Material Design experiment for ChromeOS were added to the stable version with Chrome 117.[62]

Features

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Functionality for small and medium businesses and Enterprise

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Chrome Enterprise

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Chrome Enterprise, launched in 2017, includes ChromeOS, Chrome Browser, Chrome devices and their management capabilities intended for business use. Businesses can access the standard ChromeOS features and unlock advanced features for business with the Chrome Enterprise Upgrade.[63][64]Standard features include the ability to syncbookmarksandbrowser extensionsacross devices, cloud or native printing, multi-layered security, remote desktop, and automatic updates.[65]Advanced features include Active Directory integration, unified endpoint management, advanced security protection, access to device policies and Google Admin console, guest access, kiosk mode, and whitelisting or blacklisting third-party apps managed on Google Play.[66][67]

The education sector was an early adopter of Chromebooks, ChromeOS, and cloud-based computing. Chromebooks are widely used in classrooms and the advantages of cloud-based systems have been gaining an increased share of the market in other sectors as well, including financial services, healthcare, and retail.[68]"The popularity of cloud computing and cloud-based services highlights the degree to which companies and business processes have become both internet-enabled and dependent."[69]ICT managers cite a number of advantages of the cloud that have motivated the move. Among them are advanced security, because data is not physically on a single machine that can be lost or stolen.[70]Deploying and managingcloud-nativedevices is easier because nohardware and software upgradesor virus definition updates are needed, and patching of OS and software updates are simpler. Simplified and centralized management decreases operational costs.

Employees can securely access files and work on any machine, increasing the shareability of Chrome devices. Google's Grab and Go program with Chrome Enterprise allows businesses deploying Chromebooks to provide employees access to a bank of fully charged computers that can be checked out and returned after some time.[71]

From Chromebooks to Chromebox and Chromebase

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In an early attempt to expand its enterprise offerings, Google released Chromebox for Meetings in February 2014. Chromebox for Meetings is a kit for conference rooms containing a Chromebox, a camera, a unit containing both a noise-cancelling microphone and speakers, and a remote control. It supportsGoogle Hangoutsmeetings,Vidyovideo conferences, and conference calls from UberConference.[72][73]

Several partners announced Chromebox for Meetings models with Google, and in 2016 Google announced an all-in-one Chromebase for Meetings for smaller meeting rooms.[74]Google targeted the consumer hardware market with the release of the Chromebook in 2011 and Chromebook Pixel in 2013, and sought access to the enterprise market with the 2017 release of thePixelbook.The second-generation Pixelbook was released in 2019.[75]In 2021 there are several vendors selling all-in-one Chromebase devices.[76]

Enterprise response to Chrome devices

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Google has partnered on Chrome devices with several leadingOEMs,includingAcer,ASUS,Dell,HP,Lenovo,andSamsung.In August 2019, Dell announced that two of its popular business-focused laptops would run ChromeOS and come with Chrome Enterprise Upgrade. The Latitude 5300 2-in-1 Chromebook Enterprise and Latitude 5400 Chromebook Enterprise were the result of a two-year partnership between Dell and Google.[77]The machines come with a bundle of Dell's cloud-based support services that would enable enterprise ICT managers to deploy them in environments that also rely on Windows.[78]The new laptop line "delivers the search giant's ChromeOS operating system in a form tailored for security-conscious organizations."[79]Other OEMs that have launched devices with Chrome Enterprise Upgrade include Acer and HP.[80]

With a broader range of hardware available, ChromeOS became an option for enterprises wishing to avoid a migration to Windows 10 before Windows 7 support was discontinued by Microsoft.[81]

Hardware

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Main articles:Chromebook,Chromebox,andChromebit
A Chromebook

Laptops running ChromeOS are known collectively as "Chromebooks".The first was the CR-48, areference hardware designthat Google gave to testers and reviewers beginning in December 2010. Retail machines followed in May 2011. A year later, in May 2012, a desktop design marketed as a "Chromebox"was released bySamsung.In March 2015 a partnership with AOPEN was announced and the first commercial Chromebox was developed.[82]

In early 2014,LG Electronicsintroduced the first device belonging to the new all-in-one form factor called "Chromebase".Chromebase devices are essentially Chromebox hardware inside a monitor with a built-in camera, microphone and speakers.

TheChromebitis an HDMI dongle running ChromeOS. When placed in an HDMI slot on atelevision setor computer monitor, the device turns that display into apersonal computer.The first device, announced in March 2015 was an Asus unit that shipped that November and which reached end of life in November 2020.[83]

Chromebook tablets were introduced in March 2018 by Acer with their Chromebook Tab 10. Designed to rival theApple iPad,it had an identical screen size and resolution and other similar specifications, a notable addition was a Wacom-branded stylus that does not require a battery or charging.[84]

ChromeOS supports multi-monitor setups on devices with a video-out port,USB 3.0Standard-A orUSB-C,the latter being preferable.[85]

On February 16, 2022, Google announced a development version ofChromeOS Flex—a distribution of ChromeOS that can be installed on conventional PC hardware to replace other operating systems such as Windows and macOS. It is similar toCloudReady,a distribution of ChromiumOS whose developers were acquired by Google in 2020.[86][87]

Software

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ChromeOS automatic updates are available for 10 years for all Chromebook models manufactured in 2019 and onwards, these updates are for the operating system, browser and hardware.[88]Google maintains a web page with their Auto Update policy and the end date for all ChromeOS devices manufactured.[89]

Previously the automatic update period was 8 years, and shorter prior to that although the earlier models had continued to receive updates for longer.[90][91]

Applications

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Initially, ChromeOS was a purethin clientoperating system that relied primarily on servers to host web applications and related data storage.[92][93]Google gradually began encouraging developers to create "packaged applications", and later,Chrome Appsby employingHTML5,CSS,Adobe Shockwave,andJavaScriptto provide a user experience closer to a native application.[94][95]

In September 2014, Google launchedApp Runtime for Chrome(ARC), which allowed certainported[96]Android applications to run on ChromeOS. Runtime was launched with four Android applications:Duolingo,Evernote,Sight Words,andVine.[97]In 2016, the second version, ARC++, was introduced, using Linux kernel featurescgroupsandnamespacesto makecontainersthat can can run Android apps in an isolated environment. As ARC++ removed the need to recompile apps, Google madeGoogle Playavailable for ChromeOS, making most Android apps available for supported ChromeOS devices.[98][99]ARC++ was introduced withAndroid Marshmallowand upgraded toAndroid NougatandAndroid Pie.ARCVM launched in 2021 withAndroid 11and runs onAndroid 13starting with ChromeOS 117.[100]ARCVM usesvirtual machinesto enhance the isolation of the Android environment in order to improve security and maintainability.[99]

In 2018, Google announced plans for Linux on ChromeOS, also known asCrostini,allowing for desktop Linux applications.[101][102]This capability was released to the stable channel (as an option for most machines) with Chrome 69 in October 2018, but was still marked as beta.[103]This feature was officially released with Chrome 91.[104]

In 2023, with version 119, Google releasedValve Corporation'sSteamfor Chromebook (Beta) for playingvideo gameson Chromebooks meeting minimum hardware requirements.[105][106]Steam for Chromebook was developed under the codename Borealis, building off work forSteamOSfor theSteam Deck,similarly built using a modified version ofArch Linux,running as avirtual machine.[107]

Chrome Apps

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Main article:Google Chrome App

From 2013 until January 2020, Google encouraged developers to build not just conventional Web applications for ChromeOS, but Chrome Apps (formerly known as Packaged Apps).[108]In January 2020, Google's Chrome team announced its intent to phase out support for Chrome Apps in favor of "progressive web applications"(PWA) andChrome extensionsinstead.[109]In March 2020, Google stopped accepting new public Chrome Apps for the web store.[110]According to Google, general support for Chrome Apps on ChromeOS will remain enabled, without requiring any policy setting, through June 2022.[110]

From a user's perspective, Chrome Apps resemble conventional native applications: they can be launched outside of the Chrome browser, are offline by default, can manage multiple windows, and interact with other applications.[111][112][113]

Integrated media player, file manager

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Google integrated amedia playerinto both ChromeOS and the Chrome browser, enabling users to play back MP3s, view JPEGs, and handle other multimedia files without connectivity.[114]The integration also supportsDRMvideos.[115]

ChromeOS also includes an integrated file manager, resembling those found on other operating systems, with the ability to display directories and the files they contain from both Google Drive and local storage, as well as to preview and manage file contents using a variety of Web applications, includingGoogle DocsandBox.[116]Since January 2015, ChromeOS can also integrate additional storage sources into the file manager, relying on installed extensions that use the File System Provider API.[117]

Remote application access and virtual desktop access

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In June 2010, Google's software engineer Gary Kačmarčík wrote that ChromeOS would access remote applications through a technology unofficially called"Chromoting",which would resemble Microsoft'sRemote Desktop Connection.[114]The name has since been changed to"Chrome Remote Desktop",and is like "running an application viaRemote Desktop Servicesor by first connecting to a host machine by using RDP or VNC ".[118]Initial roll-outs of ChromeOS laptops (Chromebooks) indicate an interest in enabling users to access virtual desktops.[119][120]

Android applications

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AtGoogle I/O2014, aproof of conceptshowing Android applications, includingFlipboard,running on ChromeOS was presented. In September 2014, Google introduced a beta version of theApp Runtime for Chrome(ARC), which allows selected Android applications to be used on ChromeOS, using aNative Client-based environment that provides the platforms necessary to run Android software. Android applications do not require any modifications to run on ChromeOS, but may be modified to better support a mouse and keyboard environment. At its introduction, ChromeOS support was only available for selected Android applications.[121]

In 2016, Google introduced the ability to run Android apps on supported ChromeOS devices, with access toGoogle Playin its entirety. The previous Native Client-based solution was dropped in favor of acontainercontaining Android's frameworks and dependencies (initially based onAndroid Marshmallow), which allows Android apps to have direct access to the ChromeOS platform, and allow the OS to interact with Android contracts such as sharing. Engineering director Zelidrag Hornung explained that ARC had been scrapped due to its limitations, including its incompatibility with theAndroid Native Development Toolkit (NDK),and that it was unable to pass Google's own compatibility test suite.[122][123]

Linux apps

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All Chromebooks made since 2018, and some earlier models, can run Linux apps. As with Android apps, these apps can be installed and launched alongside other apps.[124]Google maintains a list of devices that were launched before 2019 which support Linux apps.[125][126]

Since 2013, it has been possible to run Linux applications in ChromeOS through the use ofCrouton,a third-party set of scripts that allows access to a Linux distribution such asUbuntu.[127]However, in 2018 Google announced that desktop Linux apps were officially coming to ChromeOS.[128]The main benefit claimed by Google of their official Linux application support is that it can run without enabling developer mode, keeping many of the security features of ChromeOS. It was noticed in the ChromiumOS source code in early 2018.[129][130]Early parts of Crostini were made available for theGoogle Pixelbookvia the dev channel in February 2018 as part of ChromeOS version 66,[131][132]and it was enabled by default via the beta channel for testing on a variety of Chromebooks in August 2018 with version 69.[133]

Architecture

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Google's project for supporting Linux applications in ChromeOS is calledCrostini,named forthe Italian bread-based starter,and as a pun on Crouton. Crostini runs a virtual machine through a virtual machine monitor calledcrosvm,which uses Linux's built-inKVMvirtualization tool. Although crosvm supports multiple virtual machines, the one used for running Linux apps, Termina, contains a basic ChromeOS kernel based onGentoo,in which it runs containers based onLXD.[134]In the interest of stability and recovery, no Linux apps run on the virtual machine itself; any installed Linuxuserlandecosystem runs in an isolatedcontainer,all of which are deployed and managed by the virtual machine.[135]ADebiancontainer with host system integration is provided by default.[136][137]Users can install programs to this installation by using tools likeAPTwithin the container, or may grant access to.debfiles stored on ChromeOS itself, which are copied and installed to the container.[135]Users may also individually grant access to individual files or USB devices. Other distributions can be added using LXD, although not by default integrated with the Host System.[138]

Architecture

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ChromeOS is built on top of theLinuxkernel. Originally based onUbuntu,its base was changed toGentoo Linuxin February 2010.[139]For ProjectCrostini,as of ChromeOS 121,Debian 12 (Bookworm)is the defaultcontainerbase image.[140]In preliminary design documents for the ChromiumOS open-source project, Google described a three-tier architecture: firmware, browser and window manager, and system-level software anduserlandservices.[141]

  • The firmware contributes to fast boot time by not probing for hardware, such as floppy disk drives, that are no longer common on computers, especially netbooks. The firmware also contributes to security by verifying each step in the boot process and incorporating system recovery.[141]
  • System-level software includes theLinux kernelthat has been patched to improve boot performance. Userland software has been trimmed to essentials, with management byUpstart,which can launch services in parallel, re-spawn crashed jobs, and defer services in the interest of faster booting.[141]
  • The window manager handles user interaction with multiple client windows (much like otherX window managers).[141]

Shell access

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ChromeOS includes the Chromium Shell, or "crosh",[142]which documents minimal functionality such as ping at crosh start-up.

In developer mode, a full-featuredbash[143]shell (which is supposed to be used for development purposes[144]) can be opened viaVT-2, and is also accessible using the crosh commandshell.[145]To access full privileges in shell (e.g.sudo) aroot passwordis requested. For some time the default was "chronos" in ChromeOS and "facepunch" in ChromeOS Vanilla[146]and later the default was empty, and instructions on updating it were displayed at each login.

Open source

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ChromeOS is partially developed under theopen-sourceChromiumOSproject.[147]As with other open-source projects, developers can modify the code from ChromiumOS and build their own versions, whereas ChromeOS code is only supported by Google and its partners and only runs on hardware designed for the purpose. Unlike ChromiumOS, ChromeOS is automatically updated to the latest version.[13]

ChromeOS on Windows

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OnWindows 8,exceptions allow the default desktop web browser to offer a variant that can run inside its full-screen "Metro"shell and access features such as the Share charm, without necessarily needing to be written withWindows Runtime.Chrome's "Windows 8 mode" was previously a tablet-optimized version of the standard Chrome interface. In October 2013, the mode was changed on Developer channel to offer a variant of the ChromeOS desktop.[148][149][150][151][152]

Design

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Early in the project, Google provided publicly many details of ChromeOS' design goals and direction,[153]although the company has not followed up with a technical description of the completed operating system.

User interface

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Design goals for ChromeOS' user interface included using minimal screen space by combining applications and standard Web pages into a single tab strip, rather than separating the two. Designers considered a reduced window management scheme that would operate only in full-screen mode. Secondary tasks would be handled with "panels": floating windows that dock to the bottom of the screen for tasks like chat and music players. Split screens were also under consideration for viewing two pieces of content side by side. ChromeOS would follow the Chrome browser's practice of leveragingHTML5's offline modes, background processing, and notifications. Designers proposed using search and pinned tabs as a way to quickly locate and access applications.[154]

Version 19 window manager and graphics engine

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On April 10, 2012, a new build of ChromeOS offered a choice between the original full-screen window interface and overlapping, resizable windows, such as found onMicrosoft WindowsandApple'smacOS.[155]The feature was implemented through the Ashwindow manager,which runs atop the Aura hardware-accelerated graphics engine. The April 2012 upgrade also included the ability to display smaller, overlapping browser windows, each with its own translucent tabs, browser tabs that can be "torn" and dragged to new positions or merged with another tab strip, and a mouse-enabled shortcut list across the bottom of the screen. One icon on the task bar shows a list of installed applications and bookmarks. Writing in CNET, Stephen Shankland argued that with overlapping windows, "Google is anchoring itself into the past" as bothiOSand Microsoft'sMetrointerface are largely or entirely full-screen. Even so, "ChromeOS already is different enough that it's best to preserve any familiarity that can be preserved".[155][156][157]

Printing

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In 2016, Google included "NativeCUPSSupport "in ChromeOS as an experimental feature that became stable in 2020. With CUPS support turned on, it becomes possible to use most printers even if they do not support Google Cloud Print.[158][159]

Google Cloud Printwas a Google service that helps any application on any device to print on supported printers. While the cloud provides virtually any connected device with information access, the task of "developing and maintaining print subsystems for every combination of hardware and operating system—from desktops to netbooks to mobile devices—simply isn't feasible."[160][161]The cloud service required the installation of a piece of software calledproxy,as part of the ChromeOS. The proxy registered the printer with the service, managed the print jobs, provided the printer driver functionality, and gave status alerts for each job.[162]

Google announced that Google Cloud Print would no longer be supported after December 31, 2020, and that the online service would not be available as of January 1, 2021.[163]

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ChromeOS was designed to store user documents and files on remote servers. Both ChromeOS and the Chrome browser may introduce difficulties to end-users when handling specific file types offline; for example, when opening an image or document residing on a local storage device, it may be unclear whether and which specific Web application should be automatically opened for viewing, or the handling should be performed by a traditional application acting as a preview utility. Matthew Papakipos, ChromeOS engineering director, noted in 2010 that Windows developers have faced the same fundamental problem: "Quicktime is fighting with Windows Media Player, which is fighting with Chrome."[12]

Release channels and updates

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ChromeOS uses the same release system as Google Chrome: there are three distinct channels: Stable, Beta, and Developer preview (called the "Dev" channel). The stable channel is updated with features and fixes that have been thoroughly tested in the Beta channel, and the Beta channel is updated approximately once a month with stable and complete features from the Developer channel. New ideas get tested in the Developer channel, which can be very unstable at times.[164][165]A fourthcanarychannel was confirmed to exist by Google Developer Francois Beaufort and hacker Kenny Strawn, by entering the ChromeOS shell in developer mode, typing the commandshellto access the bash shell, and finally entering the commandupdate_engine_client -channel canary-channel -update.It is possible to return to the verified boot mode after entering the canary channel, but the channel updater disappears and the only way to return to another channel is using the "powerwash" factory reset.[166]

Security

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In March 2010, Google software security engineer Will Drewry discussed ChromeOS security. Drewry described ChromeOS as a "hardened" operating system featuring auto-updating andsandboxfeatures that would reduce malware exposure. He said that ChromeOS netbooks would be shipped withTrusted Platform Module(TPM), and include both a "trusted boot path" and a physical switch under the battery compartment that activates a "developer mode". That mode drops some specialized security functions but increases developer flexibility. This switch is also reversible.[167]Drewry also emphasized that the open-source nature of the operating system would contribute greatly to its security by allowing constant developer feedback.[168]

At a December 2010 press conference, Google declared that ChromeOS would be the most secure consumer operating system due in part to a verified boot ability, in which the initial boot code, stored in read-only memory, checks for system compromises.[169]

ChromeOS devices ship with full disk encryption by default, which cannot be disabled. The decryption password is stored in the device's TPM.[170][171]Google allows the TPM to be updated manually via the settings.[172][173]Updating the TPM will reset the device to factory defaults.

Login

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ChromeOS devices utilize a user's Google Account password as the default sign-in method. To enhance security, users can implement additional authentication measures such as PINs, passwords, fingerprint recognition, facial recognition, or smart unlock (via a paired phone).[174]These supplementary measures mitigate the risk of unauthorized access to the user's Google account viashoulder surfing,even if an attacker possesses the user's Google email address.

Ifmulti-factor authentication(MFA) is enabled on the associated Google Account, the user may be prompted to use it during the initial setup of their ChromeOS device. By default, the device will be designated as "trusted," exempting it from MFA requirements for subsequent logins. For enhanced security, MFA can be mandated for each sign-in by utilizing hardware tokens (such asYubiKeys) linked to the Google Account.[175]

Reception

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At its debut, ChromeOS was viewed as a competitor toMicrosoft,both directly toMicrosoft Windowsand indirectly the company'sword processingandspreadsheetapplications—the latter through ChromeOS' reliance oncloud computing.[176][177]But ChromeOS engineering director Matthew Papakipos argued that the two operating systems would not fully overlap in functionality because ChromeOS is intended for netbooks, which lack the computational power to run a resource-intensive program likeAdobe Photoshop.[12]

Some observers claimed that other operating systems already filled the niche that ChromeOS was aiming for, with the added advantage of supporting native applications in addition to a browser. Tony Bradley ofPC Worldwrote in November 2009:

We can already do most, if not all, of what ChromeOS promises to deliver. Using a Windows 7 or Linux-based netbook, users can simply not install anything but a web browser and connect to the vast array of Google products and other web-based services and applications. Netbooks have been successful at capturing the low-end PC market, and they provide a web-centric computing experience today. I am not sure why we should get excited that a year from now we'll be able to do the same thing, but locked into doing it from the fourth-place web browser.[178]

In 2016, Chromebooks were the most popular computer in the USK–12education market.[179]

By 2017, the Chrome browser had risen to become the number one browser used worldwide.[180]

In 2020, Chromebooks became the second most-popular end-user oriented OS (growing from 6.4% in 2019 to 10.8% in 2020). The majority of growth came at Windows' expense (which fell from 85.4% in 2019 to 80.5% in 2021).[181]

Relationship to Android

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Google's offer of several open-source operating systems, of whichAndroid[182]and ChromeOS are the best known, has attracted some criticism, despite the similarity between this situation and that ofApple Inc.'s two operating systems,macOSandiOS.Steve Ballmer,MicrosoftCEO at the time, accused Google of not being able to make up its mind.[183]Steven Levywrote that "the dissonance between the two systems was apparent" atGoogle I/O2011. The event featured a daily press conference in which each team leader, Android'sAndy Rubinand Chrome'sSundar Pichai,"unconvincingly tried to explain why the systems weren't competitive".[184]Google co-founderSergey Brinaddressed the question by saying that owning two promising operating systems was "a problem that most companies would love to face".[184]Brin suggested that the two operating systems "will likely converge over time".[185]The speculation over convergence increased in March 2013 when ChromeOS chief Pichai replaced Rubin as the senior vice president in charge of Android, thereby putting Pichai in charge of both.[186]

The relationship between Android and ChromeOS became closer at Google I/O 2014, where developers demonstrated native Android software running on ChromeOS through aNative Client-based runtime.[121][187]In September 2014, Google introduced a beta version of theApp Runtime for Chrome(ARC), which allows selected Android applications to be used on ChromeOS, using a Native Client-based environment that provides the platforms necessary to run Android software. Android applications do not require any modifications to run on ChromeOS, but may be modified to better support a mouse and keyboard environment. At its introduction, ChromeOS support was only available for selected Android applications.[121]In October 2015, The Wall Street Journal reported that ChromeOS would be folded into Android so that a single OS would result by 2017. The resulting OS would be Android, but it would be expanded to run on laptops.[188][189]Google responded that while the company has "been working on ways to bring together the best of both operating systems, there's no plan to phase out ChromeOS".[190]

In 2016, Google introduced the ability to run Android apps on supported ChromeOS devices, with access toGoogle Playin its entirety. The previous Native Client-based solution was dropped in favor of acontainercontaining Android's frameworks and dependencies (initially based onAndroid Marshmallow), which allows Android apps to have direct access to the ChromeOS platform, and allows the OS to interact with Android contracts such as sharing. Engineering director Zelidrag Hornung explained that ARC had been scrapped due to its limitations, including its incompatibility with theAndroid Native Development Toolkit (NDK),and that it was unable to pass Google's own compatibility test suite.[122][123]

See also

edit

Notes

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  1. ^While it is possible to run Portage in ChromeOS, this requires enabling development mode which removes integrity checking for the filesystem.[5]

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